Page 1 of 10

Basics 1

DNA Bases vs. RNA Bases 2

Nucleotides 2

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) 2

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) 3

Gene, Chromosome, and Genome 3

Protein Synthesis 3

RNA Processing 4

Micro RNA and Gene Silencing 5

miRNA Biogenesis 5

Mechanism of Gene Silencing 5

Role of miRNA in Cellular Function 5

Virus 6

Structure of Virus and Its Components 6

Viral Infection Mechanism 6

RNA and DNA Viruses 7

DNA Viruses 7

Immunity and its Types 7

Types of Immunity 8

Adaptive Immunity and its Types 8

Different Types of B Cells and T Cells 9

Other Types of Cells in Immunity 10

Basics
Nitrogenous Bases Nitrogenous bases are an essential component of
nucleotides, which form the structural units of nucleic acids. These bases play
a crucial role in the storage and transmission of genetic information by
forming specific base pairs that maintain the stability and integrity of DNA
and RNA structures. Additionally, the specific pairing of these bases ensures
accurate replication of genetic material during cell division and the proper
transcription of genetic information into RNA. These bases are classified into
two categories:
Purines: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G). Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine
(T) in DNA, and Uracil (U) in RNA.
 Page 2 of 10

DNA Bases vs. RNA Bases

In DNA, the nitrogenous bases are Adenine (A), Thymine (T),
Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G). In RNA, the bases include Adenine
(A), Uracil (U), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G).
The base pairing in DNA occurs through hydrogen bonds, where
Adenine pairs with Thymine (A-T), and Cytosine pairs with Guanine
(C-G). In RNA, Adenine pairs with Uracil (A-U), while Cytosine still
pairs with Guanine (C-G). These specific pairings are crucial for
maintaining the integrity of genetic information during processes like
DNA replication and RNA transcription. Base pairing also contributes
to the stability of the double-stranded DNA structure and facilitates
accurate protein synthesis by ensuring the correct sequence of
nucleotides.

Nucleotides
Nucleotides are the fundamental building blocks of nucleic acids.
They are composed of three main components:
 Nitrogenous Base: Nitrogenous bases can be categorized as
either purines or pyrimidines. Purines include adenine and
guanine and Pyrimidines consist of cytosine, thymine (found
only in DNA), and uracil (found only in RNA). These bases
determine the genetic code and are involved in base pairing,
which is critical for DNA replication and RNA transcription.
 Pentose Sugar: A five-carbon sugar, which is deoxyribose in
DNA and ribose in RNA. Deoxyribose, found in DNA, has one
less oxygen atom compared to ribose, making DNA more
chemically stable. The type of sugar present in the nucleotide
distinguishes DNA from RNA and influences their respective
stability and functions, with DNA being more stable due to the
absence of the hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose.
 Phosphate Group: One or more phosphate groups attached to
the sugar, forming the backbone of nucleic acid chains. The phosphate group is responsible for linking nucleotides
together via phosphodiester bonds, which provide structural stability to the nucleic acid strands.
Nucleotides are linked to form long chains that constitute the strands of DNA and RNA.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

DNA is the hereditary material found in the nucleus of cells. DNA
has the following characteristics:
 Structure: Double-stranded and forms a double helix.
 Components: Nucleotides with deoxyribose sugar, and
nitrogenous bases adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and
guanine (G). The sequence of these bases encodes the genetic
information of an organism.
 Function: It encodes genetic information used to produce
proteins and regulate cellular processes. DNA also ensures
the accurate transmission of genetic information from one
generation to the next during reproduction.
 Page 3 of 10

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

RNA plays a critical role in protein synthesis and gene
regulation. It serves as the messenger that transfers
genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for
protein synthesis. RNA has these characteristics:
 Structure: Usually single-stranded. However, RNA
can form secondary structures, such as hairpins, due
to base pairing within the strand.
 Components: Nucleotides with ribose sugar, and
nitrogenous bases adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine
(C), and guanine (G). The presence of ribose makes
RNA more reactive and less stable compared to
DNA.
 Types of RNA:
o mRNA (Messenger RNA): Carries the genetic code from DNA. mRNA serves as a template for protein
synthesis during translation.
o rRNA (Ribosomal RNA): Forms the core of ribosomes. rRNA is essential for ribosome structure and
function, facilitating the assembly of amino acids into proteins.
o tRNA (Transfer RNA): Transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis. tRNA ensures that the
correct amino acid is added to the growing polypeptide chain based on the codon sequence in mRNA.

