REVIEW OF BASIC

CHAPTER
MATHEMATICS AND
PHYSICS
1
This is a brief review of operations and methods in Mathematics.
Furthermore, we give a review of some physics laws, which will be used in this course.

1.1 Mathematics Review

This section in Mathematics is intended as a review of basic algebra techniques,
analytic geometry, differential and integral calculus.

1.1.1 Scientific Notation

Many quantities in Physics are either very large or very small, e.g. the speed of light is about
300 000 000 mis and the charge of a proton is about 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 16
Coulomb. Obviously, they are hard to read and write. To avoid this problem, we use a
method dealing with powers of 10. Numbers are expressed as some power of 10 multiplied
by another number between 1 and 10. The numbers expressed in this way are said to be in
scientific notation.
Thus the speed of light can be written as 3.0 x 108 mis
The charge of an electron can be written as -1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb.
Example 1.1:
The scientific notation for 3 952 000 is 3.952 x 106
And that for 0.000 123 ts 1.23 x 10-4

Many prefixes are used in this course. Here, we introduce some of them:

Prefix Abbreviation Power Prefix Abbreviation Power

deci d 10-l deka da 101

centi c 10·2 hecto h 102
mi Iii m 1 o' kilo k 103
Micro µ 10-6 mega M 106
nano n 10-9 giga G 109
10-12 1012
pico p tera T
fern to f 1 o" peta p 1015

atto a 1 o-18 exa E 1018

1-1
1.1.2 Algebra

The laws of algebra are simply those of arithmetic expressed in terms of symbols such
as x, y, z, a ,b, ... etc to represent quantities whose numerical value is not known.
Here, we give some basic rules for algebra.

* Combination and Factoring:

Common factor Ax+Ay+Az =A(x+y+z)
Perfect square X2 + 2XY + Y2 = ( X + Y /
Differences of squares a2 - b2 = (a+b) (a-b)
a c ad +be
Simplification -+-=---
b d bd

( ~ )(;) = ( ;; )

(~}(:)= :~
Example 1.2
3abx + 3bcy = 3b(ax + cy)
a2 + 6ab + 9b2 = (a + 3b/
x 2 -16y 2 = (x - 4y)(x + 4y)

* Powers
XO=]
Ix= I
n m (n+m}
x xx =x
xn I xm = x(n-mJ
(xa)b = Xab

x1111 =~

Example 1.3
34 x 35 = 3(4+5) = 39
x41 x-3 = x<4 -(-3)) = x<4+J) = x7
(x3)4 = x<3x4) = x12

1-2
1.1.3 Operation with Scientific Notation

(a) Addition and subtraction:

Example 1.4:

1.63 x 10 4 + 2.8 x 10 3 = 1.63x I 04 + 0.28 x 104 = 1.91 x 104

-26.99 x 104
4 4
5.01 x 104 - 3.2 x 105 = 5.01 x 10 -32x 10 =

(b) Multiplication and division:

Multipy

Example 1.5:

(1.245 x 103) x (2.70 x 102) = (l.245 x 2.70) x 103+2 = 3.36 x 105

Divide:

Example 1.6:

5 3 6'75
6.75 x 10 by 1.5 x 10 = x I Os = 4.5 x 105•3 = 4.5 x 102
1.5 103

1.1.4 Significant Figures

• Addition:

1.2345 + 12.56 13.7945 = 13.79

• Subtraction:
1.25 x 104 - 987 = I .25 x l 04 - 0.0987 x 104 = ( 1.25 - 0.10) x 104 = 1.15 x 104

In addition and subtraction: The answer is limited to the number of significant decimal
places in the term which has the fewest
• Multiplying:
18 x 2.3 = 41
18.0 x 2.30 = 41.4
• Dividing:
0.439 I 25.68 = 0.0171 = 1.71 x 10·2
In multiplication and division : the answer is limited to the number ofsignficant figures
in the term which contains the fewest.

1-3
1.1.5 Consistency of Units
Understanding the mathematics involved with a particular problem is necessary but not
sufficient. To ensure the correct answer; you must use consistent units.

