Canyoning Training Manual

A Part of the University of New South Wales Outdoors Club Training Series

Disclaimer – Information contained within this manual should not be taken as

professional advice or education. Readers should seek professional education prior to
Canyoning Training Manual
practicing skills outlined within.
Contents
0. About This Training Manual.......................................................................................................... 4
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 What is Canyoning? ............................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Where Can You Canyon? ....................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Canyoning Grades .................................................................................................................. 5
1.4 Canyoning Gear ..................................................................................................................... 5
2. Trip Planning ................................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Weather Forecast .................................................................................................................. 7
2.2 Canyon Grades....................................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Group Size.............................................................................................................................. 7
2.4 Local Regulations ................................................................................................................... 7
3. Abseiling, Jumping and Swimming .................................................................................................. 8
3.1 Descenders ............................................................................................................................ 8
3.2 Abseiling Technique............................................................................................................... 9
3.3 Communication ................................................................................................................... 10
3.4 Jumping and Swimming Technique ..................................................................................... 11
4. Anchors ......................................................................................................................................... 12
4.1 Types of Anchors ................................................................................................................. 12
4.2 Replacing Anchors ............................................................................................................... 14
5. Pitch Rigging .................................................................................................................................. 15
5.1 Trip Leader Gear .................................................................................................................. 15
5.2 Classifications of Rigs ........................................................................................................... 15
5.3 Releasable Systems ............................................................................................................. 15
5.4 Other Systems ..................................................................................................................... 15
6. Belays ................................................................................................................................................ 17
5.5 External belay ...................................................................................................................... 17
5.6 Self-Belay ............................................................................................................................. 17
5.7 Specialty Belays ................................................................................................................... 17
6. Responsibilities as a Trip Leader ....................................................................................................... 18
5.8 Planning a Trip ..................................................................................................................... 18
5.9 Trip Brief .............................................................................................................................. 18
5.10 During the Trip ..................................................................................................................... 18
5.11 After the Trip ....................................................................................................................... 19
5.12 Incidents and Emergencies .................................................................................................. 19
6. Rescue Techniques................................................................... 20

2 Canyoning Training Manual

 6.1 Lowering and Raising ........................................................................................................... 20
6.2 Complex Rescue................................................................................................................... 22
7. Aquatic Hazards ............................................................................................................................ 23
7.1 Terminology ......................................................................................................................... 23
7.2 Hazards and Features .......................................................................................................... 23
7.3 Rescue Techniques .............................................................................................................. 25
7.4 Traverse Techniques ............................................................................................................ 26
8. Other Resources............................................................................................................................ 27
9. Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 28
10.1 Appendix A – Required Skillsets ................................................................................................ 28

Canyoning Training Manual 3

About

0. About This Training Manual

Welcome to the UNSW Outdoors Club Canyoning Training Manual.

This resource has been made to serve as a reference for individuals undergoing canyoning training
with the UNSW Outdoors Club. While it offers insights and guidance, it is important to note that this
manual does not replace the crucial hands-on training and experiences provided in our training
sessions.

Canyoning is a rewarding outdoor activity that requires a unique set of skills and knowledge to
navigate safely through rugged terrain and water-filled gorges. Whether you're new to canyoning or
seeking to enhance your existing abilities, this manual is designed to support your learning journey
and help consolidate essential skills.

Inside, you'll find detailed instructions, techniques, safety protocols, and best practices curated by
experienced canyoners.

As you undertake canyoning training with us, remember that safety is paramount. Always prioritize
your well-being and the well-being of your fellow canyoners. Take the time to absorb the knowledge
presented in this manual, but always practice skills in a safe environment first, under the supervison
of an experienced guide. Never hesitate to seek guidance from our trip leaders or other trusted
sources.

We hope this manual serves as a valuable companion on your canyoning journey.

Happy canyoning,

- 2023/24 Exec Team

Figure 1 2024 UNSWOC Beanie Grant, NZ Canyon Festival. (Photo Credit Nadav Cohen)

4 Canyoning Training Manual

 Tom Brennan Grade
1. Introduction Tom Brennan’s system is a subjective grade of
1.1 What is Canyoning? Easy, Medium or Hard, used to describe the
Canyoning is the sport of traversing narrow difficulty of canyons in the Blue Mountains
slots carved into rock by ancient rivers. These

Intro
area and can be found through his website
environments are often wet and dark and OzUltimate.
require special skills to navigate obstacles
such as waterfalls, slides, jumps and swims. French grading system
The French grading system is a four-
1.2 Where Can You Canyon? component string of numbers, letters, and
Canyoning is a worldwide sport, ranging from characters to describe 4 factors:
Utah’s deserts to New Zealand’s fiords. In
• Vertical Difficulty
Australia there are numerous regions and
• Aquatic Difficulty
isolated canyons, each with their own unique
characteristics. Key regions include: • Commitment
• Quality
• North West Tasmania
More details about this grading system can be
• Victorian Alps
found on the New Zealand Canyoning
• Blue Mountains
Website.
• Northern NSW

UNSWOC’s trips will mostly occur in the Blue 1.4 Canyoning Gear
Mountains region, primarily due to its Here is a minimum standard list of
proximity and lack of aquatic hazards, canyoning gear for club trips, it is not an
however more experienced members of the exhaustive list.
club will travel further afield to experience Participant gear
more aquatic styles of canyoning. • Canyoning Harness
Information about canyons can be found • Helmet
through the following sources: • Wetsuit suitable for temps
• Gloves
• RopeWiki • 3x locking carabiners
• OzUltimate
• 1x prussik cord (Used as a third hand)
• Rick Jamiesons’ book ‘Canyoning Near • 1x figure 8 or other canyoning
Sydney’
descender
• Robert Springer and Sam Thompson’s
• 1x safety tether or PAS
book ‘Canyoning around Victoria’
• 1x large drybag or keg
1.3 Canyoning Grades • Emergency blanket
Canyoning in Australia commonly uses two • Pealess whistle (Fox40 etc)
grading systems to classify canyons. These are • Headtorch and spare batteries
the Tom Brennan grading system and the • Canyoning Backpack
standardised French grading system, with the • Enclosed shoes with good grip (e.g.
latter being slowly adopted, particularly in old sneakers, canyon specific shoes)
areas with significant aquatic hazards. • Dry and sun-safe clothes to hike
in/out of the canyon in (Not cotton)
• Thick socks / neoprene socks

