Soil Mechanics

(Geotechnical Engineering)

Lecture 1:
• Introduction
• Soil-Particle size
• Particle size distribution

Prepared by: Franklin Joven Pasilbas, RCE

Introduction
The study of soil behavior under the influence of soil-water interactions and loading pressures is known as
Geotechnical Engineering. The design of earth dams, retaining walls, clay liners, foundations, and geosynthetics
for waste containment all make use of this information. The objectives of geotechnical engineers might include
everything from the planning of temporary excavation support and foundations to the choosing of routes for roads
and railroads, as well as the growing significance of groundwater contamination and waste disposal in landfills. In
order to ascertain the engineering qualities of site soils and other geomaterials and to subsequently employ them
in the analytical analysis of the issue at hand, the geotechnical engineer conducts field and laboratory
investigations.

Soil Mechanics – A discipline of engineering science which deals with the properties and behavior of soil as a
structural material.
Soil
• Naturally occurring material obtained from weathering or decomposition or disintegration of rocks

• A heterogeneous mixture of fluids (air and water) and particles (clay, sand, silt and gravel), sometimes it may
contain organic solids, liquids, gases and other matters.

A soil mass is commonly considered to consist of solid particles, enclosed voids or interspaces. Thus, there are two
constituents of soil

1. Solid particles

2. Voids

Soil Types:
• Dry soil – if only air is present in the voids of the compressed soil

• Saturated Soil – if only water is present in the voids

• Moist Soil – if the soil if partially filled with water

Soil – Particle Size
the sizes of particles that make up soil vary over a wide range. Soils generally are called gravel, sand, silt, or clay,
depending on the predominant size of particles within the soil. To describe soils by their particle size, several
organizations have developed particle-size classifications.

1. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

2. U.S Department of Agriculture (USDA)

3. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

4. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

Sieve Analysis
Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of sieves that have progressively smaller
openings.
Particle Size Distribution Curve
A particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the following four parameters for a given soil
• Effective size (D10): This parameter is the diameter in the particle-size distribution curve corresponding to 10% finer. The effective
size of a granular soil is a good measure to estimate the hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil.

• Uniformity coefficient (Cu): This parameter is defined as: ; where D60 = diameter corresponding to 60% finer.

• Coefficient of gradation (Cc): This parameter is defined as: ; where D30 = diameter corresponding to 30% finer.
Example 1:
The following are the results of a sieve analysis:

a. Determine D10, D30, and D60.

b. Calculate the uniformity coefficient, Cu.
c. Calculate the coefficient of gradation, Cc.
Example 2:
The results of sieve analysis of two sandy soils (A and B) are given below. Now, 6000 kg of Soil A is
thoroughly mixed with 4000 kg of Soil B.

a. Determine the uniformity coefficient (Cu)

a. Determine the coefficient of gradation (Cc)

Example 3:
The grain-size characteristics of a soil are given in the following table. Determine the percentages
of gravel, sand, silt, and clay according to

a. MIT system
b. USDA system
c. AASHTO system
Soil Mechanics
(Geotechnical Engineering)

Lecture 2: Weight – Volume Relationship

Prepared by: Franklin Joven Pasilbas, RCE

Weight – Volume Relationship
A given volume of soil in natural occurrence consists of solid particles and the
void spaces between the particles. The void space may be filled with air and/or water;
hence, soil is a three-phase system. If there is no water in the void space, it is a dry
soil. If the entire void space is filled with water, it is referred to as a saturated soil.
However, if the void is partially filled with water, it is a moist soil. Hence it is important
in all geotechnical engineering works to establish relationships between weight and
volume in a given soil mass.
• volume of a given soil sample can be expressed as:

Where:

Vs = volume of soil solids

Vv = volume of voids

Vw = volume of water in the voids

Va = volume of air in the voids

• Assuming that the weight of the air is negligible, we can

express the total weight of the sample as:

Where:

Ws = weight of soil solids

Ww = weight of water
The volume relationships commonly used for the three phases in a soil element

• Void ratio – is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids;

• Porosity –is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume;

• Degree of Saturation – is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids;

(it is commonly expressed as a percentage)

The relationship between void ratio and porosity can be derived from Eqs. (3.1), (3.3), and (3.4) as follows:
The common terms used for weight relationships are:

• Moisture Content – also referred to as water content is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids in a given
volume of soil;

• Unit Weight –is the weight of soil per unit volume;

The unit weight can also be expressed in terms of the weight of soil solids, the moisture content, and the total volume. From Eqs. (3.2),
(3.8), and (3.9),

Soil engineers sometimes refer to the unit weight defined by Eq. (3.9) as the moist unit weight.