Example 1.7:
Ahmad works over-time at the factory on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday at 30SR/hr.
Since his time each week varies, the following equation was developed to compute his
pay each week. (A+B+C) R = D

Where:
A is the time worked on Monday
B is the time worked on Tuesday
C is the time worked on Wednesday
R is his rate of pay
D is the amount of paycheck

Problem 1

Ahmad worked 2 hr on Monday, 3.5 hr on Wednesday, and 6 hr on Friday. Compute his

pay for this week.

(2 + 3.5 + 6) 30 = 345 SR
Check units (hr+ hr+ hr) SR/hr= SR

Problem 2

Ahmad worked 120 min on Monday, 12,600 sec on Wednesday, and 6 hr on Friday.
Compute his pay for this week.

( 120
60
12600
+ 3600 +6) = 345 SR

. minxhr secxhr
Check units ( min + sec + hr) SR/hr = SR

Example 1.8:
• How many Sv in;

500 mSv + 2 rem+ 3000 rnrem? knowing 1 Sv = 100 rem= 1000 mSv

1 rem = 1000 mrem

Solution:
Sv
5001tfo x = 0.5 Sv
1000 ~
Sv
2 ry, x
100 I~
= 0.02 Sv

3000 mr"AI x - I ~·11

x -I - s- = 0.03 Sv
/" · 1000 rem !OD re;,{

0.5 Sv + 0.02 Sv + 0.03 Sv = 0.55 Sv

1-4
1.1.6 Exponential and logarithms

Suppose that a quantity z is expressed as a power of some quantity x :

z
= ,,cY

The number x is called the base number. The logarithm of Z with respect to
the base x is equal to the exponent to which the base is raised, that is
y = logx (Z)

Conversely, the antilogarithm of y is the number Z:

Z = antilog, (y)
The two bases most often used are:
Base 10 called the common logarithm base = log10
Base e = 2.7183 called the natural logarithm base = ln.:

For example:

y = log10 (Z) ~ Z= lfY'

y = ln, (Z) ~ Z= e'

Note that we can convert between base 10 and base e as:

In, (Z) = (2.302585) log10 (Z)

Some useful properties of logarithms are as follows:

log (x x y) = log(x) + log(y)
log (x I y) = log(x) - log(y)
log (] Ix) = -log(x)
log {x0) = a X log(x)
In (e) = 1
In (ex) = x

Note that: «' = 0.3679 e-0.693 = 0.5

Example 1.9:

If 0.5 = e-41 find t.

Solution: Take the natural log of the equation:

In (0. 5) = -4t t = -(1/4) Xln(0.5) = 0.1733

1-5
1.1.7 Trigonometry

This part of mathematics is based on the special pro petties of the right triangle.
Consider the right triangle shown in Figure 1.1. The side a is opposite the angle 8,
side b is adjacent to the angle 8, and side c is the hypotenuse of the triangle. The
Pythagorean theorem gives
c2 = a2 + b2

90°

Figure 1.1 Right Triangle

Here, we define the basic trigonometric functions:

. e a cos8=-,and
stn =-,
b
tanB=-.
a
c c b

Also, the Cosecant (csc), secant (sec), and cotangent (cot) are defined as:
csc e ~ ]/sine.
sec e = 1/cosB, and
=
cot () 1/tan B.
Some properties of trigonometric functions are as follows:
e
sin2 + cos' = 1e
sin 2B = 2 sin Bcos B
cos 2 () = cos' B- sin2 8

Example 1.10:
Consider the right triangle shown in Fig. l. l, in which a = 2 and b = 4.
Find c and the angle e.
Solution:
c2 = a2 + b2 = 22 + 42 = 20
c = ffo =4.47
tan ()=alb = 214 = 0.5
Thus, B= tan-1 (0.5) = 26.6 deg.
Where tan-1 (0.5) is the notation for the angle whose tan is 0.5.

1-6
1.2 Physics Review
In this section, we give a review of some physics laws, which will be used in this
course. Any physical quantity must have a unit. An international system of units has
been adopted with the abbreviation SI (Systeme International). All measurements in
science are based on five basic physical quantities: mass, length, time, temperature,
and electric current. The following are some of the important units that are dealt with
in this course.

1.2.1 Fundamental Units (F.U.):

Quantity SI unit
Mass (m) kilogram (kg)
Length (x) meter (m)
Time (t) second (s)
Temperature (T) Kilven (K)
Electric current (I) Ampere (A)

1.2.2 Derived units:

Quantity Defining eguation SI unit Relation to F.U.