Canyoning Training Manual 5

 • Raincoat or windbreaker
• Swimming shorts (To protect wetsuit)
• Thermal top and bottoms, jumper
(e.g. enough clothing to keep warm in
Intro

a canyon overnight in an emergency)

• Appropriate food and water
• Any personal medicine (asthma puffer,
Epipen etc)
• Optional: swimmers to put under your
wetsuit, microfibre towel, Thongs for
drive home

Additional Trip Leader Gear

• Figure eight (For rigging)
• Compass, map and canyon notes
• Canyoning quickdraw
• Ascending gear (Prussiks or
mechanical)
• Canyoning knife
• Assorted carabiners
• Club first aid kit (Or appropriately
stocked and maintained personal kit)
• Raising and hauling gear (Tibloc, VT
Prussik, Pulleys etc)
• Rope protectors
• Replacement 8mm stainless steel
maillons
• Replacement tubular tape
• Small adjustable spanner (For
mallions)

Group Gear
• Appropriate ropes (total length is at
least 3x the longest drop length)
• PLB
• Extra sugar e.g. snakes, jellybeans,
etc

6 Canyoning Training Manual

 2. Trip Planning 2.3 Group Size
The size of your group depends on a couple
2.1 Weather Forecast
main factors, local regulations, and the
Perhaps the most important factor when
duration of the canyon.
planning a canyoning trip is the weather
forecast. As canyoning is largely an aquatic In the Blue Mountains canyons, there is a size
sport; past and forecast rain, air and water limit of eight for recreational canyon groups
temperatures, and wind speeds can all and ten for commercial groups. Other canyon
influence the decision on which canyon to do, regions have different rules and regulations.

Planning
if any.
More canyoners means a longer and colder
As a rule, a canyon should not be attempted trip, consider the length of your trip and the
after or during rain, unless a Trip Leader has size of your group to avoid being benighted.
previously descended the canyon in similar
Many consider 5 to be the optimum canyon
circumstances, and reliably knows how the
size for complex canyons (where all are
canyon reacts after rainfall. This is to avoid the
riggers and have rope). The club has a hard
possibility of encountering flash flooding and
cap of 8 canyoners including trip leaders in
formation of new aquatic hazards that the
all canyons.
party might be unequipped to deal with.

Some canyons in the Kanangra, Victorian Alps 2.4 Local Regulations

and Northern NSW regions have direct or Local regulations also influence how, and
proxy water gauges what can be used to which canyons can be run. Some canyons are
predict the aquatic environment inside the against the law, such as Spring Creek in
canyon, however these should be used with Bungonia SCA, Minnamurra Falls and most
caution. These water gauges are not a Southern Highland waterfalls.
substitute for first-hand experience with the Some National Parks, State Conservation
canyon in different weather conditions. Areas, and State Forest also require written
Air temperature and wind speeds are also consent for canyons or waterfalls to be
important factors in determining if a canyon descended.
can be safety run. As each person is different, Wilderness canyons are also a unique
it is best to experiment cautiously with your canyoning experience and are defined as
own comfort in these conditions. An unpublished with minimal human
emergency blanket and windbreaker should interference. Proper care should be taken on
always be carried when canyoning to act as a these trips to minimise impacts, such as
last line of defence against these factors. rigging using ghosting techniques, and limiting
the spread of information about the location
2.2 Canyon Grades
of the canyon.
When planning canyons consider the
competence and skills of the most
inexperienced member of the group. Harder
canyons require more experienced canyoners
to navigate its obstacles, take your time and
work up slowly.

Canyoning Training Manual 7

 3. Abseiling, Jumping and Modified Eights
Modified eights are the standard for
Swimming canyoning descenders, as they provide all the
3.1 Descenders required properties for aquatic abseiling
Canyoning descenders have some unique including the ability to adjust friction on the
properties compared to other descenders fly and lock-off quickly.
used in other sports, which make them best
Numerous
adapted to aquatic environments.
brands and
Some of the properties are as follows:
styles exist with
• Permanent attachment to harness the most
• Friction adjustability common being,
• Imlay Canyon
Movement

Ease of loading rope

• Self-belay capacity Gear Crittr, BG
Figure 4 Petzl Figure 3 Imlay
• Ability to quickly tie off Gear Sqwurel, Piranha Crittr
Kong Oka and
Many of the eight style devices also cause Petzl Piranha.
rope twist while abseiling, however in many
cases in canyons the rope length is set to the
height of the water, so any twist introduced
undoes itself. Inline Devices
Whichever device you choose to use, you Inline devices are more commonly used in
should be comfortable with its friction caving than in canyons, except for the Kong
settings, and be well practiced in tying off and Hydrobot. These devices are useful as they do
inspecting the device. not introduce rope twist,
however they can be
Figure Eights difficult to load onto rope
A figure eight is the most basic and have little adjustability
type of canyoning descender, of friction.
hey are also commonly used as
a device for rigging, see 5.3 Devices include the Kong
Releasable Systems. Hydrobot, Rappel Rack, or
Conterra Scarab. Figure 5 Kong
Figure eights are the cheapest Hydrobot
type of descender, simple to use Figure 2 Figure 8
and load onto the rope,
however they have little ability to adjust Belay Devices
friction on abseil, and hence are used mostly Tubular devices should not be used in canyons
by beginners where the option for a belay is for their lack of friction adjustability and the
available. tendency to drop the device when loading on
and off rope.
There are two common ways to rig a figure
eight, the classic method and vertaco method. Mechanical belay devices should also not be
used for the same reasons, along with the fact
A video on some ways to rig a figure eight are that they will become filled with sand and
included here.
stop working.