Gene, Chromosome, and Genome

 Gene: A sequence of nucleotides in DNA that encodes a functional product, usually a protein. Genes are the basic
units of heredity, and their expression determines the traits of an organism. Genes also play a role in regulating
various cellular processes and responses to environmental stimuli.
 Chromosome: Thread-like structures of coiled DNA and proteins, organizing and compacting genetic material
within the cell nucleus. Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). Chromosomes ensure that DNA is accurately
replicated and distributed during cell division.
 Genome: The entire genetic material of an organism, including
all genes and non-coding DNA sequences. The human genome
contains around 3 billion base pairs and 20,000-25,000 genes.
The genome provides the complete set of instructions needed
for an organism's growth, development, and functioning.

Protein Synthesis
Protein synthesis, involving transcription, translation, and folding,
creates proteins essential for cellular functions, forming the
proteome—the complete set of expressed proteins in a cell or
organism. This process is fundamental to life, as proteins play roles
in structure, catalysis, and signaling. Advances in synthetic biology
enable designing artificial genetic systems to produce novel or
enhanced proteins, opening new avenues in medicine,
biotechnology, and industrial applications.

Stage 1: Transcription
 During this the genetic information encoded in DNA is
transcribed to create messenger RNA (mRNA).
 This stage occurs in the cell nucleus and is catalyzed by the
enzyme RNA polymerase.
 Page 4 of 10
o RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of the DNA and unwinds the double helix to expose the gene
sequence.
o The enzyme synthesizes a complementary RNA strand from the DNA template, adding ribonucleotides that
are complementary to the DNA sequence.
 Transcription results in the production of a pre-mature mRNA molecule, which contains both coding and non-
coding sequences.
o The coding regions, known as exons, hold the information required to synthesize a protein.
o The non-coding regions, called introns, do not hold coding information and must be removed before the
mRNA can proceed to the next stage.

RNA Processing
 After transcription, the pre-mature mRNA undergoes a
series of modifications, collectively referred to as RNA
processing.
o Splicing: Introns are removed from the pre-mature
mRNA, and the exons are joined together.
 This process is carried out by a complex of proteins and
RNA known as the spliceosome.
 The resulting mRNA now contains only the coding
sequences necessary for protein synthesis.
 Once these modifications are complete, the mRNA is
referred to as mature mRNA and becomes part of the
transcriptome, representing the complete set of RNA
transcripts in the cell. It is then ready to be transported
to the cytoplasm for translation.

Stage 2: Translation
 The next stage of protein synthesis is
translation, during which the mature
mRNA is used as a template to assemble
amino acids into a polypeptide chain.
 This process takes place in the cytoplasm
at the ribosome, a cellular structure
composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and
proteins.
Translation involves three key phases:
initiation, elongation, and termination.
 Initiation: The ribosome binds to the
mRNA at the start codon (typically
AUG), which signals the beginning of
translation.
 Elongation: Amino acids are brought to
the ribosome by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules.
o The ribosome moves along the mRNA, and peptide bonds are formed between the amino acids, creating a
growing polypeptide chain.
 Termination: When the ribosome reaches a stop codon on the mRNA (such as UAA, UAG, or UGA), translation
ends.
 Page 5 of 10
Stage 3: Protein Folding
 Protein folding is the final step of protein synthesis, where the polypeptide chain folds into its functional three-
dimensional structure, essential for its activity. Chaperone proteins assist in correct folding and prevent
misfolding.
 Proper folding is crucial for function, while misfolding can lead to diseases like Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s.
Misfolded proteins are marked for degradation by the proteasome, maintaining cellular health.
 In 2024, Demis Hassabis and John Jumper were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developing AlphaFold,
an AI system capable of accurately predicting protein structures from amino acid sequences.