Velocity (v) v = dx/dt mis
Acceleration (a) a= dvldt mil
Force (F) F=ma newton (N) 1 N = 1 kg m s-2
Momentum (p) p=mv kg ms·'
Kinetic energy (KE) KE= (ll2)mv2 joule (J) 1 J = 1 kg m2 s-2
Work (W) W=F.x N.m 1 N.m = 1 J
Power (P) P = Wit watt (W) 1 W= 1 J!s
Frequency (f, v) = oscillation per sec hertz (Hz) 1 Hz= 1 s-'
Charge (Q) Q =IX t coulomb (C) lC=JAs
Potential ( V) V=WIQ volt (V) 1 V= 1 J/C
Resistance (R) R = VII ohm (Q) lfl= I VII
Capacity (C) C=QIV farad (F) 1 F = 1 CIV

1.2.3 Newton's Gravitational Law:

The gravitational force between mass mi and mz, which are a distance r apart, is
F=Gm,m2
,.2
where G is 6.67 x 10-11 N.m2/kg2•

1.2.4 Coulomb's Law:

The electrical force between charge q, and q2, which are a distance r apart, is

F=kq1q2 where k is 9 x 109 N.m2/C2.

,.2

1-7
1.2.5 Units of energy:
7
1J = 10 ergs
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 C x 1 V = 1.6 x 10-19 J
1 MeV = 106 eV = 1.6 x 10-13 J
1 kilo-watt-hour (kWh) = 3.6 x 106 J

1.2.6 Mass, Velocity and Momentum:

The rest mass of a particle (mo) is the mass of the particle when it is at rest. When the particle
is moving with speed v, the relation of the mass m and speed v is derived by Einstein theory
of relativity and is given by

m = J1- v2 I c2 ,

where, c is the speed of light.

The momentum of a particle of rest mass mo moving with velocity v is:

For a photon, the rest mass mo =O. The momentum of a photon is given by:
p = hv/c
Where v is the frequency of the photon.

1.2.7 Mass and energy:

One of the important results of Einstein theory of relativity is that the mass m of a particle,
moving with speed v, is a form of energy E = m c2. We may consider a particle at rest with
mass mo has a rest energy E0 = mo c2. The difference between E and Eo is the kinetic energy
(KE). That is
KE = m c2 - mo c2
If v << c, it can be shown that this formula reduces to KE= (1/2) mo v2•
The energy of a photon is given by:
E = hv {h = Planck's constant)
Where vis the frequency of the photon.

Example 1.10:
If 1 gm of material is converted to energy; calculate the energy released.

Solution:
E = m c2 = Ix 10-3 x(3x 108/ = 9x 1013 J= 2.5 x 107 kWh
To appreciate the amount of heat released, it is to be noted that a house needs approximately
500 kWh of electric energy for one month.

1-8
1.2.8 Physical constants:

Here, we give the values of some of the important physical constants used in the course.

Speed of light c = 2.99792458 x 108 m/s ~ 3 x 108 mis

Avogadro's number NA= 6.0221367 x 1023 mor1
Planck's constant h = 6.626176 x 10·34 J.s
Electronic charge e = -1.6021773 x 10·19 C
Mass of electron me= 9.1093897 x 10·31 kg = 0.5109991 MeV/c2
Mass of proton mp= 1.6726231 x 10·27 kg = 938.2723 MeV/c2
Mass of neutron rn, = l.674954 x 10·27 kg = 939.56563 MeV/c2
Atomic mass unit u = 1.6605402 x 10·27 kg = 931.4943 Me V /c2

Problems
1. Write the following data output with the appropriate scientific notations;
a) 250000
b) 0.00065

2. Write the appropriate root:

a) 5112 =
b) 10112 =

3. Solve the following equations;

a) 2.44 = e2 x ', find t.
b) Ln (t) = lO , find t.
c) Log(t)=l, findt.

4. In the following triangle,

a) c = cm.
0
b) 81 :::;:
c) Si= 0

c
10 cm

18 cm
5. Write the unit of the following;
a). Velocity (v).
b). Kinetic energy (KE).
c). Charge (Q).

1-9
 CHAPTER ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR
STRUCTURE
2
This chapter is an introduction to atom, nucleus and their basic properties. It includes
definitions and explanations of some important terminologies in nuclear physics. These
terminologies will be frequently used throughout the course. It is therefore essential to fully
understand their meanings and to be able to apply them in solving problems.

2.1 Structureof Matter

Matter (solid, liquid or gas) is composed of elements, or compounds containing two or more
elements chemically linked in definite proportions. There are 92 naturally occurring elements
(hydrogen to uranium) and another dozen or so have been produced artificially (e.g.,
plutonium, americium, etc). At normal temperature and pressure, 10 elements are in the
gaseous state, namely hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, argon, fluorine, chlorine, krypton,
xenon and radon, and 2 are in the liquid state, namely bromine and mercury. The rest are in
the solid state, the majority being metals and a few are non-metals.

Molecules are the smallest parts of a compound that are still representative of the original
substance. Each molecule consists of atoms which are the smallest parts of the elements
forming the molecule. For example, a molecule of water (H20) contains 2 atoms of the
element hydrogen and I atom of the element oxygen. Each atom of an element has the same
property as that of the element and differs from an atom of another element. While the
smallest pat1s of elements are atoms, several elements in gaseous form consist of molecules
rather than atoms. For instance, the elements nitrogen and oxygen exist in molecular forms
with 2 atoms each. However, molecules of other gaseous elements, namely helium and argon
are composed of single atoms.

2.2 Structure of the Atom

An atom consists of a central, positively charged, core called the nucleus, surrounded by
negatively charged electrons which revolve around the nucleus in various orbits. The orbit
nearest to the nucleus can contain a maximum of 2 electrons, the next one can have up to 8
electrons, and so on for other orbits, and are designated as K, L, M, .... , orbits respectively. In
the normal state, the atom as a whole is electrically neutral, the negative charges of all the
electrons balancing the positive charge of the nucleus. The electrons must be in motion,
otherwise they will be swallowed up by the attractive electric force of the nucleus. This is the
so-called Planetary Model of the Atom, analogous to our solar system, and is illustrated in
Figure 2.1.

2-1
Atoms are very small indeed. Average diameter of an atom is of the order of 10-10 m. Average
mass of an atom is of the order of 10-26 kg.

Figure 2.1: The Planetary Model of the atom. K, L, M, N, etc are electron orbits or
shells containing a maximum of 2, 8, 18 ... electrons respectively.

2.3 Structure of the Nucleus

The nucleus of an atom contains two types of particles called protons and neutrons.
(hydrogen atom is the only one which does not have a neutron.). Protons carry a positive
electrical charge equal in magnitude to the charge of an electron but have a mass nearly 2000
times that of an electron. The neutrons have no electrical charge and are nearly of same mass
as (only very slightly heavier than) the protons. An atom in its normal state containing equal
number of electrons and protons is therefore electrically neutral and the nucleus is always
positively charged. The nucleus is the heaviest part of an atom as it contains all the massive
particles, protons and neutrons. The nucleus also occupies a very small volume of the atom so
that most of the space between the nucleus and the electrons is empty. The diameter of a
nucleus is of the order of 10-14 m.

Only some of the light nuclei contain an equal number of protons and neutrons. In all other
nuclei neutrons outnumber protons in right amount to ensure nuclear stability.

In spite of the electric repulsion among the positively charged protons, the nucleus is held
together by the strongly attractive nuclear force between any two nuclear particles
irrespective of their charges. The short-range nuclear force (acts only up to the dimension of
the nucleus) is one of the four fundamental forces in nature. Schematics of three nuclear
atoms are shown in Figure 2.2.
 Electron--+ ,, Proton

• Nucleus eutron

Hydrogen (I Proton, Helium (2 Protons, Beryllium (4 Protons,

O Neutrons, l electron) 2 Neutrons, 2 Electrons) 5 Neutrons, 4 Electrons)