8 Canyoning Training Manual

 3.2 Abseiling Technique load rope into descender with
appropriate friction
ABCDE Checks
3) Apply a third hand here if needed.
ABCDE checks is a common mnemonic used to
4) Unweight your safety and apply a full
check aspects of an individual’s setup to
load to the abseil line, depending on
ensure they are safe to abseil. Every individual
the angle you may need to give the
should complete these steps prior to
anchor a little bounce to apply force
abseiling.
equivalent to bodyweight.
Anchor 5) Make call “On rope” and wait for call
“abseil when ready” if being bottom
Check that the anchor is suitable and that the
belayed. Call “abseiling” and unclip
rigging is correct and suitable.
your safety, then begin your abseil.
Buckles and Belay 6) Once finished abseiling remove your

Movement
rope from the descender and make
Check your harness and helmet buckles are call “Off rope”
secure and correct. For older styles harnesses 7) If a bottom belay is used, replace the
this can be particularly important as they must bottom belay.
be doubled back to not come undone. 8) Once “On rope” is heard, reply with
A method of belay has been implemented and “On belay” when ready to bottom
checked. belay.

Carabiners How to Abseil

Abseiling is a technique that is best learnt with
Carabiners are all suitable, not cross-loaded practice; however, some general tips can be
and screwed up. given.
Descender
• Use a device that has a suitable
Rope has been properly rigged through the amount of friction. You should not
descender with an appropriate amount of have to grip the rope very much at all
friction. to prevent descent, and you should
not have to push rope through the
Everything else device to begin descending.
Gloves are being used on long abseils, hair • Keep your feet a shoulder width apart
and loose items are tucked away, helmet. at all times to stop falling left or right
• Try and maintain feet and legs
Preparing to Abseil perpendicular to the wall. This will
The following simple procedure should always increase your grip with the wall and
be used when preparing to abseil. This prevent sliding front and back into the
method also ensures that the anchor and wall.
rigging is load bearing and that your device is • Follow the line that the rope takes. Try
rigged correctly, two of the most common not to walk left or right as there
mistakes when abseiling. become a point you will be pulled off
1) Clip safety when approaching anchor balance and fall, swinging and
2) Wait for call “Off rope”, or whistle potentially cutting the rope.
equivalent and when ready to abseil • Never let go of your abseil line, even if
you slip or tumble.

Canyoning Training Manual 9

 • Tend to a third hand with your non “Raise” Convert abseil line to
dominant hand. hauling and raise the
• To go over an overhang you should abseil line
first place your feet at the edge of the “Stop” Stop lowering, raising or
cave and lower your butt below your any other action
feet. Once you are as low as you can “Rock! Rock! Falling object. Don’t look
Rock!” up and take cover if
go, remove the feet, and go into a free
possible. Note: always
hang not touching the wall.
say rock no matter the
• Never place your hand between your object.
device or rope and the rock. It may
get stuck and pinch/abrade your
hand. Whistle calls can commonly replace the above
• calls in situations where it is too noisy for
Movement

Tie back all loose clothing and hair,

and always be aware that it can get verbal communication. As whistle calls and
stuck in your abseil device, especially hand signals are different in different parts of
if the device has been extended. the world, it is best to discuss these before
canyoning with a new party.
3.3 Communication
Efficient and clear communication when Call Description
One whistle “Stop”
canyoning is crucial. To pass the maximum
Two whistles “Ok”, “Yes”
information clearly it is best to attempt to
Three “Lower”
communicate verbally first, then hand signals
whistles
and finally by whistles, this particularly helps
Four “Raise”
to avoid passing the wrong information. whistles
Very often the sound of a waterfall, even on Continuous “Emergency”
short drops, blocks out most sound so verbal whistle
blasts
communication can be extremely difficult.

Calls and Whistles

Two whistles can also be used to replace the
Common calls are as follows.
abseiling calls such as “Abseiling”, “On belay”
Call Description and “Off rope”.
“On Rope” Descender has rope
threaded through Hand Signals
“Abseil when Used to tell an abseiler The following signals are used within the club
ready” they have a bottom context to communicate. Different groups may
belay use different signals, so before a trip these
“Abseiling” Used to tell people on should be refreshed.
the bottom of a pitch
that you are abseiling Hand Signals
“Off rope” You are at the bottom of
a pitch, and you have
come off the rope
“On belay” Used to tell the abseiler
they have a bottom
belay
“Lower” Lower someone on No! / Danger! Bag
abseil using a releasable
system

10 Canyoning Training Manual

 checker should remain at the bottom of the
jump to help provide information to the
jumper, such as the correct landing position.
The checker can also stand n any submerged
objects to make clear to the jumper the
position of objects beneath the water. Goggles
are also a valuable item to check for
Lower Okay
submerged logs or debris.

Jumping can take many forms, including an L

sit (landing with your calves and butt hitting
the floor, with an upright body) for shallow
jumps, or a upright jump with your knees

Movement
slightly bent but relaxed, and arms across your
chest for a high jump.
Raise Release
It is vital for arms to be crossed, and not to
slap the water on landing to prevent shoulder
dislocations.

The jump site must also have a solid and easy

launch site, otherwise the slightest of slips can
become fatal.