Micro RNA and Gene Silencing

Micro RNA (miRNA) is a class of small, non-coding RNA molecules, typically 20–25 nucleotides long, that play a
critical role in regulating gene expression. In 2024, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was jointly awarded to
Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun for their groundbreaking discovery of microRNA (miRNA) and its role in post-
transcriptional gene regulation. Their work has been instrumental in understanding how miRNAs regulate gene
expression and their therapeutic potential in treating diseases. miRNAs achieve gene silencing by binding to
messenger RNA (mRNA) and inhibiting its translation or promoting its degradation. This regulatory mechanism is
fundamental for cellular processes such as development, differentiation, and maintaining homeostasis.

miRNA Biogenesis
 miRNA is initially transcribed in the nucleus as part of a long primary transcript known as pri-miRNA, which
may contain one or more miRNA sequences. The transcription is typically performed by RNA polymerase II.
 Drosha, an RNase III enzyme, along with its cofactor DGCR8 (DiGeorge Syndrome Critical Region 8, also known
as Pasha), processes pri-miRNA into a smaller precursor called pre-miRNA. Drosha cleaves the pri-miRNA
within the nucleus to produce a hairpin-shaped pre-miRNA of about 70 nucleotides. The pre-miRNA is then
exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm by the Exportin-5 protein, which recognizes the characteristic
structure of the pre-miRNA and facilitates its transport through the nuclear pore.
 In the cytoplasm, the Dicer enzyme, another RNase protein, further cleaves the pre-miRNA of approximately 20-
25 nucleotides. Dicer processes the pre-miRNA into a double-stranded miRNA intermediate.
 One strand of this miRNA duplex, referred to as the guide strand, is preferentially incorporated into the RNA-
induced silencing complex (RISC), where it acts to guide the complex to target mRNAs. The other strand, known
as the passenger strand or miRNA strand*, is usually degraded.

Mechanism of Gene Silencing

1. Target Recognition
o The guide miRNA in the RISC binds to complementary sequences in the target mRNA.
2. Inhibition of Translation
o miRNA blocks the translation machinery, preventing the mRNA from being translated into protein.
3. mRNA Degradation
o The RISC complex may facilitate the cleavage of mRNA, leading to its degradation.
o The extent of silencing depends on the complementarity between the miRNA and the mRNA.

Role of miRNA in Cellular Function

miRNAs regulate diverse biological processes, including:
 Development: Ensuring proper differentiation and morphogenesis.
 Apoptosis: Controlling programmed cell death.
 Immune Response: Modulating immune cell activity and inflammation.
 Page 6 of 10
Dysregulation of miRNAs is implicated in various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and
neurodegenerative disorders, highlighting their importance in maintaining cellular health.

Virus
A virus is a microscopic infectious agent that can only replicate inside the living cells of a host organism. Viruses infect
all forms of life, including animals, plants, and microorganisms like bacteria. Unlike living organisms, viruses lack
cellular structures and metabolic machinery, relying entirely on their host for survival and replication.

Structure of Virus and Its Components

Viruses exhibit diverse structures but share common
components:

Capsid:
 A protein shell that encloses the viral genome.
 Composed of protein subunits called capsomeres,
providing protection to the nucleic acid.

Genetic Material:
 Either DNA or RNA, but not both.
 Can be single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds), linear or circular.

Envelope (Optional):
 A lipid bilayer derived from the host cell membrane.
 Contains viral glycoproteins that mediate host recognition and entry.

Viral Proteins:
 Enzymes such as reverse transcriptase (in retroviruses) or polymerases to facilitate replication.

