Theory of flight

ACTIVE LOAD CONTROL

As the aircraft maneuvers through the atmosphere, numerous dynamic loads are
generated. To counter these loads to a degree, engineers have developed active load
control techniques. Active load control is a system whereby the stresses placed on
the wings are redistributed to reduce the focus of the loads encountered during
maneuvers involving rolls. During a roll, stresses on the wing increase as the g-
load increases with bank angle. A standard approach to withstanding the additional
loads is to make the wing stronger. Such reinforcement techniques add weight to the
structure and empty weight of the airplane. Incorporating a system whereby the
loads may be alleviated saves weight on the structural design of the aircraft. One
example of an active load control system is the roll maneuver load alleviation
(RMLA) approach. The RMLA network varies control surfaces deflections and
extensions based roll command given by the pilot. Using the flexibility of the wing
and torsional load placed on the wing structure, the RMLA system moderates or
eliminates the deflection of the outboard aileron during rolls and relies on the
deflection of the inboard ailerons and movement of leading edge flight control
surfaces. A variety of scenarios must be met depending on the speed of the aircraft
and aggressiveness of the control input. In the realm of fighter aircraft, active
load control systems may be implemented to increase the roll rate of the aircraft
at high speeds. Such increases in the maneuverability of the aircraft present
distinct advantages. In the future, the aviation community will likely encounter a
host of flight control systems available through the incorporation of advanced
construction techniques and electronics.

LIFT DUMP AND SPEED BRAKES

Lift decreasing devices are the speed brakes and spoilers.
In some installations, there are two types of spoilers.
Ground spoilers are extended only after the aircraft is on the ground, thereby
assisting in the braking action.
Flight spoilers assists in lateral control by being extended whenever the aileron
on the same wing is deflected upward from neutral.
When actuated as speed brakes, the spoiler panels on both wings raise up. In-flight
spoilers may also be located along the sides, underneath the fuselage, or back at
the tail. In some aircraft designs, the wing panel on the up aileron side rises
more than the wing panel on the down aileron side. This provides speed brake
operation and lateral control simultaneously.

MECHANICAL CONTROL
This is the basic type of system that was used to control early aircraft and is
currently used in smaller aircraft where aerodynamic forces acting on the controls
are not
excessive. The controls are mechanical and manually operated by the pilot.
The mechanical system of controlling an aircraft can include cables, push-pull
tubes, bell cranks, levers, jackscrews, cable drums, and torque tubes. The cable
system is the most widely used because deflections of the structure to which it is
attached do not affect its operation. Some aircraft incorporate control systems that
are a combination of mechanical
control mechanisms. These systems incorporate cable assemblies, cable guides,
linkages, bell cranks, push-pull
tubes, torque tubes, adjustable stops, and control surface snubbers or mechanical
locking devices. Surface locking devices, usually referred to as gust locks, limit
external wind forces from damaging the control system while the
aircraft is parked or tied down.

HYDROMECHANICAL
CONTROL
As the size, complexity, and speed of aircraft increased, actuation of controls in
flight became more difficult to perform strictly using physical strength. It soon
became apparent that the pilot needed assistance to overcome the aerodynamic forces
encountered by the control surfaces in order to control the aircraft. Spring tabs,
which were operated by the conventional control system, were moved so that the
airflow over them actually moved the primary control surface. This was
sufficient for the aircraft operating in the lowest of the high-speed ranges
(250±300 mph). For higher speeds, a
power-assisted (hydraulic) control system was designed and implemented.
Conventional cable or push-pull tube systems link the flight deck controls with the
hydraulic system. With the system activated, the pilot's movement of a
control causes the mechanical link to open and close servo valves, thereby
directing hydraulic fluid to and from actuators, which convert hydraulic pressure
into
control surface movements. Because of the mechanical advantage of the
hydromechanical flight control system,
the pilot cannot feel the aerodynamic forces acting on the control surfaces, and
there is a risk of overstressing
the structure of the aircraft. To overcome this problem, aircraft designers
incorporated artificial feel systems
into the design that provides increased resistance to the controls at higher
speeds. In essence, the artificial feel
simulates what the pilot would sense in terms of control system input if the
aircraft did not have a hydraulic control network. Additionally, some aircraft with
hydraulically powered control systems are fitted with a device called a stick
shaker, which provides an artificial stall warning to the pilot. Large aircraft
often have the mechanical control network connected to the flight control as a
back-up means of
controlling the aircraft in the event of a hydraulic system failure or failure of
the hydraulic control system. Often,
aircraft are designed with multiple hydraulic actuation systems with the mechanical
back-up to ensure that the crew is able to control the aircraft.

ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONIC CONTROLS
Modern aircraft have widely adopted electronics in their flight control systems.
Normally multiple computers are incorporated in the control network with computers
interfacing with autopilots, auto-landing, auto-speed braking, flaps, stall
warning, ground proximity system,
and etc. Regardless of the intricacy of computers involved in the control of the
aircraft, their main function is to
translate the control inputs made by the crew into actual control surface
deflections. Electric trim is often found to control the position of the horizontal
stabilizer. To
make the trimming operation convenient, the switches to operate the trim is located
in the control yoke asshown in the figure below. Pilots must activate both switches
simultaneously to engage the trim
motor(s). A mechanical means of elevator trim is also provided on most aircraft.
This mechanism is commonly
found on the pedestal and drives the trim transmission using flexible cables. On
many airplanes, the mechanical trim system moves when the horizontal stabilizer is
trimmed via the pilot controlled electrical switches or when the autopilot trims
the stabilizer. Because the horizontal trim system is able to pitch the airplane
nose up or down in a commanding fashion,
some aircraft are equipped with a horizontal stabilizer trim brake system. This
mechanism arrests the motion of the stabilizer during trimming operations when
the movement of the elevator control inputted by the pilot opposes the direction of
trim. Electrical controls may further serve as a back-up system. In the figures
below, the hydraulic motor normally drives the flap transmission. In the event of a
complete hydraulic failure or fluid depletion, the crew may operate the flaps using
an electric motor to power the flap transmission. The ability to extend flaps for
landing enhances the safety of the

PNEUMATIC
Figure 7-20 shows another technique for assisting in the movement of a control
surface of a large aircraft. It is called balance panel. Not visible when
approaching the aircraft, it is positioned in the linkage that hinges the control
surface to the aircraft. Balance panels have been constructed typically of aluminum
skin-covered frame assemblies or aluminum honeycomb structures. The trailing edge
of the location where the flight control is mounted is sealed to allow controlled
airflow in and out of the hinge area where the balance panel is located. In
essence, two chambers are established. The pressure differential generated by the
deflection of the control surface allows the balance panel to assist in the
movement of the flight control. When the control surface is moved from the neutral
position, differential pressure builds up across the balance panel. This differential
pressure acts on the balance panel in a direction that assists in the control
surface movement. For flight control surface movements, deflecting the control tab
at the trailing edge of the surface is undemanding enough to not require
significant assistance from the balance panel. But, as greater deflection is
commanded, the force resisting control tab and control surface movement becomes
greater and assistance from the balance panel is needed.

ARTIFICIAL FEEL
Aircraft that use purely mechanical f light control systems do not require
artificial feel on the controls. The resistance transmitted through the control
system provides the pilot with a natural feel regarding the
magnitude of control input and associated stresses placed on the aircraft. Aircraft
that
move control surfaces solely by hydromechanical and/ or electromechanical means
deprive the pilot of the feel
of a mechanical control system. Consequently, the load or resistance generated by
the flight control surface as it
is deflected into the airstream is not directly transmitted to the pilot. As a
substitute, aircraft manufacturers have developed artificial feel systems to
provide feedback
regarding control input. Without artificial feel, pilots could generate high levels
of loads on the aircraft structure without realizing it. Mechanisms used to
produce artificial feel may be mechanical. A common approach is to use a spring-
loaded roller that fits into the valley of a flattened v-shaped cam. As the control
input is
increased, the roller rides higher up the side of the cam, thereby increasing the
spring resistance felt by the pilot.

YAW DAMPER
One common control system is the yaw damper used onmany large aircraft. Typically
associated with aircraft
using swept wings that generate a motion referred toas a Dutch roll, the purpose of
the yaw damper system is to counter the rolling tendency of the aircraft during
flight. Yaw dampers work when the aircraft is controlled manually by the light crew
or during operations involving the autopilot. The yaw damper system provides
inputs to the rudder in proportion to the yaw rate of the aircraft and in a
direction that negates the oscillations that would otherwise take place during
flight. Aside
from increasing the stability of the aircraft, the yaw damper provides a smoother
ride for the passengers.