Rope Sharp Edge Extreme care should be taken on all jumps,

and the decision on whether participants an
jump should be made by the trip leaders.
Always remain on the side of caution about
jumps during a club trip to prevent any
injuries.
Sharp Edge
Swimming Techniques
Swimming in strong currents should never be
3.4 Jumping and Swimming done with a bag on. Aggressive freestyle is the
Technique preferred approach, keeping your eyesight on
Jumping Techniques your target location.
While jumping may be one of the most
Swimming in weaker currents can be done
exciting parts of canyoning, it is also the most
with a bag. In canyons with flush overs it is
dangerous. Even the smallest miscalculation
best to swim facing forwards, either
of mistake can lead to potentially fatal
breaststroke or resting on your floating bag.
injuries, and therefore at UNSWOC it is to be
taken with upmost caution. In areas where flush overs aren’t a concern, it
is okay to swim with your back facing forward.
When jumping a person should always check
the depth of the water beforehand. The water
must be free of submerged obstacles such as
rocks, sticks and logs, while also be sufficiently
deep to prevent hitting the bottom. The pool

Canyoning Training Manual 11

 4. Anchors If natural features exhibit any of the following
it is unsuitable as an anchor.
4.1 Types of Anchors
Anchors used for rigging come in variety of • Tree is less than 30cm in diameter.
types, and each anchor must be assessed on • The tree moves when pushed.
its safety before use. • The tree has an unstable root system
or unstable soil.
Some tools used to assess anchors include the
• The tree species is known to be weak
EARNEST or SERENE methods, information or unstable (Xanthorrhoea and
found here.
Casuarinas are not suitable as they are
Suitability Criterion too weak).
Factors to check when assessing the safety of
an anchor are:

Condition of soft and hard gear

If hard gear exhibits any of the following it is

unsuitable as anchor material.
Anchors

• Rust or tarnishing of metal surface

• Any material other than stainless steel
or titanium
Figure 6 Xanthorrhoea (Grass Trees) and Casuarina
• Excessive grooves and wear
• Fractures or other faults Reputable brands
• Sharp edges or vertices.
All soft and hard gear must be from a
If soft gear exhibits any of the following it is reputable climbing or canyoning brand.
unsuitable as anchor material: Commonly hardware store mallions and tape
is used which is unsuitable.
• Discolouration (check sections of
webbing not exposed to light to see If an anchor does not pass the above
original colour) requirements a new anchor must be built,
• Cuts, abrasion, burns or melting suitable to meet the requirements.
points
Slings and mallions
• Any material other than reputable Slings and mallions are the most common
climbing or canyoning brands anchor in Blue Mountains canyons, where
Condition and type of rock and/or natural natural protection is plentiful. They limit
feature permanent modification of the environment
and are easy to use.
If the rock or bolting structure exhibits any of
the following it is unsuitable as an anchor: Appropriate mallions must be used for this
purpose, hardware store or triangular
• Rock has an edge, fractures or fault mallions have been known to catastrophically
line or void within 300mm of the bolt. fail.
• There is one bolt or the bolts are too Rigging can be done through either the sling
close together.
• The whole rock structure is unstable,
on a flake, or the rock is soft (choss).

12 Canyoning Training Manual

such as in an MMO or by blocking against the
mallion in an eight or biner block.

Log Jams and Chockstones

Log jams and chockstones are also a common
natural method of anchor when trees are not
available.
These systems must be assessed prior to use
based upon the suitability criterion.

Pitons
Pitons are an outdated method of anchor,
however, can still be seen in some of the
lesser descended canyons.
Generally, it is best to stay away from these
anchors, as they are commonly rusted and
unsuitable.

Anchors
Bolts
Bolts should also be suitable, reputable
brands made of stainless steel or titanium,
sufficient length glue ins for sandstone or
other soft rock (No expansion bolts or
carrots).
Redundancy is also an important factor,
anchors should always have two bolts, either
linked or unlinked to have redundancy.

Drilled Threads
Drilled threads are holes drilled through rock
with a piece of rope of sling threaded through
and a mallion or rappel ring attached.
These are used similarly to slings and
mallions.

Meat Anchors
Meat anchors are an advanced technique
where the weight and positioning of a person
are used as an anchor to abseil or transverse
on.
The rope is threaded through their device and
locked off, and the person positions Figure 7 Bolt Examples (Courtesy of Tom Brennan,
themselves in a position sturdy enough to OzUltimate.com)
support the required load.

Canyoning Training Manual 13

 This method should first be practiced in a safe
environment and used with a high degree of
caution.

4.2 Replacing Anchors

Natural Anchors
To replace anchors, you must first remove all
other anchor material to avoid clutter.

Check that the anchor you are going to use is

suitable.

You can then use a variety of methods such as

a Wrap 3 Pull 2, Wrap 2 Pull 1, or Single Wrap
using tape or rope to create an anchor. A
stainless steel mallion can then be placed on
the tape or rope and tightened down with a
spanner.
Anchors

14 Canyoning Training Manual

 5. Pitch Rigging 5.2 Classifications of Rigs
An excellent resource by Brent Roth about
5.1 Trip Leader Gear
rigging can be found here, including how to
Rigging Gear classify rigs based on their utility.
System Video Link Videos on how to tie some basic abseil rigs
Eight contingency Video and knots can be found here.
block demonstration
5.3 Releasable Systems
Munter mule Video Releasable systems are quickly becoming the
overhand demonstration standard practice for canyoning and abseiling
due to their ability to allow for rescue quickly
Eight mule Video
and efficiently.
overhand demonstration
Within UNSWOC it is recommend for all
Jester Video abseils to be rigged with the capacity for
Demonstration rescue, which commonly means rigging
releasable systems.
Joker Video
The use of a releasable system also allows for
Demonstration
rope to be “bled out” while an abseiler is on
With each rigging method being different this rope, reducing the possibility of excessive
list can vary from leader to leader, however, abrasion or core-shot.
below is a recommend list that can be used to

Rigging
rig a variety of abseils.

• Assorted biners (Large HMS are good)

• Figure eight (Such as Petzl Huit)
• Grivel Vlad
• Canyon quickdraw (Has
locking biners) Figure 9 Figure Eight
• Raising and hauling Block
gear (Tibloc, VT Prussik,
Pulleys etc) Figure 10 Munter Mule
• Rope protectors Overhand (Right)
Figure 8 Grivel Vlad

Anchor Gear
Gear used to replace and construct anchors 5.4 Other Systems
should be brought on every trip. Below are These other methods of rigging can be useful
some of the items that should be brought. in certain scenarios.
• Replacement mallions The double stand method is not preferred for
• Replacement tubular tape abseiling as it has limited options for rescue
• Small wrench (For mallions) and is dangerous in aquatic environments due
to the amount of loose rope at the bottom of

Canyoning Training Manual 15

 abseil. It is still commonly seen however as it
is easy to rig.

The biner and knot blocks are useful methods

to use in combination with other systems
(such as traverse lines), or on short drops or
hand lines where rescue is unlikely and easy to
do without lowering.

The guided rappel is an advanced technique

used in highly aquatic whitewater. It is
essentially a zip line where participants can
avoid aquatic obstacles. Special care and
practice should be taken with this technique
as it is complicated, requires a bottom anchor,
and can make unusually high forces (around
7kN or higher!).

System Video Link

Double Strand Link
(Throw and go)
Biner Block Link
Knot Block Link
Guided Rappel Link
Rigging

Figure 12 Biner Block Figure 11 Knot Block

16 Canyoning Training Manual

 6. Belays ground belayer, and unsuitable in water or
aquatic abseils.
Belays are systems used to add redundancy to
an abseiler in the case of a fall. Without a A video on firemans belay is found here.
belay, the abseiler may slip or fall resulting in
injury or death. 5.6 Self-Belay
All beginner UNSWOC trips should have belays Third Hands
to protect participants, particularly beginners Third hands are a useful method of self-
or those not confident in abseiling. belaying and are commonly used by the first
abseiler when there is no opportunity for a
5.5 External belay bottom belay.
Top Belay Numerous knots exist, with the most common
Top belays are an effective and widely being the VT (Valdotain Tresse), Autoblock (or
applicable method to provide redundancy. French), Klemheist, and Classic prussik.
A second rope (or the pull-down strand) can
be used to set up this method and requires
little more than two carabiners. Third hands should never be used in aquatic
environments, where there is even the most
A video on a belay with a munter is found remote chance of drowning or hypothermia,
here. this is as they tend to get jammed when the
rope swells due to water.

You should also ensure an appropriate

distance between your third hand and your
device. Your third hand can be rendered
useless if your device forces it downwards as
to not catch when needed. Extend your device

Belays
if needed.

5.7 Specialty Belays

Traverse Lines
Figure 13 Munter Mule Overhand (Green) with a Munter
Traverse Lines are a useful method to
Top Belay (Blue)
approach anchor or obstacle that is in a
Bottom Belay (Fireman’s) dangerous position. These techniques can be
Bottom belays are another common method dangerous, and as such should be practiced in
to provide redundancy to an abseiler. safe environments first.

This involves having someone on the ground The self-belay should only be used when large
hold the rope and watch the abseiler as they falls aren’t expected, and control of the brake
descend, and in the instance of a loss of
strand can be always kept control of.
control the person on the ground will pull and
hold the rope increasing friction in the An external belay is best when there is any
abseilers device. chance of loss of control of the brake strand,
This method, while being easily implemented however communication is vital between the
with no required gear, is unsuitable for the belayer and the traverser to ensure the
first person, requires the attention of the correct rope length in aquatic canyons.

Canyoning Training Manual 17

 6. Responsibilities as a Trip the location of the trip, the expected return
time and emergency call time.
Leader
If the party cannot be contacted after the
5.8 Planning a Trip emergency call time it is the emergency
Key responsibilities of trip leaders during the contacts responsibility to inform both
planning stages of a trip are listed below. emergency services and the safety officer of
• A minimum of two trip leaders are the club.
required for a trip to run.
5.9 Trip Brief
This includes having either one Level 2
Before the commencement of a trip a brief of
and one Level 1 Trip Leader, or two
the activity should be done. This is commonly
Level 2 Trip Leaders for the respective
completed at the cars.
sport.
• At least one trip leader must have a The trip brief should include an introduction
first aid certificate, ideally RAFA or and icebreaker of the participants and leaders,
WAFA. an acknowledgement of country, a gear check
• An emergency contact must be to ensure everyone has suitable gear for the
delegated and informed on the trip, and a brief about that to expect out of
activity. the day. This includes outlining what is
• The trip leaders must adequately expected from the participants and explaining
choose participants for the activity. expected risks during the day.
This includes having a good ratio
Medical conditions of the participants should
between beginner and more
also be discussed with the trip leaders. The
experienced participants.
option of discussing this privately should also
• The trip leaders must choose an
be provided. Examples include asthma,
activity that they are confident can be
allergies, history of dislocations or breaks,
run safely for the skills of the group.
diabetes, epilepsy etc.
This commonly means running a trip
that the trip leaders have already The trip leader should then decide about the
completed. suitability of each participant for the trip and
• Post the trip on the website and decide whether to reject participants due to
Leading

ensure participant list is up to date safety concerns.

before the commencement of the
activity.
5.10 During the Trip
Throughout the trip, the trip leaders have a
Emergency Contact duty of care for their participants. Care should
The purpose of an emergency contact is to be taken to ensure best practices are
inform emergency services if a trip is overdue exercised, and all unnecessary risks are
and inform the safety officer about an incident reduced or eliminated.
or emergency.
Look out for your participants and ensure that
Emergency contacts must be easily they feel safe throughout the trip.
contactable throughout the duration of the
Don’t allow yourself or other trip leaders to
trip.
take unnecessary risks.
The emergency contact should also be aware
of key details of the trip, such as the number
and names of people on the trip, the nature of
the trip (canyon, climb, multipitch, bushwalk),

18 Canyoning Training Manual

 5.11 After the Trip
After the trip ask participants to return their
gear to the gear cupboard after it has been
cleaned and dried.

If any gear was damaged during the trip

clearly label it and notify the gear officers.

Send any pictures to the gear officer, and of

you feel generous with your time write a blog
post on the website.

5.12 Incidents and

Emergencies
During an incident or emergency, the safety of
the party is the priority.

During an emergency the following should be

followed.

• Apply self-preservation and minimize

risks to participants. Figure 14 Helicopter Evacuation in Ore Stream, NZ
• Notify emergency services.
• Provide first aid to your level of
training.
• Provide extended patient care if
applicable.
• Conclude activity.
• Debrief of party.
• Fill out the incident report form.
• Talk to other experienced trip leaders,
and help each other learn what we

Leading
can do to avoid similar situations in
the future.

Canyoning Training Manual 19

 6. Rescue Techniques Lowering Past Knots
If a lowering past a knot is possible, a MMO is
6.1 Lowering and Raising the preferred option as it is the easiest to
Lowering lower past a knot. Furthermore, if a lower is
Lowering on a releasable setup is the expected, a Flat Overhand (a.k.a European
preferred method of rescue in most scenarios Death Knot EDK) is the best option for passing
as it is quick, can be done indirectly, and through a munter.
removes the danger of a person on abseil.
Refer to 5.3 Releasable Systems. A video demonstrating this can be found here.

Lowering on a biner or knot block is much Lowering past a Figure Eight Block is more
trickier than lowering on a releasable setup complicated and dangerous, and as such
and is used as an emergency technique. It is should be used as a last resort. A method is
colloquially called ‘breaking a block’. demonstrated below.
Firstly, tension must be released from the
biner or knot block, then a releasable is
installed, and then lowering can begin. While
there are numerous methods to achieve this,
one method is demonstrated below.

Figure Eight lowering past A Tibloc and VT prussik

a knot. are attached to the
rope. The tibloc must
have engaged teeth
otherwise this method
Biner Block Attaching a VT prussik with is very dangerous.
a canyon quickdraw

The knot is then untied The second rope is then

Making a 3:1 with a tibloc Hauling on the 3:1 to and the Figure Eight passed through the bolt
‘break the block’ removed. and the knot retied on
the other side.
This method is very
dangerous as a slight
movement to the VT
Rescue

prussik when the knot is

untied can result on the
rope slipping though
the VT prussik and the
The excess gear can be rope falling.
Replacing the Biner Block Lowering the VT prussik removed and lowering The Tibloc is placed as a
with a Figure 8 block until the Figure 8 touches can commence. backup in case this
the bolt. This is now ready occurs, yet it would only
for releasable lower. work if the teeth are
Here bolts are shown as unlinked for simplicity. Bolts should engaged, and if a large
temporarily be linked with either a sling, quickdraw or other shock load was to occur,
for redundancy. the rope could de-
sheath as it is so close
to the end. Hence this
method should only be
used once all other

20 Canyoning Training Manual

 methods have been Converting Raise to Lower
exhausted.
Here bolts are shown as unlinked for simplicity. Bolts should
One method of converting between a raise
temporarily be linked with either a sling, quickdraw or other and lower is shown below.
for redundancy.

Raising
The steps for raising are very similar to the
initial steps for lowering on a block, with some
changes for optimisation.
Begin with the The loose rope between the
counterweight haul. bolt and tibloc is removed.

From a Figure Eight Rope can then be pulled from

block, a quickdraw with between the anchor and the
Tibloc is attached. The tibloc and a Counterweight
Figure Eight can then be haul is created.
lowered transferring all Care must be taken by the A VT prussik, quickdraw and Using the 3:1 created, the
force onto the Tibloc and hauler in case the abseiler biner is spaced on rope as rope is hauled until the VT
quickdraw. comes off the end of the above. quickdraw be attached to the
rope. This can make the anchor. The weight on the
hauler fall backwards when tibloc is removed at this
the load is removed. time.

A 3:1 haul can be created The addition of a dyneema

The 3:1 is deconstructed The Tibloc is removed and
with additional Tibloc or VT sling (blue) as shown above
and the eight block is the VT prussik is released
prussik. Attached to the can create a 5:1 haul. This is
placed on the opposite until the eight block bears
rope below the first tibloc used when previous methods
bolt. the weight.
this creates further prove too difficult.
mechanical advantage.
Here bolts are shown as unlinked for simplicity. Bolts should
temporarily be linked with either a sling, quickdraw or other
for redundancy.

The VT prussik is removed

Rescue
and the system can then be
lowered as normal.
Here bolts are shown as unlinked for simplicity. Bolts should
temporarily be linked with either a sling, quickdraw or other
for redundancy.

Canyoning Training Manual 21

 6.2 Complex Rescue Ascending a Rope
Abseiling Past Knots There are many methods of ascend a rope,
Below is a method of descending past a knot with common methods including a traditional
with a VT prussik. prussiks, a croll and basic, or foot and hand
ascenders.
Here is a demonstration of ascending using
traditional prussiks.

Ascending Past Knots

Ascending past knots is similar to traditional
ascending, yet once the knot is reached, a
backup is placed on the rope, and one prussik
removed and reattached above the knot. This
is repeated for the other prussik and the
Begin with While Next, Next abseil
backup removed. Ascending can then be
a VT prussik weighting remove your a small continued.
above your the VT abseil device distance
device and prussik, tie a and reattach and tie off
abseil to backup to below the your device
just above below the knot. Tie this again. This
the knot. entire off to lock. provides
system, such Next remove space for
as a clove on weight on reattaching
a biner the VT the VT
attached to prussik and prussik.
your remove it.
harness. Qat this
time, weight
should be on
your abseil
device.
Rescue

Reattach Remove the Abseil as

the VT backup. normal.
prussik.
Here bolts are shown as unlinked for
simplicity. Bolts should temporarily be linked
with either a sling, quickdraw or other for
redundancy.
Furthermore, the tying off the device is
depicted for simplicity here as a mule knot
however it should be done correctly for your
respective device, such as a mule overhand
for a figure eight.

22 Canyoning Training Manual

 7. Aquatic Hazards Siphon A constriction that causes an
increase in flow rate, such as
Aquatic hazards are a constant danger within
two rocks.
canyon environments, and while Blue
Strainer A flow of water underneath
Mountain canyons have relatively few aquatic an obstacle, such as logs.
hazards there have still been numerous deaths Aggressive Fast freestyle swimming
over the years. Swim
It is important for all leaders to be able to Defensive Swimming with you legs
Swim forward and looking where
readily identify hazards and know how to
you are going.
safety traverse these challenges.
Pillowing The boil created when water
7.1 Terminology hits against an object.
Whitewater specific terminology has been
described here as a basis for the following 7.2 Hazards and Features
discussions.
Eddies
Terminology Description Eddies are a recirculation of water behind an
River Right When facing downstream, obstacle in the path of the water. These can
(RR) the right of the river. provide an area of relatively calm water in a
River Left When facing downstream, otherwise fast flowing river.
(RL) the left of the river.
Flow Rate The volumetric flow rate in It is common for canyoners to aim for these
the river, typically in 𝑚3 /𝑠 or obstacles to break up the traverse down a
equivalent units (Ml/day) river or to provide safety in an otherwise
Boil White foamy water that has dangerous current.
an undulating surface.
Typically found when water
pushes against an obstacle
or when water resurfaces
after a drop.
Boil Line A line that describes where
water separates into flow
towards and away from the
TOP VIEW
hazard. Figure 15 Eddy and Eddy Line
Helical Flow Flow on the edges of a river
that forms vortices. Strainers
Eddy Flow that recirculates up Strainers are obstacles that block the flow of
river due to an obstacle larger objects in the river but leave the flow
blocking the flow of water. largely unimpeded. Examples include fallen
Circular flow of water. trees and their branches or logs.
Eddy Line The line between main river
flow and opposing eddy flow. These can be particularly dangerous as they
Hazards

Holes Foamy water that results a can hold a larger person against the object,
loss of buoyancy. pinning them to the obstacle due to the flow
Hydraulics Water that flows back of water upstream.
towards a hazard and causes
a dangerous retentive eddy.

Canyoning Training Manual 23

 Avoidance is the best course of action, so if an which indicate where the recirculation begins
strainer is seen down river aggressively swim and ends.
left or right of the obstacle.

SIDE VIEW

Figure 16 Tree Strainer

Foot Entrapments
Foot Entrapments are obstacles which can
result in a foot being caught, causing a person
to be pinned down by the flow of water above
stream. These can include fallen logs or rocks
underwater. SIDE VIEW
Figure 18 Recirculation
Avoidance is best achieved by a defensive
swimming position to avoid touching the floor Undercuts
of the river. Undercuts are a dangerous feature where the
rock is cut away under the surface if the water.
If a person does become trapped by a foot Recirculation can from in these cut aways,
entrapment, blocking the flow with body pulling and trapping people or objects within.
positioning or tensioned line hauls are the
best methods to free a person. Undercuts are best avoided by a defensive
position, pushing with your legs off the wall,
Information on foot entrapments is found and by the identification and avoidance.
here. Identification can be difficult, but it is often
shown by the lack of pillowing as the water
pushes against the rock.

SIDE VIEW
Figure 17 Rock Foot Entrapment

Recirculation
Hazards

Recirculation’s are any circular flow of water

than can cause a person or objects to become
stuck in the eddy.

Commonly these form below waterfalls or SIDE VIEW

around objects and can be incredibly strong. Figure 19 Undercut
Avoidance is best done through early
identification, and jumping beyond boil lines

24 Canyoning Training Manual

 Siphons The individual can them jump into holes and
Siphons are where the flow of water is hydraulics after someone and help to retrieve
impeded by an object, and the water flows them if they are stuck. This is advanced and
below the object, sometimes crating a very dangerous technique so should be used
whirlpool. as a last resort, and where flows are not
serious as this can endanger more peoples
These can be difficult to spot and can pin a lives than just the initial person.
person under water with little chance of
escape. They can sometimes be spotted by a A video on the basics can be found here.
lack of water flowing over an object, and often
occur where rocks are built up and impede
flow. Avoidance is the best strategy.

SIDE VIEW Figure 21 Live Bait Rescue

Figure 20 Siphon
Blocking Flow with Body Positioning
Hydraulics
Blocking of flow with body positioning is a
Hydraulics refer to anywhere where strong
useful technique during a foot entrapment or
flows of water can pin a person or object,
similar scenario where someone is trapped
typically within an eddy. These occur
and is having difficult escaping due to the
commonly beneath waterfalls. Examples
force of water.
include recirculation.
It involves multiple people positioning
7.3 Rescue Techniques themselves upstream of a person and
Throw Lines diverting water away from the person so that
Throw lines are commonly used tools in they have less force to overcome, so that
whitewater canyoning contexts, and many breathing and escape is easier.
canyoners also use them.
Tensioned Line Haul
They can have a variety of uses, from rescuing A tensioned line haul is an advanced
people from hydraulics and holes, used as a technique used to support someone with a
rope for a live bail rescue, or for penduluming food entrapment. It involves fishing a rope
people stuck in strong flows to shore. downstream of a person who is stuck, and
Hazards

positioning two people on each bank

The basics of throwbags can be found here.
upstream, while they pull and force someone
Live Bail Rescue upstream to remove a stuck foot, or help with
Live bail rescue is an advanced technique breathing.
where a rope is secured to an individual and a
‘belayer’ hold onto the end loosely.

Canyoning Training Manual 25

 A video can be found here, which Eddy Line Rolls
demonstrates this technique, while a similar Eddy line rolls are a method of swimming into
method, the Y cinch technique is shown here. eddies. It involves rolling along the length of
your body at an eddy line and helps to move
Drogue Anchors
your body across into an eddy.
Drogue anchors are an advanced technique
where a dedicated water anchor or bag (after General tips to catch can eddy can be found
the removal of important gear such as ropes, here.
food or first aid), is used as a water anchor
and thrown over a successive drop to act as an
anchor for a guided rappel.

The guided rappel is used to avoid a

potentially dangerous obstacle below an
abseil such as an undercut, recirculation or
hydraulic.

More bags can also be sent down stream to

increase the drag and strength of the bottom
anchor.

This method is an advanced technique and

should be used with care.

7.4 Traverse Techniques

Tensioned Lines with an Alpine
A tensioned line is an advanced technique
used to cross flows in heavy water. It involves
tying a bight midway along a rope and
connecting a person to this loop. The rope is
them thrown across the river to an individual
on the other side, and the person can then be
dragged across the fast-flowing water.

