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Rashtreeya Sikshana Samithi Trust

RV Institute of Technology and Management®
(Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
JP Nagar, Bengaluru - 560076

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Course Name: Control Engineering

Course Code: 21ME72

VII Semester
2021 Scheme

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MODULE-1
Introduction: Components of a control system, Open loop and closed loop systems.
Types of controllers: Proportional, Integral, Differential, Proportional-Integral, and Proportional-
Integral Differential controllers.
Modelling of Physical Systems: Mathematical Models of Mechanical, Electrical, Thermal,
Hydraulic Systems.

Contents
1.1 Background ...........................................................................................................................................3
1.2 Definitions .............................................................................................................................................3
1.3 Advantages ............................................................................................................................................5
1.4 Disadvantages .......................................................................................................................................5
1.5 Real Time Applications of Closed Loop System ................................................................................6
1.6 Comparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop Control System ...................................................... 14
1.7 Requirements of good control system .............................................................................................. 14
1.8 Types of controllers ........................................................................................................................... 15
1.9 Modeling of Mechanical Systems ..................................................................................................... 27

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1.1 Background

In recent years, concept of automatic control has achieved a very important position in advancement
of modem science. Automatic control systems have played an important role in the advancement and
improvement of engineering skills.
Practically, every activity in our day to day life is influenced by some sort of control system. Concept
of control systems also plays an important role in the working of space vehicles, satellites, guided
missiles etc. Such control systems are now integral part of the modem industrialization, industrial
processes and home appliances. Control systems are found in number of practical applications like
computerised control systems, transportation systems, power systems, temperature limiting systems,
robotics etc.
Hence for an engineer it is absolutely necessary to get familiar with the analysis and designing
methods of such control systems.
This chapter includes the concept of system and control system. Then it gives the classification of
control systems. It includes the discussion of various types of control systems supported with number
of real time applications.

1.2 Definitions

To understand the meaning of the word control system, first we will define the word system and then
we will by to define the word control system.
System: A system is a combination or an arrangement of different physical components which act
together as an entire unit to achieve certain objective.
Every physical object is actually a system. A classroom is a good example of physical system. A
room along with the combination of benches, blackboard, fans, lighting arrangement etc. can be called
a classroom which acts as an elementary system.
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Example of a system is a lamp. A lamp made up of glass, filament is a physical system. Similarly
a kite made up of paper and sticks is an example of a physical system. Similarly system can be of
any type i.e. physical, ecological, biological etc
In such system, output or part of the output is feedback to the input for comparison with the
reference input applied to it.
Closed loop system can be represented as shown in the Fig.1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Representation of closed loop control system

The various signals are,

r(t) = Reference input e(t) = Error signal

c(t) = Controlled output m(t) = Manipulated signal b(t) = Feedback signal

It is not possible in all the systems that available signal can be applied as input to the
system. Depending upon nature of controller and plant it is required to reduce it or amplify
it or to change its nature i.e. making it discrete from continuous type of signal etc. This
changed input as per requirement is called reference input which is to be generated by using
reference transducer. The main excitation to the system is called its command input which
is then applied to the reference transducer to generate reference input.

Practically many electronic integrated circuits work on the d.c. Voltage range
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of 5 to 10 V. The supply available is 230 V a.c. Hence the reference input voltage in the
range of 5 to 10 V d.c. is obtained from the command input 230 V a.c. and proper recafying
unit.

The part of output, which is to be decided by feedback element is feedback to the reference
input. The signal which is output of feedback element is called ’feedback signal’ b(t).

It is then compared with the reference input giving error signal e(t) = r(t) ± b(t)

When feedback sign is positive, systems are called positive feedback systems and if it is
negative systems are called negative feedback systems.

This error signal is then modified by controller and decides the proportional manipulated
signal for the process to be controlled.
This manipulation is such that error will approach zero. This signal then actuates the actual
system and produces an output. As output is controlled one, hence called controlled output
c(t).

1.3 Advantages
The advantages or closed loop system arc,

1. Accuracy of such system is always very high because controller modifies and
manipulates the actuating signal Stich that error in the system will be zero.
2. Such system senses environmental changes, as well as internal disturbances and accordingly
modifies the error.
3. In such system, there is reduced effect of non-linearities and distortions.
4. Bandwidth of such .system i.e. operating frequency zone for such system is very high.