MACH TRIM
Airfoils traveling at low subsonic speeds have a center of pressure acting on the
wing that is approximately one-quarter the distance of the chord, aft of the
leading
edge. The center of pressure does not move much until the aircraft begins traveling
at high speeds. When the aircraft passes through the air at speeds around Mach
0.7 and above, the center of pressure begins to move aft on the wing. As aircraft
approach the speed of sound,
their form may further accelerate the air flowing overthe wings and other portions
of the aircraft. When the aircraft reaches its critical Mach number, shock waves
may develop over the wing. The area in front of the shock waves develops high lift.
This action continues to travel aft as the aircraft gains more speed. The
rearward movement of the lift production causes the aircraft to experience Mach
tuck resulting in a nose down flight attitude.
To counter Mach tuck and keep the aircraft flying in a level attitude, Mach trim is
incorporated in the control network. Mach, or the speed of sound, is not a constant
value. The speed of sound varies largely with changesin temperature.
Another factor that enters the controllability of the airplane involves coffin
corner. The operation of the airplane enters coffin corner when the stall speed of
the aircraft flying at high altitudes for a given weight and load factor approaches
the critical Mach number.

Aircraft entering the coffin corner configuration may be very difficult to keep in
stable flight. Any reduction of airspeed will cause the plane to stall and any
increase
of airspeed will generate a loss of lift due to entering critical Mach. Pilots
strive to keep the airplane out of the portion of the flight envelope known as
coffin corner.

Mach trim basically trims the nose of the aircraft up as Mach tuck begins to act on
the aircraft. Most systems of Mach trim are automatic in that the flight crew does
not have to manually change trim settings. The crewmay notice changes in trim as
the control network implements Mach trim input. To ensure the crew does not lose
Mach trim during flight, airplanes will typically have redundant Mach trim systems.

RUDDER LIMITER
Airplanes that have a relatively low speed range (e.g.,200 knots) generally do not
need flight control networks that limit control surface travel at higher speeds.
The
structure of such airplanes is capable of absorbing the loads generated by large
control surface deflections. But airplanes that are capable of traveling at high
speeds
(e.g., in excess of 350 knots) would require an extensive amount of structural
reinforcement to handle the load generated by large control deflections. Such
addition to the structure results in extra weight. To combat the need for excess
structure, many high-speed aircraft resort to limiting control surface deflection
during high-speed operation. This is similar to operating an automobile. When
traveling along a highway at high speeds, the driver does not apply large inputs to
the steering wheel, but rather small inputs. The same automobile may need full
steering deflection while traveling at low speeds as in the example of parking.
Some aircraft reduce the travel available to the rudder based on the speed of the
aircraft. At low speeds the need for substantial rudder travel is required. At high
speeds (e.g., above 250 knots) the effectiveness of the rudder is increased, thereby
reducing the need for large deflections. For the same number of degrees of rudder
deflection, the load placed on the structure increases with the speed of the
aircraft. Consequently, aggressive rudder def lections at high speeds may exceed
the structural limitation of the aircraft. To minimize the risk of exceeding
structural limitations, aircraft may include rudder limiters that reduce rudder
deflection at high speeds. In other words, full rudder deflection is only available
at lower airspeeds. For example, an airplane may have 30° of rudder deflection in
the left and right directions at low speeds, such as takeoff, landing, climb, etc.,
with full pedal travel. At cruise speeds the rudder limiter restricts the rudder
deflection to 7° left and right with full pedal travel.