Surface Receptors (Spikes):

 Specialized proteins on the capsid or envelope.
 Help in recognizing and binding to specific host cell receptors.

Viral Infection Mechanism

1. Host Cell Receptors and Entry
o Recognition and Binding: Viruses recognize specific receptors on the host cell surface (e.g., ACE2 for SARS-
CoV-2).
o Entry Mechanisms:
 Endocytosis: Viruses enter through vesicles formed from the host cell membrane.
 Membrane Fusion: Envelope viruses fuse directly with the host cell membrane.
2. Viral Replication Steps
o Attachment: Virus binds to the host cell receptor using surface proteins.
o Penetration: Viral genetic material enters the host cytoplasm.
o Uncoating: The viral capsid disassembles, releasing genetic material.
o Replication and Transcription:
 Host machinery replicates viral nucleic acids and synthesizes viral proteins.
 Enzymes like RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase may be involved.
 Page 7 of 10
o Assembly: Newly synthesized viral components are assembled into virions.
o Release: Viruses exit the host cell by budding (enveloped viruses) or lysis (non-enveloped viruses).

RNA and DNA Viruses

RNA Viruses
 Characteristics:
o Use RNA as their genetic material.
o Replication occurs in the cytoplasm.
 Mechanism of Infection:
o Viral RNA is released into the host cell.
o Retroviruses (e.g., HIV): Use reverse transcriptase to convert RNA into DNA, which integrates into the host
genome.

Mechanism of Infection
 Viral RNA or DNA Release into Host Cell:
o Viruses introduce their genetic material (RNA or DNA) into the host cell after attachment and entry.
o For RNA viruses, the genetic material is released directly into the cytoplasm for translation or replication.
 Retroviruses (e.g., HIV):
o These viruses carry RNA as their genetic material.
o Use reverse transcriptase, an enzyme that converts viral RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA).
o The cDNA integrates into the host genome, allowing the virus to hijack the host's transcription machinery for
replication.

DNA Viruses
 Characteristics:
o Use DNA as their genetic material.
o Replication occurs in the host cell nucleus.
 Mechanism of Infection:
o Viral DNA is transported into the nucleus.
o Transcription of viral DNA to mRNA occurs using host RNA polymerase.
o mRNA is translated into viral proteins.
o New DNA is synthesized using host or viral DNA polymerase.
 Adenoviruses:
o Adenoviruses are non-enveloped DNA viruses.
o The viral DNA is transported to the host cell nucleus upon entry.
o Host cell polymerases transcribe the viral DNA into mRNA, which is then translated into viral proteins in
the cytoplasm.
o The replicated viral DNA and proteins assemble into new virions, which are released by cell lysis.

Immunity and its Types

Definition: Immunity refers to the body's ability to recognize, neutralize, and eliminate harmful pathogens such as
bacteria, viruses, fungi, toxins, and antigens. Antigens are substances, often proteins, found on the surface of
pathogens, that trigger an immune response in the body.
 Page 8 of 10

Types of Immunity
1. Innate Immunity
o Definition: Also known as non-specific immunity, innate immunity is the first line of defense against
pathogens. It is present from birth and does not require prior exposure to a pathogen to be effective.
o Key Features:
 Rapid response (minutes to hours).
 Non-specific to pathogens.
 Lacks memory of previous encounters.
o Components:
 Physical barriers: Skin, mucous membranes. Example: The skin acts as a barrier to prevent bacterial
entry, while mucous traps dust and microbes.
 Chemical barriers: Stomach acid, enzymes in tears and saliva. Example: Lysozyme in saliva breaks
down bacterial cell walls.
 Cellular defenses: Phagocytes (e.g., macrophages, neutrophils), natural killer (NK) cells, and dendritic
cells. Example: Macrophages engulf pathogens during bacterial infections like tuberculosis.
 Proteins: Interferons. Example: Interferons are produced in response to viral infections like influenza.
2. Adaptive Immunity
o Definition: Also known as specific immunity, this type develops over time and provides a targeted response
to specific pathogens.
o Key Features:
 Slower initial response (days).
 Highly specific to pathogens.
 Has immunological memory, enabling faster responses upon re-exposure.
o Subtypes:
 Humoral Immunity: Mediated by B cells and antibodies.
 Cell-mediated Immunity: Mediated by T cells.