Often, to solve earthwork problems, one must know the weight per unit volume of soil, excluding water. This weight is referred to as the
dry unit weight ;

From Eqs. (3.10) and (3.11), the relationship of unit weight, dry unit weight, and moisture content can be given as;
Density and Dry Density

Where:
ρ = density of soil (kg/m3)
ρd = dry density of soil (kg/m3)

M = total mass of the soil sample (kg)

Ms = mass of soil solids in the sample (kg)
Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture
Content, and Specific Gravity
To obtain a relationship among unit weight (or density), void ratio, and moisture content, let us consider a volume of soil in which the
volume of the soil solids is one, as shown in Figure 3.2. If the volume of the soil solids is 1, then the volume of voids

Specific Gravity (Gs) – is the ratio of the unit weight of a given material to the

Unit weight of water.

Now, using the definitions of unit weight and dry unit weight [Eqs. (3.9) and

(3.11)], we can write

Because the weight of water for the soil element under consideration is wGsgw, the volume occupied by water is;

Saturated Unit Weight in terms of e, w and Gs

Saturated – the void spaces is filled with water

Also, from Eq. (3.18) with S = 1,

Relative Density
The term relative density is commonly used to indicate the in situ denseness or looseness of granular
soil. It is defined as;

Where:
Dr = relative density, usually given as a percentage
e = in situ void ratio of the soil
emax = void ratio of the soil in the loosest state
emin = void ratio of the soil in the densest state
By using the definition of dry unit weight given in eq. 3.17, we can express relative density in terms of
maximum and minimum possible dry unit weights.
Example 1:
For a moist soil sample, the following are given.

Total volume: V = 1.2 m3

Total mass: M = 2350 kg
Moisture content: w = 8.6%
Specific gravity of soil solids: Gs = 2.71

Determine the following.

a. Moist density
b. Dry density
c. Void ratio
d. Porosity
e. Degree of saturation
f. Volume of water in the soil sample
Example 2:
The saturated unit weight and the water content in the field are found to be
18.55 kN/m3 and 33%, respectively. Determine the specific gravity of the soil
solids and the field void ratio.
Example 3:
A cylindrical soil sample prepared for laboratory testing has a diameter of 71
mm, a height of 142 mm, and weighs 10.675x10-3 kN. If the degree of saturation
is 93% and the specific gravity of soil solids is 2.71, Determine:

a. Void ratio
b. Water content
c. Water content under fully saturated condition
Example 4:
The mass of a moist soil sample collected from the field is 465 grams, and its
oven dry mass is 405.75 grams. The specific gravity of the soil solids was
determined in the laboratory to be 2.68. If the void ratio of the soil in the natural
state is 0.83, find the following:

a. The moist density of the soil in the field

b. The dry density of the soil in the field
c. The mass of water (in Kg) to be added per cubic meter of soil in the field for
saturation
Example 5:
A soil sample has a dry unit weight of 17.1 kN/m3 , a void ratio of 0.52 and water
content of 12.5%. Determine the following:
a. Specific gravity of soil
b. Submerged unit weight of soil
c. Dry unit weight at zero air voids
Example 6:
For a given sandy soil, emax = 0.75 and emin = 0.45, let Gs = 2.67. In the eld, the soil
is compacted to a moist unit weight of 19.62 kN/m3at a moisture content of 12%.
Determine the relative density of compaction
Soil Mechanics
(Geotechnical Engineering)

Lecture 3: Plasticity of Soil

• Atterberg’s Limits

Prepared by: Franklin Joven Pasilbas, RCE

Introduction
When clay minerals are present in fine-grained soil, the soil can be remolded in the
presence of some moisture without crumbling. This cohesive nature is caused by the ab
sorbed water surrounding the clay particles.
Atterberg developed a method to describe the consistency of fine-grained soils with
varying moisture contents. At a very low moisture content, soil behaves more like a solid.
When the moisture content is very high, the soil and water may flow like a liquid. Hence, on
an arbitrary basis, depending on the moisture content, the behavior of soil can be divided
into four basic states—solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid
The moisture content, in percent, at which the transition from solid to semisolid state takes
place is defined as the shrinkage limit. The moisture content at the point of transition from
semisolid to plastic state is the plastic limit, and from plastic to liquid state is the liquid limit.
These parameters are also known as Atterberg limits.
Liquid Limit (LL)
• Percussion cup method / Cassagrande cup method - This is the only method adopted by
ASTM (Test Designation D-4318) to determine the liquid limit of cohesive soils.
 The relationship between moisture content and log N is approximated as a straight
line. This line is referred to as the flow curve. The moisture content corresponding to N
= 25, determined from the flow curve, gives the liquid limit of the soil. The slope of the
flow line is defined as the flow index and may be written as:

Where:
IF = flow index
w1 = moisture content of soil, in percent, corresponding to N1
w2 = moisture content corresponding to N2

From the analysis of hundreds of liquid limit tests, the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers (1949) at the Waterways Experiment Station in Vicksburg,
Mississippi, proposed an empirical equation of the form:

Where:
N = number of blows in the liquid limit device for a 12.5 mm (groove closure)
wN = corresponding moisture content
tan β = 0.121 (but note that tan is not equal to 0.121 for all soils)
Example 1:
Given the laboratory results of the Atterberg’s Limits Test. The water content versus
the number of blows is shown in the figure, determine the following.