GUST LOCK SYSTEMS

Aircraft that use mechanical flight control systems will typically include a method
for locking the controls when the aircraft is parked. Normally referred to as gust
locks, these mechanism may either be separate from the control system or an
integral part of the control. Separate gust locks may consist of a device that
extends from a stationary part of the aircraft, such as the wing, and passes over
and locks in place the flight control surface (e.g., the ailerons). Another
technique is to lock the movement of the flight controls with pins and other
devices. Rather than being on the exterior of the aircraft, such locking devices
are installed in the flight compartment to keep the controls from moving. By
physically locking the flight controls in place, damage to the structure or control
network is eliminated during times when the aircraft is parked and the wind acts to
deflect the flight control surfaces.
Gust locks will typically include a warning streamer with the following or
similarly worded phrase:
"REMOVE BEFORE FLIGHT".
Large aircraft that have hydraulic assist systems to move flight control surfaces
often include gust dampers in their power control units. By using hydraulic fluid
contained within the power control units that drive the flight control surfaces
during flight, movement of the control surfaces by wind feeds a force into the
hydraulic units. These mechanisms provide gust snubbing by forcing hydraulic fluid
through special bypass valves and other devices. The end result is that the flight
control surfaces are protected from wind gust damage.

PROTECTION/WARNING
SYSTEMS
Stall warning systems incorporated on modern day jetliners are far more advanced
than those used on smaller general aviation airplanes. Stall warning systems
typically involve multiple computers that monitor the configuration of the aircraft
and flight data. Analyzing those bytes of information, the stall warning computers
calculate when an airplane is nearing a stall condition. In such instances, a stick
shaker that provides a violent shaking motion to the control yoke will give the
crew warning that a stall is imminent. Some airplanes include a stick nudger or
pusher that applies a nose down input to the elevator in an attempt to avoid the
impending stall. The flight crew has the option of overcoming the input made by the
stick nudger or pusher. The need for stick nudgers or pushers is due to the stall
recovery characteristics of many larger airplanes. Where the stick
nudger or pusher is designed to avoid a stall, the stick shaker is a stall warning
mechanism.
The stall speed of the aircraft is affect by a number of variables. In calculating
the potential stall, the computers look at the position of the flaps, slats, speed
brakes, airspeed, angle of attack, and other parameters. Failure to take the proper
corrective action during a stall may lead to serious consequences. Airplane stalls
have claimed many lives over the history of flight. Angle of attack sensors
commonly use a vane on the side of the fuselage that provides data regarding the
angle that the aircraft is passing through the atmosphere. As the airplane changes
its angle of attack, the vane reacts by rotating to a new position that is parallel
to the airflow passing across it and sending a signal to the appropriate
computer(s). As the data provided by the angle of attack sensor is critical to the
safety of the aircraft during flight, the device is normally equipped with a heater
to prevent the build-up of ice.
Unsafe for takeoff configuration warning is typically provided on large aircraft.
This warning, often an aural warning sound in conjunction with a visual warning
light(s), is given when there is an unsafe condition prior to takeoff. Such
conditions include the improper position of the flaps or slats, the horizontal
stabilizer position, the extension of speed brakes, the parking brake set, and so
on. The warning is normally triggered when the crew advances the throttle and a
problem is present. The value of this system is difficult to assess as attempting a
takeoff when the airplane is improperly configured is likely to result in a tragic
incident. Landing configuration warning is provided when the airplane is improperly
set up for landing. One common warning occurs when the all members of the landing
gear are not locked in the down position and a throttle lever is reduced to a low
power setting. A warning is frequently given when the flaps are extended for
landing and the landing gear is not down and locked. The extension of spoilers at
low altitudes is likely to provide an unsafe landing configuration warning. As with
the unsafe for takeoff warning network, the crew receives an aural and visual
warning when the landing configuration is improper.

FLY-BY-WIRE CONTROL
The fly-by-wire (FBW) control system employs electrical signals that transmit the
pilot's actions from the flight deck through a computer to the various flight
control actuators.

The cockpit controls are devices that convert the movements or pressures exerted by
the pilot into electrical
signals which are sent into a computer programmed with the flight characteristics
of the airplane. Thiscomputer output is directed through wires to electro-
hydraulic valves that convert the electrical signal into hydraulic fluid flow. This
flow changes the position of a main control valve which directs hydraulic fluid to
the appropriate control actuators. Within the actuators, linear variable
displacement transducers complete the loop and send feedback signals to the
computer,
informing it of the amount of actuator movement. Rather than using a control wheel
or stick that actually moves,
some fly-by-wire equipped aeroplanes have sidestick controllers to fly the
airplane. Pressures exerted on the controller mounted on the cockpit side console
are converted into electrical signals just as are movements
of conventional controls. Airbus fly-by-wire systems use such a process.