Adaptive Immunity and its Types

1. Active Immunity
o Definition: Immunity developed through direct exposure to an antigen.
o Examples:
 Natural: Recovery from an infection (e.g., chickenpox).
 Artificial: Vaccination (e.g., measles vaccine).
2. Passive Immunity
o Definition: Immunity acquired through transfer of antibodies or immune cells.
o Examples:
 Natural: Maternal antibodies passed to a baby through breast milk.
 Artificial: Administration of immunoglobulin (e.g., for rabies exposure).
3. Humoral Immunity
o Mediated by: B cells and antibodies.
o Mechanism:
 Page 9 of 10
 B cells recognize antigens and differentiate into plasma cells.
 Plasma cells secrete antibodies to neutralize pathogens.
o Key Players: Antibodies
o Example: IgE antibodies are involved in allergic reactions like hay fever.
4. Cell-mediated Immunity
o Mediated by: T cells.
o Mechanism:
 Cytotoxic T cells directly destroy infected or abnormal cells.
 Helper T cells release cytokines to recruit and activate other immune cells.
o Key Players: CD4+ T cells (helper T cells), CD8+ T cells (cytotoxic T cells).
o Example: Cytotoxic T cells kill virus-infected cells during diseases like HIV.

Different Types of B Cells and T Cells

B Cells
1. Plasma Cells
o Differentiated B cells specialized in producing antibodies.
o Short-lived but produce large quantities of specific antibodies.
o Example: Plasma cells produce antibodies against tetanus toxin.
2. Memory B Cells
o Long-lived cells that "remember" a pathogen for faster antibody production upon re-exposure.
o Example: Memory B cells respond quickly during a second dengue virus infection.
3. Regulatory B Cells (Bregs)
o Involved in suppressing immune responses to prevent excessive inflammation and autoimmune reactions.
o Example: Regulatory B cells suppress autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis.

T Cells
1. Helper T Cells (CD4+ T Cells)
o Activate B cells, cytotoxic T cells, and macrophages.
o Example: combat intracellular pathogens like Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
2. Cytotoxic T Cells (CD8+ T Cells)
o Directly destroy infected, cancerous, or foreign cells by inducing apoptosis.
o Example: Cytotoxic T cells kill hepatitis B virus-infected liver cells.
3. Regulatory T Cells (Tregs)
o Suppress immune responses to maintain self-tolerance and prevent autoimmune diseases.
o Example: Tregs prevent excessive inflammation in Crohn's disease.
4. Memory T Cells
o Long-lived cells that ensure faster and stronger responses upon re-infection.
o Example: Memory T cells respond to recurring influenza infections.
5. Natural Killer T Cells (NKT)
o Bridge innate and adaptive immunity by recognizing lipid antigens and producing cytokines.
o Example: NKT cells respond to bacterial infections like Listeria monocytogenes.
 Page 10 of 10

Other Types of Cells in Immunity

1. Macrophages
o Phagocytose and digest pathogens.
o Present antigens to T cells to activate adaptive immunity.
o Example: Macrophages engulf bacteria in infections like tuberculosis.
2. Dendritic Cells
o Capture and present antigens to T cells, serving as key initiators of adaptive immunity.
o Example: Dendritic cells activate T cells during viral infections like influenza.
3. Natural Killer (NK) Cells
o Kill virus-infected cells and tumor cells without prior sensitization.
o Release perforins and granzymes to induce apoptosis.
o Example: NK cells target tumor cells in cancers like leukemia.
4. Mast Cells and Basophils
o Release histamine and other mediators during allergic reactions and inflammation.
o Example: Mast cells release histamine in conditions like hay fever.