Figure 2.2: Three different nuclear atoms in normal states

Some of the basic properties of the electron, the proton and neutron:

proton electron neutron

Charge (Coulomb) l.6x10-t9 Positive _ l.6x l6 19Negatrve

·
0
-24 -28 -24
Mass (g) l .673x10 9. lxlO l.675x10

2.4 Symbol and Some Basic Atomic and Nuclear Data

The symbol for a nucleus is customarily written as:
;x orX-A,
where X is the name of the chemical element, A is the number of protons and neutrons, called
the Mass Number and Z is the number of protons, called the Atomic Number (also equal to
the number of electrons in a neutral atom). For example, symbol for a nucleus of the chemical
element Iron, with mass number 56 and atomic number 26, is written as

~:Fe or Fe-56

Some fundamental data of the atom, the nucleus, and their constituents are summarized
below:

Diameter of an Atom: of the order of 10-10 m

Mass of an Atom: of the order of 10-26 kg
Diameter of a Nucleus: of the order of 10-14 m
Mass of a Nucleus: of the order of I 0-26 kg
Diameter of a Proton
or a Neutron: of the order of 10-15 m
Mass of a Proton: = 1.673 x 10-27 kg ( =I 830 x electron mass)
Mass of a Neutron: = 1.675 x 10-27 kg
Mass of an electron: = 9.1 x 10-31 kg
Charge of an Electron: = -1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb
Charge of a Proton: = + 1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb(= electron charge)
Charge of a Neutron: =O

2-3
Example 2.1:
How many electrons, protons and neutrons are there in a neutral J:Ni atom? What is the
charge of the nucleus of the atom?

Solution ·
From the usual notation of a nucleus: ;1 X, No. of protons, Z = 28
Since the atom containing the nucleus is electrically neutral,
No. of electrons = No. of protons = 28
No. of neutrons= A - Z = 58 - 28 = 30
Charge of the nucleus = No. of protons x charge of one proton
= 28 x 1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb= 4.48 x 10-18 Coulomb

2.5 Basic Terminologies and their Definitions

Nucleon: A proton or a neutron

Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons in the nucleus. Every chemical element has
a different atomic number

Neutron Number (N): Number of neutrons in the nucleus

Mass Number
A=Z+N
Mass Number (A): A=Z+N
Atomic Number
Number of protons

Nuclide: A specific nucleus with a given Z and N, e.g., :c

1
is a nuclide
of carbon having a mass number A=12 and proton number Z=6

Isotopes: Nuclides with same Z but different N, belonging to the same

chemical element. For example, 1~C, 1 1 :c, :c
are isotopes of
carbon. Isotopes of a given element are chemically identical,
since chemical properties are determined only by the atomic
number, Z of the element, which is same for all isotopes.
Examples of isotopes of the chemical element helium are
shown in Figure 2.3.

} He or He-3 i He or He- ; He or He-5

(. Proton QNeutron @Electron)

Figure 2.3: Three isotopes of helium

2-4
Isotones: Nuclides having same N but different Z, e.g.,~~ Si, ~51P, ~is
Isobars: Nuclides having same A but different Z and N, e.g.,
40C 4oK 40A .
20 a, 19 , is 1

Stable Isotope: Isotopes which do not undergo any transformation and

therefore emit no nuclear radiation

Abundance: Amounts of isotopes in a stable element. For example, in the

chemical element Oxygen, abundances of 1;0 is 99.8%, 1;0 is
0.037% and 1 :0 is 0.204%
Unstable or
Radioactive Isotope: Isotopes which undergo transformation producing nuclear
radiation.

Atomic Mass: Mass of a neutral atom. In atomic and nuclear physics, atomic
masses are given in a special unit called the Atomic Mass Unit,
designated as u.

Atomic Mass Unit (u): In this system of unit, the atomic mass of 1 zC
is arbitrarily
taken to be exactly equal to its mass number 12, although its
actual mass is 1.992 x 10 -23 g. This means atomic mass of 1 ;c
= 12 u = 1.992 x 10 -23 g Therefore,

1 u == 1.992 x 10 -lJ g/12 = 1.66 x 10·27 kg (2.1)

Masses of all other atoms on the 1;C scale will be very nearly
equal to their mass numbers, but not exactly. Examples of
atomic masses of elements are:

Element Mass Number Atomic Mass (u)

Proton 1.007825
Neutron 1.008665
iHe 4 4.002603

12 12.0000001

13 13.003354

238 238.048608
(Note: because of fractional numbers in atomic masses for all
atoms except 1;C, sometimes these masses can be
approximately taken to be equal to the mass numbers, which
are always whole numbers, for convenience in calculations.
However there are important exceptional situations where such
approximations cannot be used.)

2-5
Isotopic Mass: If an element has several isotopes, the atomic mass of the
element is the average atomic mass of the mixture, average
being taken according to abundances of the isotopes. Thus if Pi
is the isotopic abundance in percent of the i111 isotope of atomic
mass l\·1L, then the atom le mass of the clement is

(2.2)
Molecular Mass: Sum of the atomic masses of the atoms in the molecule.

Example 2.2:
Calculate the mass of a hydrogen molecule from the isotopic data:

Isotope Abundance(%) At. Mass (u)

'H 99.985 1.007825
2H 0.015 2.01410
Solution:
Using equation (2.2), Mass of a H2 molecule
= 2 x mass of a hydrogen atom
1H
= 2 x [Atomic mass of isotope x abundance+ Atomic mass of2H isotope x abundance]
= 2 x [1.007825 x 0.99985 + 2.01410 x 0.00015] = 2.015952 u
Mole: Gram equivalent of atomic mass or molecular mass. For
example, atomic mass of 1 JC
is 12 u. One mole of 1 JC
= 12 g.

Similarly, one mole of O, molecule= (2x15.9994) = 31.9987 g,

one mole of H20 molecule = 2x 1.007825 + 15.9994 =
18.01505 g
Avogadro's Number (NA): Number of atoms or molecules in one mole of any substance
and is a constant. NA= 6.022x1023•
No. of Atoms or
Molecules per gram:
(2.3)
Where NA= Avogadro's Number,
M = Atomic or Molecular Mass in mole.
No. of Atoms or
Molecules per cm3: Given by zv=p Na z M (2.4)
Where p = Physical Density (g/cm')
NA = Avogadro's Number
M = Atomic or Molecular Mass in Mole

No. oflsotopes per cm3 Given by N = Pi p NA I lOOM (2.5)

where Pi= Abundance of the i111 isotope
Example 2.3:
How many molecules of water are there in 1 g of water? How many hydrogen atoms? How
many deuterium atoms? Take average atomic mass of oxygen= 15.99940 u.

2-6
Solution:
Mass of l mole of water= 2 x mass of hydrogen atom + 1 x mass of oxygen atom
= 2 x 1.007976 + 15.99940 = 18.015352 u = 18.015352 g
No. of molecules in 1 g of water= 6.022 x 1023 I 18.015352 = 3.5 x I 022
No. of hydrogen atoms in 1 g of water= 3.5 x 1022 x 2 = 7 .0 x 1022
2H
No. of deuterium atoms in l g of water= 7 .0 x 1022 x Abundance of
= 7.0 x 1022 x 0.00015 =1.1 x 1019
Example 2.4:

The density of a NaCl crystal is 2.17 g/crrr' . Compute the atom densities (atoms per
cm3 of NaCl) for Na and Cl.

Solution:
From equation (2.4), N= p NA/ M per crrr'
where p = Physical Density (g/cm3 ) = 2.17 g/cm '
NA= Avogadro's Number= 6.022 x 1023
M = Mass of NaCl molecule in mole = 22.990 + 35.453 = 58.443 g
Therefore N = 2.17 x 6.022 x I 023 I 5 8.443 = 2.2 x 1022 molecules/cm3
Since there is 1 atom each of Na and Cl in each molecule of NaCl, it follows that the
atoms/cm ' of either Na or Cl is the same as molecules/cm3 of NaCl.

Unit of Energy: The SI (Systeme Internationale) unit of energy is Joule.

However, in atomic and nuclear physics the energy unit most
commonly used is the Electron-Volt, eV. It is defined as the
kinetic energy gained by an electron when accelerated through
an electric potential difference of l volt.
l eV = 1.6 x 10-19 Joule
l keV (kilo-electron volt)= 103 eV = 1.6 x 10-16 Joule
MeV (mega-electron volt)= 106 eV = 1.6 x 10-13 Joule

Mass-Energy Relation: Einstein's equation of mass-energy equivalence is:

E = m c2 (2.6)
Where c is the speed of light= 3 x l 08 meters per second.
Using equation (2.6), amount of energy available when one
Atomic Mass Unit is converted to energy is about 931.5 Me V.

11 u is equivalent to 931.5 Mevj (2.7)

In calculations involving masses in atomic mass units and
energies in electron-volts in this course, the above equivalence
is very convenient to use.

2-7
2.6 Binding Energy of the Nucleus
A nucleus denoted by ; X is formed by bringing together Z protons and N = A-Z neutrons
but its mass M(A,Z) is less than the sum of the masses of its constituents ( protons and
neutrons ) in the free state. This decrease in mass, LlM, called the "mass defect" is converted
into energy LlE by Einstein's relation LiE = AMc2

This energy is released when a nucleus is formed from its constituents. Once the nucleus has
been formed, if we want to break the nucleus into its constituents, we have to supply energy
equivalent to the energy released. This energy is called the "binding energy" or BE ( = -LlE)
and can be calculated using the equation:
BE= [Z x mp+ N x m, - M (A,Z)] c2 (2.8)
Where mp= mass of a proton, m, = mass of a neutron and M (A,Z) is the mass of the
nucleus. Since atomic masses are more readily available in the literature than nuclear masses,
equation (2.9) can be written in atomic masses as:

BE= [Z x mass of hydrogen atom+ N x m11 - mass of the M (A,Z) atom] c2 (2.9)

Binding Energy of a Nucleus per Nucleon, BE I A

Total binding energy of a nucleus divided by the mass number A is called the binding energy
per nucleon. It is important quantity which helps to compare the relative stability of different
nuclei. Figure 2.4 shows a plot of BE/A versus A. There is flat maximum of BE/A equal to
about 8.8 MeV around mass number A = 50. These nuclei are more stable than those on
either side of the plateau.

Tron is the most :yield from

8 lightly bound -----._____;, nuclear fission
muclcus '
5(, has 8.8 MeV

t Fe per nucleon

r:
26 binding energy Elements heavier
than iron can ykld
yield from energy by nuclear
fission.

Mass Number, A

Figure 2.4: The plot of binding energy per nucleon (BE/A), of different versus mass number A
Example 2.5:
Calculate the binding energy of He-4 nucleus per nucleon. Given:
Atomic mass of He-4 4,0026033 u
Atomic mass of H-1 1.0078250 u
Mass of neutron (n) 1.0086650 u

2-8
Solution:
Mass of constituents = 2 x mass of H-1 + 2 x mass of n
=2x 1.0078250 + 2 x 1.0086650
= 4.0329800 u

Mass Defect = Mass of constituents - Atomic mass of He-4

= 4.0329800 - 4.0026033
= 0.0303767 u
From equation (2.7), 1 u is equivalent to 931.5 MeV
Binding Energy = 0.0303767 x 931.5 MeV =28.3 MeV
Binding Energy of He-4 nucleus per Nucleon= 28.3 I 4 = 7.07 MeV I nucleon

2. 7 The Chartof the N uclides

About 350 nuclides are found in nature including about 25 which are radioactive with
sufficiently long half lives to survive from the time of earth's formation to present. In
addition, over 1000 artificially produced nuclides have been discovered and identified. Many
useful properties of these nuclides, both naturally occurring and artificially produced, have
been compiled in the form of square boxes in a chart for quick and convenient reference.
Nuclides with same proton number, Z but different neutron number, N (isotopes) are drawn
horizontally, and those with different Z (different elements) are drawn vertically. All nuclides
with same mass number, A lie on a 45° diagonal line, running from upper left to lower right.
Stable and radioactive nuclides are differentiated by the use of different colors or shading of
the squares. Frequently required data such as symbol and mass number, natural abundance of
a stable isotope, and half life, mode of decay, and energy of the emitted radiation for a
radioactive isotope, are printed inside the squares. A part of the nuclide chart is shown in
Figure 2.5.

The nuclide chart can also be used to obtain rapid information on the products of radioactive
decay and nuclear reaction. The change of position of a nuclide in the chart due to radioactive
decay or nuclear reaction is shown in Figure 2.5 and 2.6

The nuclide chart is therefore a valuable source of information on the important properties of
both the stable and the unstable nuclides.

2-9
 PART OF CHART OF THE NUCLIDES

I
A! 23 Al 24 Al 25 A! 26 Al 27 A! 28 Al 29 A130 Al31
(!;'-, 13 Al
215.a!>lol: 0.47~ 2.07~ 7.lli 7.JE5," 100% l.24m e.srn l.ds 0.6-'li

~~
( . 12 Mg Mg 2C Mg21 Mg22 Mg23 Mg 24 Mg21 Mg 26 Mg27 Mg 28 Mg 29 Mg30
~ "(J' • .;;;.- ~4 •.]06 U..1.il U2nn 3.iiO, 11,i, itl.'1Y% iO,~ 11.01'% .,,_..m ;o,qt,. L'is -1.;n

o(l;c; ~ Na Na19 Na20 Na 21 Na22 Na23 Na24 Na25 Na26 Na27 Na 28 Na 29

~
-~ ~
11
10
-
Uffl~71

Ne
30m,7 446ms ll..Ss

Ne 17 Ne18 Ne 19 Ne20 Ne 21 Ne22 Ne23 Ne24 Ne25

2,601y 7,11.99% 5.0.!h .o, I.Oh 0.291 30.5m

17 18
43ms

q~.;;;.
20.179 109-ms 1.67S 17.2S 9G.51% O~H'Xi 9.l1% 37.Ss ll.JBm 0_6h

i<::-c.; F F 16 F17 F16 F 19 F 20 F 21 F 22 F 23 15 16

9 ll.9tM03 -1r-2os 64.Ss 109.Bm 100% II.Os 4,l.Ji; 4.2.3J 2.2,
~ <::)(!; proIon

"'c: 0 013 014 015 016 017 018 019 0 20 13 14

8
o~ N
16.9994 8.9ms

N 12 N 13
70.55 122ms 99.7SB% 0.038~

N 14 N 15 N 16 N 17
0.104% 26,Ss

N18
ll.5J

N 19 (!;'-,
~ 7
....,0 ii 99.61% 0.17% 7,10:s 4,17%
14.0067

c
11.0IIH 9.97m 0,63'5 0.4h
~'S
~ 6 12.011
C9
127m1
C 10
19.35
C11
20.lm
C 12 C13
98.89% l.11%
C 14 C 15
mo,, 2.~5J
C 16
0.15,
11 12
,f
0
:i-.
5 8 88 89
-BE·1!h
810 B 11 812 B 13 B 14
'!7Jrru; 16m, ~~ ,s\
10.81 770m~ pm-ton 20%
""" 20.4rm
(!;'-, (!;c
c, 4 Be
19:01218
Be6
;~Jtl~I
Be 7 Be8
S3.l8d ..ll\~·~ti
Be 9 Be 10 Be 11
100% 1.6E6y 13.&
Be12
·11.'lm§
9 10 c: ~
3 Li Li 5 Li 6 Li 7 Li 8 Li 9 «.,,~ v"'
9.941 ... 1E·21i
proton 7S'?-lt 91',5'% 84'1m, mrm
o~ -~
2 He
4.00Z60
He 3 He4 He5
0.0001"-;., W:999?6'& -nt-22s
He6
noutrcin 80Snu
He B
122m~
7 8
§' ~~
1
- H
1,0079
H 1 H2
99.9S~% O.OIS%

n 1
10Am
HJ
1133)1
3 4 5 6 ~e;

0 1 2

Neutrons
Figure 2.5: Part of Nuclide Chart.

110 ,----:----::---,-,--~~----~~~-~-~~-~~~~
Each nuclide (nucleus) Figure 2.6: General
100 is placed on the chart
according to the number Decay of radionuclides
90 of protons and neutrons.,.__,___----t--
8 it has. Nuclides that are not
60
~ close to the line of
.8 70 t----t--t---t--t----11-----t--.of'--,
E stability are unstable and
0..
~ 60
'- undergo radioactive
i 50 t----t--t---t-+----:
z~ 40 ,___,__.,___.._
decay processes that
transfer them into
nuclides lying closer to
20
the line of stability
10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 60 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Number or Neutrons (N : A - Z)

Problems
1. How many protons, neutrons and electrons are there in the neutral mu
-n
atom?
12C
2. How many atoms are there in IO g of ?

3. For water of normal density, compute: (a) the number of H20 molecules per cm3 , (b) the
number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms per crn ', (c) the number of deuterium atoms per
cm 3.

2-10