It is important in this scenario to have to end

location downstream and at an oblique angle
to the shore to allow for easier crossing.

Supported Live Crossing

A supported live crossing is a method used to
traverse heavy flows with multiple people.

It involves forming a triangle formation with

Hazards

one person on the upstream side. The

remaining people push on the persons
shoulders upstream from them and the group
slowly walks sideways while facing upstream.

This method can help prevent people from

being swept away if only one person was to
attempt a crossing.

26 Canyoning Training Manual

 8. Other Resources

The Australian Canyoning Association (ACA)

has made series of informative videos
demonstrating a range of skills, from beginner
to advanced.

Canyoning whitewater identification and

knowledge is outlined in this canyon magazine
article.

The Rescue 3 International, Water and Flood

Rescue Manual is a useful resource on
advanced whitewater rescue and survival
techniques.

Resources

Canyoning Training Manual 27

 9. Appendix • Understand the kernmantle
construction of a rope
10.1 Appendix A – Required • Identify static and dynamic ropes, and
Skillsets when to use each
General Ropework • Coil a rope with an alpine and girth
• Run a trip brief, including finish
acknowledgement of country, asking • Explain the uses of different rope
about medical conditions, gear diameters (Accessory, prussik,
checks, and expected obstacles and climbing, canyoning and caving ropes)
outline of the days activities
• Log trip intentions, assign safety • Identify unsafe/safe ropes with the
contacts and report safety incidents pinch test, observing excessive sheath
through the club abrasion, and by seeing the core
• Plan a trip and know when to call off a
trip (weather, time, etc.) • Practice the maintenance and storage
• Identify when to prevent a participant of ropes including not standing on
from participating due to safety ropes and storing in temperature
concerns controlled, dry, dark, and non-
• Demonstrate navigation skills required chemical environments
for trips (GPS, topos, trip notes)
Level 1 Trip Leader
• Practice and enforce general cliff
• Confident and competent in managing
safety, including being connected to
participants on trips
safety within two body lengths
• Understand and practice whistle,
distance from the cliff edge, helmet
verbal and hand signals for
use, and calls such as “rock” and
communication in abseiling and
“rope”
canyoning
• Identify common mistakes in relation
• Understand and identify rope
to participant harnesses, helmets and
materials and their uses (nylon,
knots, including correct sizing of
polyester, dyneema, technora)
harness and helmets, wrong knots,
• Inspect and assess the safety of
and not double threading buckles
anchors, including the replacement of
tape anchors (discolouration of tape,
• Demonstrate and inspect knots
stability and strength of trees,
including Figure Eight, Figure Eight
abrasion of tape, strength of maillons,
rethreaded, Figure Eight on a bight
cracking and fissures surrounding
bolts, replacing tape anchors)
• Demonstrate and inspect a Munter
• Inspect the rigging of other trip
Hitch and Clove Hitch
leaders, participants loading device to
• Demonstrate and inspect a Stopper
abseil, attaching to safety, ABCDE and
Knot and Barrel Knot
weighing abseil strand checks
• Demonstrate and inspect a Double
• Demonstrate coiling with a rope bag
Fisherman’s Bend, Tape/Water Knot,
and helmet biner
and European Death Knot
• Demonstrate the rigging of double
• Demonstrate and inspect an Alpine
strand techniques for abseils with
Butterfly and its use on isolating a
tape and bolt anchors
section of rope

28 Canyoning Training Manual

• Demonstrate the rigging of single Level 2 Trip Leader
strand techniques including releasable • Demonstrate ascending ropes using
abseils with tape and bolt anchors, prussiks, ensuring two points of
and the applications of each (MMO, contact with the rope
Eight block, Biner Block) • Demonstrate ascending ropes using
• Understand the importance of end mechanical ascenders, ensuring two
knots, including appropriate knots and points of contact with the rope
when to use them • Demonstrate the lowering of
• Demonstrate setting rope length as appropriate loads on a releasable
both an anchor manager and first setups, including how to retie when
person down loaded
• Practice and inspect loading up on • Understand and implement progress
three different descender categories capture devices on hauling setups
(Eights and Modified Eights, Tubular (Microtraxion, tibloc, prussiks)
Devices, Inline Devices) • Demonstrate the conversion to a haul
• Demonstrate adding friction to a (using appropriate loads) starting
variety of abseil and canyoning from releasable setup and biner block
devices setup.
• Demonstrate tying off a variety of • Demonstrate setups for hauling (2:1
abseiling devices (Counterweight), 3:1, 4:1 (Pig Rig
• Practice with emergency descenders Haul), Complex hauling)
(Super munter, biner brake bar) • Understand the importance of
• Understand the importance and efficiency on mechanical advantage
demonstrate the setting up of belays (Biners vs Pulleys)
(top, bottom and third hand) • Make decisions about suitability of no
• Demonstrate three third hand belay
techniques: Klemheist, French, Classic • Demonstrate ascending past knots in
and understand their uses and free-hanging abseil
associated hazards • Demonstrate abseiling past knots in
• Demonstrate and understand the use free-hanging abseil
of a prussik above and below the • Demonstrate lowering past a knot
abseil device, and the use cases of with an MMO and Eight block
each • Demonstrate meat anchors and know
• Identify when jumps are appropriate, how to safely use them
including identifying appropriate take- • Demonstrate the setup and retrieval
off points, depths and heights of retrievable traverse lines (Self belay
• Demonstrate appropriate jumping and Munter belay)
techniques into water (arms across • Identify aquatic hazards such as boils,
chest, knees bend, L sits) hydraulics, siphons, sieves
• Demonstrate self-rescue and is self- • Understand the importance of self-
sufficient on a trip preservation in aquatic rescue (Throw
bags, Buoyant object rescue)

Canyoning Training Manual 29

 • Demonstrate rescue and traverse
techniques such as tensioned line
traverse and supported river crossing

30 Canyoning Training Manual