1.4 Disadvantages
The disadvantages of closed loop system are,

1. Such systems are complicated and time consuming from design point of view and hence
costlier.
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2. Due to feedback, system tries to correct the error from time to time. Tendency to
overcorrect the error may cause oscillations without bound in the system. Hence system
has to be designed taking into consideration problems ‹›f instability due to feedback.
The stability problems are severe and must be taken care of while designing the system.

1.5 Real Time Applications of Closed Loop System

1.5.1 Human Being
The best example is human being. If a person wants to reach for a book on the table,
clocked loop system can be represented as in the Fig. 1.2.
Position of the book is given as the reference. Feedback signal from eyes, compares the
actual position of hands with reference position. Error signal is given to brain. Brain
manipulates this error and gives signal to the hands. This process continues till the position
of the hands get achieved appropriately.

Fig. 1.2 Human being

1.5.2 Home Heating System

In this system, the heating system is operated by a valve. The actual temperature is sensed
by a thermal sensor and compared with the desired temperature. This difference between the
two, actuates the valve mechanism to change the temperature as per the requirement. As
shown in Fig. 1.3
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Fig. 1.3 Domestic heating system

1.5.3 Ship Stabilization System

In this system a roll sensor is used as a feedback element. The desired roll position is

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Fig. 1.4 Ship stabilization system

elected as 8 while actual roll position is 0 which is compared with 0, to generate
controlling signal. This activates fin actuator in proper way to stabilize the ship, as shown in Figs
1.4. and 1.5.

Fig. 1.5 Ship stabilization system block diagram

1.5.4 Manual Speed Control System

A locomotive operator driving a train is a good example of a manual speed control system. The
objective is to maintain the speed equal to the speed limits set. The entire system is shown in
the block diagram in the Fig. 1.6.

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Fig. 1.6. Manual speed control system

1.5.5 DC Motor Speed Control

Fig. 1.7 Speed control system

The D.C. shunt motor is used where field current is kept constant arid armature voltage is changed
to obtain the desired speed. The feedback is taken by speed tachometer. This generates voltage

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proportional to speed which is compared with voltage required to the desired speed. This difference
is used to change the input to controller which cumulatively changes the speed of the motor as
required. As shown in Fig 1.7 and 1.8

Fig. 1.8 Speed control system

1.5.6 Temperature Control System

The aim is to maintain hot water temperature constant. Water is coming with constant flow rate.
Steam is coming from a valve. Pressure thermometer ‘P’ is used as a feedback element which sends
a signal for comparison with the set point. This error actuates the valve which controls the rate
of flow of steam, eventually controlling the temperature of the water as shown in Figs 1.9 and
1.10.

Fig. 1.9 Temperature control system

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Fig. 1.10 Temperature control system

1.5.7 Missile Launching System

This is sophisticated example of military applications of feedback control. The enemy plane is
sighted by a radar which continuously tracks the path of the aero plane. The launch computer
calculates the firing angle in terms of launch command, which when amplified drives the launcher.
The launcher angular position is the feedback to the launch computer and the missile is triggered
when error between the command signal arid missiles firing angle becomes zero. The system is
shown in the Fig. 1.11.

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Fig. 1.11 Missile launching system

1.5.8 Voltage Stabilizer

Supply voltage required for various single phase appliances must be constant and high fluctuations
are generally not permitted. Voltage stabilizer is a device which accepts variable voltage and outputs
a fixed voltage.

Principle of such stabilizer is based on controlling number of secondary turns as per requirement to
increase or decrease the output Voltage. The actual output voltage is sensed by a transformer and
potential divider arrangement. The reference voltage is selected proportional to the desired output
level. Thu actual output is compared with this to generate error which in turn is inputted to the
controller. The controller takes the proper decision to increase or decrease the number of turns so as
to adjust the output voltage. The scheme is shown in the Fig. 1.12.

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Fig. 1.12 Voltage Stabilizer

The other examples of closed loop system are machine tool position control, positioning of
radio and optical telescopes, auto pilots for aircrafts, inertial guidance system, automatic electric
iron, railway reservation status display, sun seeker solar system, water level controllers, temperature
control system. So in closed loop feedback control systems cause and effect relationship between
input and output exists.

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1.6 Comparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop Control System

1.7 Requirements of good control system

Requirements of good control system are,

1. Accuracy: Accuracy must be very high as error arising should be corrected. Accuracy can be
improved by the use of feedback element

2. Sensitivity: A good control system senses quick changes in the output due to an environment,
parametric changes, internal and external disturbances

3. Noise: Noise: Noise is a unwanted signal and a good control system should be sensitive to these
type of disturbances

4. Stability: The stable systems has bounded input and bounded output. A good control system should
response to the undesirable changes in the stability
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5. Bandwidth: To obtain a good frequency response, bandwidth of a system should be large

6. Speed: A good control system should have high speed that is the output of the system should be
fast as possible

7. Oscillations: For a good control system oscillation in the output should be constant and must follow
Barkhausein's Criteria. (According to Barkhausen criterion for sustained oscillation: The magnitude
of the product of open loop gain of the amplifier and the magnitude of the feedback factor is unity,
i.e., where A is the gain of the amplifying element in the circuit and is the transfer function of the
feedback path.)

1.8 Types of controllers

An automatic controller compares the actual value of the system output with the reference input
(desired value), determines the deviation, and produces a control signal that will reduce the deviation
to zero or a small value. The manner in which the automatic controller produces the control signal is
called the control action. The controllers may be classified according to their control actions as,

1. Proportional controllers.

2. Integral controllers.

3. Proportional-plus- integral controllers.

4. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers.

5. Proportional-plus- integral-plus-derivative controllers

A proportional control system is a feedback control system in which the output forcing function is
directly proportional to error. Proportional control mode: In this the output of the controller is
proportional to the error e(t). The relation between the error e(t) and the controller output p is
determined by the constant called proportional gain constant denoted as Kp. The output of the
controller is a linear function of the error e(t). The range of the error which covers 0% to 100%
controller output is called proportional band.

Though there exists linear relation between controller output and the error, the controller output
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should not be zero, otherwise the process will come to halt. Hence there exists some controller output
po for the zero error. Hence mathematically proportional control mode is expressed as

Where Kp = proportional gain constant

po = controller output with zero error The error can be positive or negative because error r-
b can be less or greater than reference set point r.

If the controlled variable i.e., input to the controller increases, causing increase in the controller
output, the action is called direct action. If the controlled variable decreases, causing increase in the
controller output or increase in the controller variable, causing decrease in the controller output, the
action is called reverse action.

So if e(t) is –ve then Kp e(t) gets subtracted from po and if e(t) is positive, then Kp e(t) gets added to
po, this is reverse action. The error can be positive or negative because error r-b can be less or greater
than reference setpoint r.

If the controlled variable i.e., input to the controller increases, causing increase in the controller
output, the action is called direct action. If the controlled variable decreases, causing increase in the
controller output or increase in the controller variable, causing decrease in the controller output, the
action is called reverse action. So if e(t) is –ve then Kp e(t) gets subtracted from po and if e(t) is
positive, then Kp e(t) gets added to po, this is reverse action.

Offset: The major disadvantage of proportional control mode is that it produces an offset error in the
output. When the load changes, the output deviates from the set point. Such a deviation is called offset
error or steady state error. The offset error depends on the reaction rate of the controller. Slow reaction
rate produces small offset error while fast reaction rate produces large offset error, shown in Fig 1.13.

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Fig. 1.13 Offset error in proportional mode

Applications:

1. Manual reset of the operating point is possible.

2. Load changes are small.

3. The dead time exists in the system is small.

A integral control system is a feedback control system in which the output forcing function is directly
proportional to the first time integral of error. Integral control mode: In this controller, the value of
the controller output p(t) is changed at a rate which is proportional to the actuating error signal e(t).
Mathematically it is expressed as, Where, Ki = constant relating error and rate or integral constant.
Integrating the above equation, actual controller output at any time t can be obtained as, Where, p(0)
= controller output when integral action starts i.e. at t = 0. The output signal from the controller, at
any instant is the area under the actual error signal curve up to that instant. If the value of the error is
doubled, the value of p(t) varies twice as fast i.e. rate of the controller output change also doubles
shown in Figs 1.14 and 1.15.

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Fig 1.14 Integral Mode

Step response of integral mode:

Fig 1.15 Step Response

Characteristics of Integral mode:

1. If error is zero, the output remains at a fixed value equal to what it was, when the error became
zero.

2. If the error is not zero, then the output begins to increase or decrease, at a rate Ki% per second for
every +or-1% of error. The inverse of Ki is called integral time Ti.

Ti = 1/Ki

A proportional-plus-integral control system is a feedback control system in which the output forcing
function is a linear combination of the error and its first time derivative. This is composite control
mode obtained by combining the proportional mode and the integral mode. The mathematical

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expression for such a composite control is,

Where p(0) = Initial value of the output at t = 0. The important advantage of this control is that one
to one correspondence of proportional mode is available while the offset gets eliminated due to
integral mode, the integral part of such composite control provides a reset of the zero error output
after a load change occurs. This is composite control mode obtained by combining the proportional
mode and the integral mode. The mathematical expression for such a composite control is, Where
p(0) = Initial value of the output at t = 0. The important advantage of this control is that one to one
correspondence of proportional mode is available while the offset gets eliminated due to integral
mode, the integral part of such composite control provides a reset of the zero error output after a load
change occurs. The response of composite PI control mode for the reverse action is shown in the fig
1.16 and 1.17.

Fig 1.16 The response of composite PI control mode for the reverse action

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Fig 1.17 Error versus Time

Characteristic of PI mode:

1. When the error is zero, the controller output is fixed at the value that integral mode had when the
error went to zero. This is nothing but p(0).

2. When the error is not zero, proportional mode adds the correction while the integral term starts
increasing or decreasing from its initial value depending upon the reverse or direct action.

3. It improves the steady state efficiency.

4. It increases the rise time so response becomes slow.

5. It decreases bandwidth of the system. 6. It filters out the high frequency noise.

7. It makes the response oscillatory.

Applications: PI mode completely removes the offset problems of proportional mode. Such a mode
can be used in the systems with the frequent or large load changes. But the process must have
relatively slow changes in the load, to prevent the oscillations. A proportional-plus- derivative control
system is a feedback control system in which the output forcing function is a linear combination of
the error and its first time integral. Proportional – Derivative Mode (PD Control Mode): The series
combination of proportional and derivative control modes gives proportional plus derivative control
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mode. The mathematical expression for the PD composite control is,

The behaviour of such a PD control to a ramp type of the input is shown in fig. The ramp function of
error occurs at t = t1. The derivative mode causes a step Vd at t1 and proportional mode causes a rise
of Vp equal to Vd at t2. This is for direct action PD control.

Fig 1.18 Error versus Time

Fig below shows the behaviour of PD control for the arbitrary load changes for reverse action. For
the reverse action, the controller output is image of the error for the proportional mode. While
derivative mode causes sudden increase or decrease in the output corresponding to decrease or
increase in the error. This mode cannot eliminate the offset of the proportional mode shown in Figs
1.18 and 1.19.

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Fig 1.19 Error Vs Time

Characteristics of PD mode:

1. It improves the damping and reduces overshoot.

2. It reduces the rise time and makes response fast.

3. It makes the response stable very fast.

4. It improves the bandwidth of the system.

5. It cannot eliminate offset error.

6. It may make the noise dominant at high frequencies.

7. It is not very effective for lightly damped systems. 8. It may require a relatively large capacitor
while the circuit implementation.

Applications:

It cannot eliminate offset error of proportional mode. But it can be used to handle fast process load
changes if offset error is tolerable. It is used in many industrial process control systems.

A proportional-plus-derivative-plus- integral control system is a feedback control system in which

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the output forcing function is a linear combination of the error, its first time derivative and its first
time integral. The composite controller including the combination of the proportional, integral and
derivative control mode is called PID control mode and the controller is called three mode controller.
It is very much complex to design but very powerful in action. Mathematically such a control mode
can be expressed as,

Where p(0) = Initial value of the output.

The integral mode eliminates the offset error of the proportional mode and the response is also very
fast due to derivative mode. The sudden response is produced due to derivative mode. Thus it can be
used for any process condition. The fig shows the response of PID control for a particular error signal,
assuming direct action. Fig 1.20 shows the response of various control modes to unit step load change
and Figs 1.21 and 1.22 shows controller plot.

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Fig 1.20 The response of various control modes to unit step load change.

Fig 1.21 Controller

 The proportional and PD control produces the offset error. It requires significant time to attain
the steady state.
 The PI control eliminates the offset but at the expense of the higher maximum overshoot, a

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long period of oscillation and more settling time.

 The PD control produces the steady state very quickly with least oscillations and smallest
maximum overshoot but offset is significant.
 With PID control, there is no offset and system achieves the steady state with less settling
time.
 Therefore PID is the ultimate process composite controller.

