1.

Matrices
Definition: A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. The number in the array
are called the elements of the matrix.

2. Addition, Scalar multiplication, and multiplication of matrices

A convenient notation has been developed for working with matrices. The
location of an element in a matrix is described by giving the row and column in
which it lies. The element in row i, column j of the matrix A is denoted a ij .
a ij

1st subscript 2nd subscript

indicates row
Indicates column

We refer to a ij as the (i , j) the element of the matrix A . We can visualize an

arbitrary m ×n matrix A , as in Figure 2.1.

If the number of rows m is equal to the number of columns n, A is said to be a

square matrix.

The elements of a square matrix A where the subscripts are equal namely
a 11 , a22 , … , ann form the main diagonal, see Figure 2.2

[ ][ ]
a11 a12 ⋯ a1 n a11 a12 ⋯ a1 n
a a22 … a2 n a a 22 … a2 n
A= 21 A= 21
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
a m 1 am 2 ¿ amn a n1 an 2 ¿ a nn

Figure 2.1 (m ×n ¿ ¿ Figure 2.2 ( squre n ×n ¿ ¿

2.1Addition of matrix
Definition: Let A and B be matrices of the same size. The sum A+ B is the
matrix obtained by adding together the corresponding elements of A and B.

The matrix A+ B will be the same size as A and B. If A and B are not the same
size, they cannot be added, and we say that the sum does not exist.

Thus if C= A+ B , then C ij =aij +bij

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2.2Scolar multiplication of Matrices

Definition: Let A be A matrix and c be a scalar. The scalar multiple of A by c IS

The matrix cA will be the same size as A
Thus if B=cA , then bij =c aij

2.3 Multiplication of Matrices

Definition: Let the number of columns in a matrix A be the same as the number
of rows in a matrix B. The product AB then exists. The element in row i and
column j of AB is obtained by multiplying the corresponding elements of row i
of A and column j of B and adding the products.

If the number of columns in A does not equal the number of rows in B; we say
that the product is not exist.

Let A have n columns and B has n rows the ith row of A is [ a i1 ai 2 … a ¿ ] and

[]
b1 j
b
the jth column of B is ⋮2 j .
bnj

Thus C= AB ,then c ij =ai 1 b1 j +a i2 b2 j+ … a¿ b mj

3. Size of a product Matrix

If A is a m ×r Matrix and B is an r ×n matrix, then AB will be an m ×n matrix.

We can picture this result as follows:

Am × r B r ×n

Outsides gives size of AB

5. Special matrices

Definition : A zero matrix is A matrix in which all the elements are zeros.

A diagonal matrix is a square matrix in which all the element not on the main
diagonal are zero. An identity matrix is A diagonal matrix in which every
diagonal element is 1. See figure 2.3

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 [ ] [ ][ ]
0 0… 0 0 0 ⋯ 0 1 0… 0
0 0 0 a22 … 0 0 0
O= 0… , A= A= , I n= 1…
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
0 0… 0 0 0 ¿ ann 0 0… 1

O is zero matrix, A is diagonal matrix I n is identity matrix

6.Algebraic Properties of Matrix Operations

Theorem 1

Let A , B and C be a matrices and a , b and c be scalars. Assume that the sizes of
the matrices are such that the operations can be performed.

Proprties of Matrix Addition and Scalar multiplication.

1. A+ B=B+ A Commutative property of addition.

2. A+ ( B+C )=( A+ B ) +C Associative property of addition.
3. A+O=O+ A= A (Where O is the appropriate zero matrix).
4. c ( A + B )=cA +cB Distributive Property of addition.
5. ( a+ b ) C=aC+ bC Distributive Property of addition.
6. (ab)C=a(bC).

Properties of matrix multiplication

1. A ( BC )=( AB ) C C Associative property of multiplication.

2. = A ( B+C )=AB+ AC Distributive Property of multiplication.
3. ( A+ B ) C=AC +BC Distributive Property of multiplication.
4. A I n=I n A=A (Where I n is the appropriate identity matrix).
5. c ( AB ) =( cA ) B=A (cB).

Note: AB≠ BA in general multiplication not commutative.

System of Linear Equation

We can write a general system of m lnear equations in n variables using matrix

notation as follows.
a11 x 1+ …+a1 n x n=b1
⋮⋯
a m1 x 1 +…+ amn xn =bm

Represent each side as a column matrix,

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 [ ][ ]
a11 x 1 +…+ a1 n x n b1
⋮⋯ = ⋮
a m1 x 1 +…+ amn x n bm

The left matrix can be written as a product of the matrix of coefficients A and a
column matrix of Variables X . Let the column matrix of constants be B.
AX B

[ ][ ] [ ]
a11 + …+a 1n x1 b1
⋮ ⋯⋮ ⋮ = ⋮
a m1+ …+a mn x n bm

Thus we can write the system of equation in matrix form:

AX=B

For example
3 x 1+2 x 2−5 x 3=7

x 1−8 x 2+ 4 x 3=9

2 x1 +6 x 2−7 x 3=−2

Can be written

[ ][ ] [ ]
3 2 −5 x 1 7
1 −8 4 x 2 = 9
2 6 −7 x3 −2

We now ready to continue the discussion of linear equations. We can use

matrices to describe systems of linear equations. There are two important
matrices associated with every system of linear equations .The coefficients of
the variables matrix is called the matrix of coefficients of the system. The
coefficients, together with the constant terms, form a matrix called the
augmented matrix of the system. For example, the matrix of coefficients and the
augmented matrix of the following system of linear equations are as shown
x 1+ x2 + x 3=2

2 x1 +3 x 2 + x3 =3

x 1−x 2−2 x3 =−6

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 [ ][ ]
1 1 1 1 1 1 2
2 3 1 2 3 1 3
1 −1 −2 1 −1 −2 −6

Matrix of coefficients Augmented matrix

Observe that the matrix of coefficients is a submatrix of the augmented matrix.

The augmented matrix completely describes the system.

Transformation called elementary transformations can be used to change the

system of linear equations onto another system of linear equations that has the
same solution. These transformations are used to solve system of linear
equations by eliminating variables x 1 , x 2 , x 3, at each stage. System of linear
equations are often described and manipulated on computers in terms of such
matrices.

These transformations are as the follows

Elementary Transformations

1. Interchange two equations.

2. Multiply both sides of an equation by a nonzero constant.
3. Add a multiple of the elements of one row to the corresponding elements
of another row.

System of equations are related through elementary transformations are called

equivalent systems. Matrices that are related through elementary row operations
are called row equivalent matrices. The symbol ≈ is used to indicate equivalence
in both cases.

Elementary transformations preserve solutions, Since the order of the equations

does not affect the solution., multiplying an equation throughout by a nonzero
constant does not change the truth of the equality, and adding equal quantities to
both sides of an equality results in an equality.

The method of Gauss-Joradan elimination uses elementary transformations to

elevate variables in a systematic manner, until we arrive at a system that gives
the solution. We will illustrate Gauss-Jordan

Eliminations of the method, side by side in the following example. The reader
should note that the way in wihich the variables are eliminated in the equations

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in the left column. At the same time observe how this is accomplished in tems
of matrices in the right column by creating zero in certain locations.

Gauss-Jordan Elimination

We will now discuss the Method in its more general setting, where the number
of equations can differ from the Number of variables and where there can be a
unique solution, many solutions, or no Solutions. Our approach again will be to
start from the augmented matrix of the given System and to perform a sequence
of elementary row operations that will result in a Simpler matrix (the reduced
echelon form), which leads directly to the solution.

We now give the general definition of reduced echelon form. The reader will
observe that the reduced echelon forms discussed in the previous section all
conform to This definition. Gauss-Jordan Elimination.

DEFINITION

A matrix is in reduced echelon form if:

1. Any rows consisting entirely of zeros are grouped at the bottom of the
matrix.
2. The first nonzero element of each other row is 1. This element is called a
leading 1.
3. The leading 1 of each row after the first is positioned to the right of the
leading1ofthe previous row.
4. All other elements in a column that contains a leading 1 are zero.
The following matrices are all in reduced echelon form.

[ ][ ][ ][ ]
1 0 8 1 0 0 7 1 4 0 0 1 2 3 0
0 1 2 0 1 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 9 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

The following matrices are not in reduced echelon form

[ ][ ][ ]
1 2 0 4 1 2 0 3 0 1 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 0 0 0 1 4
0 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 3

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 There are usually many sequences of row operations that can be used to
transform a given matrix to reduced echelon form--they all, however, lead to the
same reduced echelon form. We say that the reduced echelon form of a matrix
is unique, The method of Gauss-Jordan elimination is an important systematic
way (called an algorithm) for arriving at the reduced echelon form. It can be
programmed on a computer. We now Summarize the method, then give
examples of its implementation.

Gauss-Jordan Elimination

1. Write down the augmented matrix of the system of linear equations.

2. Derive the reduced echelon form of the augmented matrix using
elementary row operations. This is done by creating leading 1s, then
zeros above and below each leading 1, column by column starting with
the first column.
3. Write down the system of equations corresponding to the reduced echelon
form. This system gives the solution.
We stress the importance of mastering this algorithm. Not only is getting the
correct solution important, the method of arriving at the solution is important.
We will, for example, be interested in the efficiency of this algorithm (the
number of additions and Multiplications used) and comparing it with other
algorithms that can be used to solve systems of linear equations.

Homogeneous Systems of Linear Equations

A system of linear equations is said to be homogeneous if all the constant terms

are zeros.As we proceed in the course we shall find that homogeneous systems
of linear equations have many interesting properties and play a key role in our
discussions.

The following system is a homogeneous system of linear equations.

x +2 x 2−5 x 3=0

−2 x 1−3 x 2 +6 x 3=0

Observe that x 1=0 , x 2=0 , x3 =0 is a solution to this system. It is apparent that this
result can be extended as follows to any homogeneous system of equations.

THEOREM
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A system of homogenous linear equations in n variables always has the solution
X 1 =0 , x 2=0 ,=..=x n=0. This solution is called the trivial solution.