1. the nearest value of the Liquid Limit of soil.

Liquid Limit (LL)
• Fall cone method - Another method of determining liquid limit that is popular in Europe
and Asia is the fall cone method (British Standard—BS1377). In this test the liquid limit is
defined as the moisture content at which a standard cone of apex angle 30° and weight of
0.78 N will penetrate a distance d = 20 mm in 5 seconds when allowed to drop from a
position of point contact with the soil surface.
Due to the difficulty in achieving the liquid limit from a single test, four or more tests can
be conducted at various moisture contents to determine the fall cone penetration, d. A
semilogarithmic graph can then be plotted with moisture content (w) versus cone
penetration d. The plot results in a straight line. The moisture content corresponding to d =
20 mm is the liquid limit. The flow index can be defined as:

Where:

IFC = flow index

w1 = moisture content at cone penetration of d1
w2 = moisture content at cone penetration of d2
Example 2:
The liquid limit is determined from a soil sample using a cone penetrometer. the
results are tabulated below

1. Determine the liquid limit of the soil.

Water content Cone penetration (mm)

42.5 16.0
47.5 17.5
58.1 22.8
60.1 26.1
Plastic Limit (PL)
• The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content in percent, at which the soil crumbles plastic
limit is defined as the moisture content in percent, at which the soil crumbles, when rolled into
threads of 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) in diameter. The plastic limit is the lower limit of the plastic stage of
soil. The plastic limit test is simple and is per formed by repeated rolling of an ellipsoidal-sized
soil mass by hand on a ground glass plate. The procedure for the plastic limit test is given by
ASTM in Test Designation D-4318.
Example 2:
Given the laboratory results of the Atterberg’s Limits Test. The water content versus
the number of blows is shown in the figure, determine the following.

1. The nearest value of the Liquid Limit of soil.

2. The nearest value of the Plastic Limit of soil.
Example 3:
The liquid limit is determined from a soil sample using a cone penetrometer. the
results are tabulated below

1. Determine the liquid limit of the soil. Weight of moist Weight of oven
2. Determine the plastic limit of the soil. soil (g) dried soil (g)

Water content Cone penetration 128.5 115.5

(mm)
42.5 16.0 115.2 103.7

47.5 17.5 125.5 112.5

58.1 22.8 122.8 110.2

60.1 26.1 123.4 110.5

Shrinkage Limit (SL)
• Soil shrinks as moisture is gradually lost from it. With continuing loss of moisture, a stage of
equilibrium is reached at which more loss of moisture will result in no further volume change. The
moisture content, in percent, at which the volume of the soil mass ceases to change is defined as
the shrinkage limit.
Shrinkage Ratio (SR)
• the ratio of the volume change of soil as a percentage of the dry volume to the corresponding change in
moisture content, or

Where:
ΔV = change in volume
ΔM = corresponding change in the mass of moisture

Formula of Specific Gravity in terms of SL and SR:

Example 3:
Following are the result of shrinkage limit test:
Initial volume of wet soil = 24.6 cm3
Final volume of soil in a dry state = 15.9 cm3
Initial mass of wet soil = 44 g
Final mass in a dry state = 30.1 g
Determine the following:

1. Shrinkage limit of the soil

2. Shrinkage Ratio
3. Specific Gravity
Plasticity Index (PI)
• The plasticity index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit is the
difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit of a soil, or
Liquidity Index (LI)
• The relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the natural state can be defined by a ratio called the liquidity
index, which is given by

Where:
W = in situ moisture content of soil
The in situ moisture content for a sensitive clay may be greater than the liquid limit
• LI > 1 – Liquid
• LI < 0 – solid
• 0 < LI < 1 - Plastic
Consistency Index (CI)
• Another index that is commonly used for engineering purposes is the consistency index (CI), which may be
defined as

Activity
• Because the plasticity of soil is caused by the adsorbed water that surrounds the clay particles, we can
expect that the type of clay minerals and their proportional amounts in a soil will affect the liquid and
plastic limits. Skempton (1953) observed that the plasticity index of a soil increases linearly with the
percentage of clay-size fraction (%finer than 2 m by weight) present. The correlations of PI with the clay-
size fractions for different clays plot separate lines. This difference is due to the diverse plasticity
characteristics of the various types of clay minerals. On the basis of these results, Skempton defined a
quantity called activity, which is the slope of the line correlating PI and % finer than 2μm. This activity may
be expressed as
Example 4:
A silty clay has a plastic limit of 25 and a plasticity index of 30. If the clay has a
liquidity index of 0.20

1. Compute the water content of the clay.

2. Compute the degree of saturation if the sp.gr. of the clay is 2.70 and a void
ratio of 0.92
3. Compute the moist unit weight of the clay if the void ratio is 0.92, Gs = 2.70
Example 5:
Laboratory test results for a sample of clay soil for the purpose of evaluating the
potential for volume change are as shown.