Fig 1.22 Controller

Modelling of Control Systems the first step in the design and the analysis of control system is to
build physical and mathematical models. A control system being a collection of several physical
systems (sub systems) which may be of mechanical, electrical electronic, thermal, hydraulic or
pneumatic type. No physical system can be represented in its full intricacies. Idealizing
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assumptions are always made for the purpose of analysis and synthesis. An idealized
representation of physical system is called a Physical Model. Control systems being dynamic
systems in nature require a quantitative mathematical Description of the system for analysis. This
process of obtaining the desired mathematical description of the system is called Mathematical
Modeling. In Unit 1, we have learnt the basic concepts of control systems such as open loop and
feedback control systems, different types of Control systems like regulator systems, follow-up
systems and servo mechanisms. We have also discussed a few simple applications. In this chapter
we learn the concepts of modelling.

The requirements demanded by every control system are many and depend on the system under
consideration. Major requirements are 1) Stability 2) Accuracy and 3) Speed of Response. An
ideal control system would be stable, would provide absolute accuracy (maintain zero error
despite disturbances) and would respond instantaneously to a change in the reference variable.
Such a system cannot, of course, be produced. However, study of automatic control system theory
would provide the insight necessary to make the most effective compromises so that the engineer
can design the best possible system. One of the important steps in the study of control systems is
modeling. Following section presents modeling aspects of various systems that find application
in control engineering. The basic models of dynamic physical systems are differential equations
obtained by the application of appropriate laws of nature. Having obtained the differential
equations and where possible the numerical values of parameters, one can proceed with the
analysis. When the mathematical model of a physical system is solved for various input
conditions, the results represent the dynamic response of the system. The mathematical model of
a system is linear, if it obeys the principle of superposition and homogeneity. A mathematical
model is linear, if the differential equation describing it has coefficients, which are either functions
of the independent variable or are constants. If the coefficients of the describing differential
equations are functions of time (the independent variable), then the mathematical model is linear
time varying. On the other hand, if the coefficients of the describing differential equations are
constants, the model is linear time-invariant. Powerful mathematical tools like the Fourier and

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Laplace transformations are available for use in linear systems. Unfortunately no physical system
in nature is perfectly linear. Therefore certain assumptions must always be made to get a linear
model. Usually control systems are complex. As a first approximation a simplified model is built
to get a general feeling for the solution. However, improved model which can give better accuracy
can then be obtained for a complete analysis. Compromise has to be made between simplicity of
the model and accuracy. It is difficult to consider all the details for mathematical analysis. Only
most important features are considered to predict behavior of the system under specified
conditions. A more complete model may be then built for complete analysis.

1.9 Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Mechanical systems can be idealized as spring- mass-damper systems and the governing
differential equations can be obtained on the basis of Newton’s second law of motion, which
states that F = ma: for rectilinear motion

where F: Force, m: mass and a: acceleration (with consistent units) T = I α: or Jα for rotary motion
where T: Torque, I or J: moment of inertia and α: angular acceleration (with consistent units)
Mass / inertia and the springs are the energy storage elements where in energy can be stored and
retrieved without loss and hence referred as conservative elements. Damper represents the energy
loss (energy absorption) in the system and hence is referred as dissipative element. Depending
upon the choice of variables and the coordinate system, a given physical model may lead to
different mathematical models. The minimum number of independent coordinates required to
determine completely the positions of all parts of a system at any instant of time defines the
degrees of freedom (DOF) of the system. A large number of practical systems can be described
using a finite number of degrees of freedom and are referred as discrete or lumped parameter
systems. Some systems, especially those involving continuous elastic members, have an infinite
number of degrees of freedom and are referred as continuous or distributed systems. Most of the
time, continuous systems are approximated as discrete systems, and solutions are obtained in a
simpler manner. Although treatment of a system as continuous gives exact results, the analysis
methods available for dealing with continuous systems are limited to a narrow selection of
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problems. Hence most of the practical systems are studied by treating them as finite lumped
masses, springs and dampers. In general, more accurate results are obtained by increasing the
number of masses, springs and dampers-that is, by increasing the number of degrees of freedom.
Mechanical systems can be of two types: 1) Translation Systems 2) Rotational Systems. The
variables that described the motion are displacement, velocity and acceleration. And also we have
three parametersMass which is represented by ‘M’. Coefficient of viscous friction which is
represented by ‘B’. Spring constant which is represented by ‘K’. In rotational mechanical type of
systems we have three variablesTorque which is represented by ‘T’. Angular velocity which is
represented by ‘ω’ Angular displacement represented by ‘θ’ Now let us consider the linear
displacement mechanical system which is shown in Fig 1.23.

Fig 1.23 Mechanical System

We have already marked various variables in the diagram itself. We have x is the displacement
as shown in the diagram. From the Newton’s second law of motion, we can write force as

From the diagram we can see that the, F = F1+F2+F3 On substituting the values of F1, F2 and F3
in the above equation and taking the Laplace transform we have the transfer function as

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Mathematical Modeling of Electrical System: In electrical type of systems we have three variables

 Voltage which is represented by ‘V’.

 Current which is represented by ‘I’.

 Charge which is represented by ‘Q’. And also we have three parameters which are active and
passive elements –

 Resistance which is represented by ‘R’.

 Capacitance which is represented by ‘C’.

 Inductance which is represented by ‘L’. Now we are in condition to derive analogy between
electrical and mechanical types of systems. There are two types of analogies and they are written
below:

a). Force Voltage Analogy:

In order to understand this type of analogy, let us consider a circuit which consists of series
combination of resistor, inductor and capacitor. As shown in Fig 1.24.

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Fig 1.24 Circuit diagram

A voltage V is connected in series with these elements as shown in the circuit diagram. Now from the
circuit diagram and with the help of KVL equation we write the expression for voltage in terms of
charge, resistance, capacitor and inductor as, A voltage V is connected in series with these elements
as shown in the circuit diagram. Now from the circuit diagram and with the help of KVL equation we
write the expression for voltage in terms of charge, resistance, capacitor and inductor as,

Now comparing the above with that we have derived for the mechanical system we find that1. Mass
(M) is analogous to inductance (L). 2. Force is analogous to voltage V. 3. Displacement (x) is
analogous to charge (Q). 4. Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to resistance R and 5. Spring
constant is analogous to inverse of the capacitor (C). This analogy is known as force voltage analogy

b) Force Current Analogy : In order to understand this type of analogy, let us consider a circuit
which consists of parallel combination of resistor, inductor and capacitor. As shown in Fig 1.25.

Fig 1.25 Circuit diagram

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A voltage E is connected in parallel with these elements as shown in the circuit diagram. Now from
the circuit diagram and with the help of KCL equation we write the expression for current in terms of
flux, resistance, capacitor and inductor as,

Now comparing the above with that we have derived for the mechanical system we find that,
1. Mass (M) is analogous to Capacitor (C).
2. Force is analogous to current I.
3. Displacement (x) is analogous to flux (ψ).
4. Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to resistance 1/ R and
5. Spring constant K is analogous to inverse of the inductor (L). This analogy is known as force
current analogy.
c). Transfer Functions definition
The transfer function of a control system is defined as the ration of the Laplace transform of the output
variable to Laplace transform of the input variable assuming all initial conditions to be zero.

2.7. Block Diagram: A control system may consist of a number of components. In order to show the
functions performed by each component in control engineering, we commonly use a diagram called
the Block Diagram. A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the function
performed by each component and of the flow of signals. Such a diagram depicts the interrelationships
which exists between the various components. A block diagram has the advantage of indicating more
realistically the signal flows of the actual system. In a block diagram all system variables are linked
to each other through functional blocks. The ―Functional Block or simply ―Block is a symbol for
the mathematical operation on the input signal to the block which produces the output. The transfer
functions of the components are usually entered in the corresponding blocks, which are connected by

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arrows to indicate the direction of flow of signals. Note that signal can pass only in the direction of
arrows. Thus a block diagram of a control system explicitly shows a unilateral property. Block
diagram of a closed loop system. As shown in Fig 1.26.

Fig. 1.26 Block diagram

The output C(s) is fed back to the summing point, where it is compared with reference input R(s).
The closed loop nature is indicated in fig1.3. Any linear system may be represented by a block
diagram consisting of blocks, summing points and branch points. A branch is the point from which
the output signal from a block diagram goes concurrently to other blocks or summing points. When
the output is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the input, it is necessary to convert
the form of output signal to that of he input signal. This conversion is followed by the feedback
element whose transfer function is H(s) as shown in fig 1.4. Another important role of the feedback
element is to modify the output before it is compared with the input. The ratio of the feedback signal
B(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the open loop transfer function. Open loop transfer
function = B(s)/E(s) = G(s)H(s) The ratio of the output C(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called
the feed forward transfer function. Feed forward transfer function = C(s)/E(s) = G(s) If the feedback
transfer function is unity, then the open loop and feed forward transfer function are the same. For the
system shown in Fig1.4, the output C(s) and input R(s) are related as follows.

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C(s)/R(s) is called the closed loop transfer function. The output of the closed loop system clearly
depends on both the closed loop transfer function and the nature of the input. If the feedback signal
is positive, then

VII Semester 21ME72-Control Engineering 33