Liquid Limit = 68%

Plastic Limit = 24%
Particles smaller than 0.002 mm. = 44%

1. Compute the plasticity index

2. Indicate the activity classification for this clay
3. The rate of the volume change potential
Example 6:
The following are results from the liquid and plastic limit test for a soil.

No. of blows Moisture Content

(N) (%)
15 42
20 40.8
28 39.1

The plastic limit is 18.7%

1. Compute the liquid limit

2. What is the plasticity index of the soil
3. What is the liquidity index if the water content is 24%
4. What is the consistency index
Example 7:
In a liquid limit, using a cone penetrometer, the following readings were recorded and tabulated as
shown.

Trial σwet (kN/m3) σdry (kN/m3) Moisture Content Cone penetration

(%) (mm)
1 128.6 105.4
42.5 16.0
2 141.4 116.8
47.5 17.5
3 132.6 109.6
58.1 22.8
4 134.5 111.2
60.0 26.0
5 136.0 113.4

1. Determine the liquid limit of the soil.

2. Determine the plasticity index of the soil
3. If the natural water content of the soil is 38%, determine the liquidity index.
Soil Mechanics
(Geotechnical Engineering)

Lecture 4: Soil Classification

• USCS
• USDA
• AASHTO

Prepared by: Franklin Joven Pasilbas, RCE

Unified Soil Classification (USCS)
• A complete classification by USCS consists of:

I. Group Symbol

II. Group Name

The symbol and name are descriptive – they communicate specific information to fellow engineers

Symbols in USCS: Plasticity Index: Gravels:

G – gravel L – Low plasticity Cu ≥ 4 and 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3, well-graded

S – sand H – high plasticity otherwise, poorly graded

M – silt Gradation Symbols: Sands:

C – clay W – well graded Cu ≥ 6 and 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3, well-graded

O – organic silts and clays P – poorly graded otherwise, poorly graded

Pt – peat, muck and highly organic soil

Example 1:
For an inorganic soil, the following grain-size analysis is given.

For this soil, LL = 23 and PI = 19. Classify the soil by using Unified soil classification
system. Give group symbol and group name.
U.S Department of Agriculture (USDA)
The use of this chart can best be demonstrated by an example. If the
particle size distribution of soil A shows 30% sand, 40% silt, and 30%
clay-size particles, its textural classification can be determined by
proceeding in the manner indicated by the arrows in Figure 5.1. This
soil falls into the zone of clay loam. Note that this chart

is based on only the fraction of soil that passes through the No. 10
sieve. Hence, if the particle-size distribution of a soil is such that a
certain percentage of the soil particles is larger than 2 mm in diameter,
a correction will be necessary. For example, if soil B has a particle-size
distribution of 20% gravel, 10% sand, 30% silt, and 40% clay, the
modified textural compositions are

On the basis of the preceding modified percentages, the USDA textural

classification is clay (see Figure 5.1). However, because of the large
percentage of gravel, it may be called gravelly clay. Several other
textural classification systems are also used, but they are no longer
useful for civil engineering purposes.
Example 1:
Classify the following soils according to the USDA textural classification system.
American Association of state Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO)
Soil is classified into seven major groups. (A-1 to A-7)

• Soils classified under groups: A-1, A-2, and A-3 are granular materials of which 35% or less of the particles pass
through the No. 200 sieve.

• Soils of which more than 35% pass through the No. 200 sieve are classified under groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7

To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material, one must also incorporate a number called the group
index (GI) with the groups and subgroups of the soil. This index is written in parentheses after the group or subgroup
designation. The group index is given by the equation

Where:

F200 = percentage passing through the No. 200 sieve.

LL = Liquid Limit

PI = Plasticity Index
1. If Eq. (5.1) yields a negative value for GI, it is taken as 0.
2. The group index calculated from Eq. (5.1) is rounded off to the nearest whole number (for
example, GI = 3.4 is rounded off to 3; GI = 3.5 is rounded off to 4).
3. There is no upper limit for the group index.
4. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 is always 0.
5. When calculating the group index for soils that belong to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the partial
group index for PI, or
Example 1:
Classify the following soil using AASHTO. Write each condition that is satisfied for each classification.

Sieve. (%) (Finer)

No.
4 100

8 90

10 77

20 59

40 51

80 42

100 35

200 33

LL 46

PL 29
Problem 1: Problem 3:

Problem 2: