EE3490E - Fundamentals of

Embedded Programmings
Chapter 4: Data
Structures & Algorithms

© DIA 2020.2
Content
4.1. Introduction of data structures
4.2. Arrays and dynamic memory management
4.3. Vector structure
4.4. List structure
4.5. Sorting algorithms
4.6. Recursion
4.7. Bitwise operation
4.8. Event-driven programming

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4.5 Sorting algorithms
 Objective: rearrange a given array or list elements
according to a comparison operator on the elements.
The comparison operator is used to decide the new
order of element in the respective data structure.
 Ascending order: from the smallest to the largest number
 Descending order: from the largest number to smallest number
 Problem statement:
 Input: given an array a of size n: a[0], a[1], …, a[n-1]
 Output: a permutation (reordering) of a (a’[0], a’[1], …, a’[n-
1] in such a way that:
• a’[0] <= a’[1] <= ... <= a’[n-1]

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Sorting algorithms
 A number of applications in reality:
 Commercial computing. Government organizations, financial institutions, and
commercial enterprises organize much of this information by sorting it
 Search for information. Keeping data in sorted order makes it possible to
efficiently search through it. E.g.: sorting the number of access of websites
using a search engine like Google
 String processing algorithms are often based on sorting
 As fundamental algorithm to solve more complex problems such as numerical
computations, operations research, optimization, etc.
 Early sorting algorithms were proposed in 1950s such as bubble sort,
merge sort, quick sort, etc.; new ones are still being invented
 References:
 Cormen, Thomas H., and Thomas H. Cormen. 2001. Introduction to algorithms.
Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
 Robert Sedgewick and Kevin Wayne. 2011. Algorithms (4th. ed.). Addison-
Wesley Professional.
 2 algorithms will be introduced: selection sort and merge sort
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Sorting algorithms
 Input data
0 n-1
a Unsorted

 Desired output:
 Data has been sorted in certain order

0 n-1
a Sorted array: a[0]<=a[1]<=…<=a[n-1]

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4.5.1 Selection sort
 Initial state
0 n-1
The smallest numbers The remaining data,
a which have been sorted unsorted
 Steps:
 Find the smallest number in a[k..n-1]
 Swap a[k] and the smallest number we found above
0 n-1
The smallest numbers
a which have been sorted
a[k] x

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Find the smallest number
/* Yield location of smallest element
in a[k..n-1] */
/* Assumption: k < n */
/* Returns index of smallest, does not return the
smallest value itself */

int min_loc (int a[], int k, int n) {

/* a[pos] is smallest element found so far */
int j, pos;
pos = k;
for (j = k + 1; j < n; j = j + 1)
if (a[j] < a[pos])
pos = j;
return pos;
}
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Selection sort
/* Sort a[0..n-1] in non-decreasing
order (rearrange
elements in a so that
a[0]<=a[1]<=…<=a[n-1] ) */

int sel_sort (int a[], int n) {

int k, m;
for (k = 0; k < n - 1; k = k + 1) {
m = min_loc(a,k,n);
swap(&a[k], &a[m]);
}
}

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Example

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Example

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Example

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Algorithm evaluation
 How many iterations do we need to sort n numbers?
 Before swapping position, it is needed to check through the
whole unsorted part of the array
 The length of unsorted part in the initial array is n
 The algorithm repeats n iterations of checking/swapping
 Total of steps is proportional to
 Conclusion: selection sort is pretty slow with large
arrays

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Better algorithm?

 Algorithms with complexity of nlogn

 Merge sort
 Quick sort
 When array size grows, time taken to execute
algorithms with complexity of n2 is much higher than
that with nlogn complexity
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4.5.2 Merge sort
 Basic idea:
 Starting with sorted arrays: pointers are at the beginning of the
arrays
 Use the pointer to mix the position of each pair of elements
within sorted arrays to make a bigger array with sorted
elements
 After merging 2 arrays, we get the desired array eventually
 The basic operator is merging

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Merge sort

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Merge sort

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Merge sort

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Merge sort

 We need n comparisons and copying data n times, thus

the workload is proportional to n
 However, this is not yet a sorting algorithm
 So how to do?

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Merge sort implementation
 It is needed to know the position of pointers to merge
the respected arrays together
 At the starting point, each element in the array is a
pointer
 Merge sort:
 Merge each pair of 1-element arrays to be a 2 element array
 Merge each pair of 2-element arrays to be a 4 element array
 Merge each pair of 4-element arrays to be a 8 element array
 And so on until completing

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Example

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Example

 Sorting task is done

 Each merging step take a duration proportional to n
 How many time do we merge? It is 3 in this example
 In general, we need log2n merging steps
 When n =8:
 Total time consumed is proportional to nlog2n (or
nlogn).
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In short

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Any approach performed better
than nlogn?
 In general, the answer is NO
 However, in some special cases, we may do better
 E.g.: sorting exam papers based on the scores put the
papers into one of 10 piles with respect to their scores
required time is proportional to n.
 The performance of the algorithm can be evaluated via
mathematical calculation without using computer
 This specific area in mathematics is approximation theory.
There are a lot of interesting topics to be solved
 E.g.: The P versus NP problem: Whether every problem
whose solution can be quickly verified can also be solved
quickly
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Efficiency
 The resources can be saved
 It is usually measured by execution duration and
memory space required
 A lot of details in programming has little or no effect on
efficiency
 It is often achieved by selecting the right algorithm
and/or data structure

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4.5.3 Structure and Array
 A structure represent a simple data record, computer
program processes a set of data records
 E.g.: student record, staff record, customer record, etc.
 In each case, there are a number of variables, thus it
would require to use an array of structure to store data

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Example
#define MAX_NAME 40 typedef struct {
typedef struct { int hours, minutes;
char name [MAX_NAME+1]; double seconds;

int id; } time;

double score;
} student_record; typedef struct {
double x, y ;
} point;

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Array of structure
 Each statement below shows the declaration of an array
in which each element is a structure
point corner_points[10];
time meeting_times[MAX_MEETINGS];
student_record tdh_34[MAX_STUDENTS];
 The fields of structure are accessed via the array
element and the field names
cse_142[i].name
corner_points[j+1].x
meeting_times[4].hours

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Array of structure
point pentagon[5];
Array of structure pentagon

x
y
pentagon[1] – structure
x
y
x
y pentagon[4].x – a real number
x
y
x
y

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Array of structure
student_record class[MAX_STUDENTS];
...
for (i = 0; i < nstudents; i = i + 1)
{
scanf(“%d %d”, &class[i].hw, &class[i].exams);
class[i].grade =
(double) (class[i].hw+class[i].exams) / 50.0;
}

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Array element as argument
void draw_line (point p1, point p2) {.....}
...
point pentagon[5];
...
for (i = 0; i < 4; i = i + 1) {
draw_line(pentagon[i], pentagon[i+1]);
}
draw_line(pentagon[4], pentagon[0]);

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Revision on passing a value
 A structure variable is passed with its value
 All the fields of the variable are copied to initialize the
argument

point midpoint (point a; point b) {...}

int main (void) {
point p1, p2, m; /* declare 3 points */
...
m = midpoint(p1, p2);
}

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Revision on passing an array
 An array of element is an array
 When the array is used as a parameter in function call,
it needs to be passed by using reference
 The reference is actually an alias of the input parameter
int avg (student_rec class_db[MAX_N]) {...}
int main (void) {
student_rec ktlt_k50[MAX_N];
int average;
....
average = avg(ktlt_k50); /*by reference*/
}
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Sorting an array of structure
David Kathryn Sarah Phil Casey
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2.9 4.0 3.9 2.8 3.6

Phil David Casey Sarah Kathryn

920914 920915 910607 900317 901028
2.8 2.9 3.6 3.9 4.0

typedef struct {
char name[MAX_NAME + 1];
int id;
double score;
} StudentRecord;

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Revision of selection sort
int min_loc (int a[ ], int k, int n) {
int j, pos; pos = k;
for (j = k + 1; j < n; j = j + 1)
if (a[j] < a[pos])
pos = j;
return pos;
}
void swap (int *x, int *y);
void sel_sort (int a[ ], int n) {
int k, m;
for (k = 0; k < n - 1; k = k + 1) {
m = min_loc(a,k,n);
swap(&a[k], &a[m]);
}
}
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Sorting an array of structure
 Initially, it is required to identify the field to sort by
 E.g.: sort by scores
 Change the data type of the array to StudentRecord
 Rewrite the code for comparison in min_loc function
 Write swap function for StudentRecord

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Sorting an array of structure
int min_loc (StudentRecord a[ ], int k, int n) {
int j, pos; pos = k;
for (j = k + 1; j < n; j = j + 1)
if (a[j].score < a[pos].score)
pos = j;
return pos;
}

void swap (StudentRecord *x, StudentRecord *y);

void sel_sort (StudentRecord a[ ], int n) {
int k, m;
for (k = 0; k < n - 1; k = k + 1) {
m = min_loc(a,k,n);
swap(&a[k], &a[m]);
}
}

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Sorting by alphabetic order
David Kathryn Sarah Phil Casey
920915 901028 900317 920914 910607
2.9 4.0 3.9 2.8 3.6

Casey David Kathryn Phil Sarah

910607 920915 901028 920914 900317
3.6 2.9 4.0 2.8 3.9

typedef struct {
char name[MAX_NAME + 1];
int id;
double score;
} StudentRecord;

 It is required to write a function for comparing two strings

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String compare revision
 “Alice” < “Bob”
 “Dave” < “David”
 “Rob” < “Robert”
#include <string.h>
int strcmp(char str1[ ], char str2[ ]);

 Returning value is
 A negative number if str1 < str2
 Zero if str1 = str2
 A positive number if str1 > str2

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Sorting by alphabetic order
int min_loc (StudentRecord a[ ], int k, int n) {
int j, pos; pos = k;
for (j = k + 1; j < n; j = j + 1)
if (0 > strcmp(a[j].name, a[pos].name))
pos = j;
return pos;
}
void swap (StudentRecord *x, StudentRecord *y);
void sel_sort (StudentRecord a[ ], int n) {
int k, m;
for (k = 0; k < n - 1; k = k + 1) {
m = min_loc(a,k,n);
swap(&a[k], &a[m]);
}
}

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Thinking in data structure
 If we want to store information of a song in a computer
 What kind of information needs to be stored?
 How to organize the information?
 How to implement in C?
 And if
 We need information of a CD
 Or information of a set of CDs

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Insertion sort

/* sort student records a[0..size-1] in */

/* ascending order by score */
void sort (student_record a[ ], int size)
{
int j;
for (j = 1; j < size; j = j + 1)
insert(a, j);
}
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Insertion sort
/* given that a[0..j-1] is sorted, move a[j]
to the correct location so that that a[0..j]
is sorted by score */
void insert (student_record a[ ], int j) {
int i;
student_record temp;
temp = a[j];
for (i = j; i > 0 &&
a[i-1].score > temp.score; i = i-1) {
a[i] = a[i-1];
}
a[i] = temp;
}
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Insertion sort
/* given that a[0..j-1] is sorted, move a[j] to
the correct location so that that a[0..j] is
sorted by score */
void insert (student_record a[ ], int j) {
int i;
student_record temp;
temp = a[j];
for (i = j; i > 0 &&
strcmp(a[i-1].name, temp.name) > 0;
i = i-1) {
a[i] = a[i-1];
}
a[i] = temp;
}

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4.6. Recursion
 It’s possible for a function to call itself. This is termed
recursion
int foo(int x) {
...
y = foo(...);
...
}

 Questions:
 How recursion works?
• To be discussed
 Why do we need recursive functions?
• We will see the motivations
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4.6.1 Factorial function
Function name
Parameter/
int factorial(int n) Argument
{
int product, i;
product = 1; Local variables
Type and for (i = n; i > 1; i = i - 1)
returning {
value product = product * i; 0! = 1
} 1! = 1
2! = 1 * 2
return (product);
3! = 1 * 2 * 3
} ...

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Factorial function using recursion
 The definition of factorial function is recursive itself
0! = 1! = 1; for n > 1, n! = n(n-1)!
int factorial(int n) 0! is 1
{ 1! is 1
int t; n! is n * (n-1)!, for n>1
if (n <= 1)
E.g.: 3! = 3 * 2!
t = 1;
= 3 * 2 * 1!
else =3*2*1
t = n * factorial(n - 1);
return t;
}

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Function revision
 It does not take much effort to trace the recursive
function if we remember the background of functions:
 Arguments and variables declared in a functions is the local
variable of that function
• They are allocated memory space once the function is called
• The allocated memory is free when exiting the function
 Arguments are initialized by copying values of the passing
variables in function call

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Factorial function
factorial(4) =
4 * factorial(3) =
4 * 3 * factorial(2) =
4 * 3 * 2 * factorial(1) =
4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 24

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‘y’ or ‘n’ question
char yes_or_no(void)
{
char answer = ‘X’;
while(answer != ‘y’ && answer != ‘n’)
{
printf (“Please enter ‘y’ or ‘n’:”);
scanf (“%c”, &answer);
}
return answer;
}

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Implementation without loop
char yes_or_no(void)
{
char answer;
printf (“Please enter ‘y’ or ‘n’:”);
scanf (“%c”, &answer);
if(answer != ‘y’ && answer != ‘n’)
answer = yes_or_no( );
return answer;
}

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Loop and Recursion
 Any algorithm using loop can be replaced by recursion
and vice versa
 In some languages, recursion is the only choice
 Some algorithms are represented as recursion naturally:
 It is not effective if employing recursive function for simple
algorithms/application

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When to use recursion
 Some cases, the problem can be solved by transforming
to simple cases
 Continuously carrying out transformation until a simple
operation which is not recursive is obtained

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4.6.2 Towers of Hanoi
 Tower of Hanoi is a mathematical puzzle where we
have 3 rods (towers) and n disks.
 The objective is to move all the disks to another rod,
 Rules to be followed:
1) Only one disk can be moved at a time.
2) Only the "top" disk can be removed
3) No disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk.

1
2
3
A B C
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Towers of Hanoi
 Following is an animated representation of solving a Tower
of Hanoi puzzle with three disks.
 Tower of Hanoi puzzle with n disks can be solved in
minimum 2n−1 steps. This presentation shows that a puzzle
with 3 disks has taken 23 - 1 = 7 steps.
 Assume that we have 64 disks, if time taken to move 1 disk
is t [seconds]
 Total required time is:

 Let :
1 1
2 2 1
13 31 2
A B C
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Towers of Hanoi

Move n disks from tower X

to tower Z by using Y as an
intermediate tower

(1) Move (n-1) disks from tower X to

tower Y by using Z as an intermediate
tower as the top disks are smaller
(2) Move disk n (the largest) from X to
Z
(3) Repeat the procedure for the
remaining n-1 disks in tower Y to Z
with the intermediate tower X

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4.6.3 Quick sort - Example
 Sorting the following integer array

40 20 10 80 100 50 7 30 60

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Select the ‘pivot’ element
 Choose the element to be compared with: e.g. select the
first element

40 20 10 80 60 50 7 30 100

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Divide the array into smaller ones
 Given number of elements, dividing the array into 2:
 The first array includes elements the pivot one
 The other include elements the pivot one

7 20 10 30 40 50 60 80 100
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

<= data[pivot] > data[pivot]

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Recursion: Quicksort Sub-arrays

7 20 10 30 40 50 60 80 100
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

<= data[pivot] > data[pivot]

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Quicksort Analysis
 Assume that keys are random, uniformly distributed.
 What is best case running time?
 Recursion:
1. Partition splits array in two sub-arrays of size n/2
2. Quicksort each sub-array
 Depth of recursion tree? O(log2n)
 Number of accesses in partition? O(n)

7 20 10 30 7 20 10 7 10 20

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Quicksort Analysis
 Assume that all elements are randomly distributed
 Shortest duration: O(n log2n)
 How about the worst case scenario?

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Quicksort: the worst case
 Assumed that all the elements are distributed
ascendingly

pivot_index = 0 2 4 10 12 13 50 57 63 100
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

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Another approach to choose the
pivot
 Select the mean of 3 elements in the array
 data[0], data[n/2], and data[n-1].
 Use this mean value as the pivot

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Optimizing Quicksort
 Find the pivot element
 If the size is smaller or equal to 3:
 One element: do nothing
 If there is 2 elements: if(data[first] > data[second]) swap them
 If there is 3 elements: homework

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Micromouse

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Example
/* ‘F’ means finished! 0
‘X’ means blocked 1
‘ ’ means ok to 2
move */ 3
char maze[MAXX][MAXY]; y 4
/* start in yellow */ 5
6
int x =0, y=0;
7
 Unless it finds the obstacle, 8
robot can move up, down, F
left, right 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 Problem: does a route to the x
destination exist?
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Simple cases
 Assume that robot is at 0
the position (x,y) 1
 if maze[x][y] == ‘F’ 2
• then “yes!” 3
 if no place to go 4
y
• then “no!” 5
6
7
8
9 a F
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x

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 Make it simpler
0 0
It is not necessary to go 1 1
through a cell twice 2 2
3 3
4 4 ...
0 5 5
1 6 6
2 7 7
3 8 8
9 F 9 F
4 or
5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6
7 0
8 1
9 F 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3
4
5
...
6
7
8
9 F
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Supporting function
/* Returns true if <x,y> is a legal move
given the maze, otherwise returns false */
int legal_mv (char m[MAXX ][MAXY], int x, int y)
{
return(x >= 0 && x <= MAXX && y >= 0 &&
y <= MAXY && m[x][y] != ‘X’);
}

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An elegant solution
/* Returns true if there is a path from <x,y> to an
element of maze containing ‘F’ otherwise returns
false */
int is_path (char m[MAXX][MAXY ], int x, int y) {
if (m [x][y] == ‘F’)
return(TRUE);
else {
m[x][y] = ‘X’;
return((legal_mv(m,x+1,y) && is_path(m,x+1,y)) ||
(legal_mv(m,x-1,y) && is_path(m,x-1,y)) ||
(legal_mv(m,x,y-1) && is_path(m,x,y-1)) ||
(legal_mv(m,x,y+1) && is_path(m,x,y+1)))
}
}

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Example
 is_path(maze, 7, 8) x

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 F
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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Example
is_path(maze, 7, 8) x

is_path(maze, 7, 8)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 F
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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Example
is_path(maze, 7, 8) x

is_path(maze, 7, 8)
0
1
2
3
4
is_path(maze, 7, 8) 5
6
7
8
9 F
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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Recursion summary
 Recursion is one of the programming techniques
 Its principle is based on the manner that a function is called and
local variables are used in C
 Every time, a function is called, everything has its new copy
 It is also an approach to solve problems
 It would take time and effort to master this
technique
 Recursion is a natural way to work with a
number of data structures

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4.7. Bitwise operation
 C provides operators
 To change each bit individually
 To perform operations which are usually available in
Assembler only
 The C program with bitwise operation can run in
different OS, however most of these kind of programs
are written to work in specific hardware

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Negative numbers
 Bit MSB (most significant bit) is 1, the number is
negative
 Two’s complement to represent negative number, e.g.:
-22425 as a binary number: 1010 1000 0110 0111
 The algorithm:
 Subtract 1 from the original number 22425, we get 22424
 Convert to binary
0101 0111 1001 1000
 Perform 1’s complement by inverting each bit
1010 1000 0110 0111 = -22425

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Bitwise operators
 6 bitwise operators in C:
& | ^ ~ << >>
 These operators are applicable with the data types:
char, short, int, long.
 They can be used for floating point arithmetic
 5 bit assignment operators
&= |= ^= <<= >>=
 Bit assignment operators are similar to arithmetic
assignment operators
z &= x | y;
z = z & (x | y);

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Bitwise operators
 Attention: developers should not confuse bitwise
operators with logical operators
& | ~ << >>

&& || ! < >

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AND &
 Perform AND bit-by-bit operation of two integers
 E.g.: b1, b2, b3 are unsigned char numbers
b3 = b1 & b2;
b1 00011001 25
b2 01001101 & 77
b3 00001001 9
 It is used to
 Reset bit
 Select a bit to verify

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OR |
 Perform OR bit-by-bit operation of two integers
 E.g.: b1, b2, b3 are unsigned char numbers
b3 = b1 | b2;
b1 00011001 25
b2 01101010 | 106
b3 01111011 123
 It is used to
 Set a bit

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XOR ^
 Perform XOR bit-by-bit operation of two integers
 E.g.: b1, b2, b3 are unsigned char numbers
b3 = b1 ^ b2;
b1 00011001 25
b2 01001101 ^ 77
b3 01010100 84
 It is used to
 Set a bit

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NOT ~
 Perform NOT (1’s complement) operation of an integer
 E.g.: b1, b2 are unsigned char numbers
b2 = ~b1;
b1 00011001 25
b2 11100110 230
 It is used to
 Invert status of a bit or a group of bits

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Left shift <<
 Perform left shift operation of an integer by a number
of bits specified by the right operand
 E.g.: b1, b2 are unsigned char numbers
b2 = b1 << 2;
b1 00011010 26
b2 01101000 104
 Attention:
 MSB disappears, inserted bit at LSB is always 0
 The operator is equivalent to multiplying the number with 2^n:
b2 = b1*4

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Right shift >>
 A bit more complex: shift the bits of an integer to the
right by a number specified by the right operand
 LSB disappears, inserted bit at MSB is
 0 if the number is unsigned
 1 (arithmetical right shift) hoặc 0 (logical right shift)
signed char x = -75; /* 1011 0101 */
signed char y = x>>2; /* 0010 1101 (logical) */
/* 1110 1101 (arithmetic) */
 The result depends on the computer and the OS.
 It is 45 with logical right shift and -19 with arithmetical right
shift in the above example.
 In fact, right shift is usually applied for unsigned numbers and
it is equivalent to dividing the number by 2^n
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2 raised to the n-th power
 Bit shift operators are often used in exchange of
multiplication
 They are faster than multiply operator
x * 2 x << 1
x / 16 x >> 4
x % 8 x & 7
 However, using bit shift operators make the code more
difficult to read

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Warning
 If bit shift operator is perform by a number larger than
size of (sizeof) the left operand, the result may be
unspecified

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Bitwise operators precedence
 Precedence of bitwise operators in C:
 NOT ~
 AND &
 XOR ^
 OR |
 However, () should be used in all cases

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Checksum 8 bit
#include <reg51.h> #include <reg51.h>
void main(void) { void main(void) {
unsigned char mydata[] unsigned char mydata[]
={0x25,0x62,0x3F,0x52}; ={0x25,0x62,0x3F,0x52,0xE8};
unsigned char sum=0, x unsigned char shksum=0;
unsigned char chksumbyte; unsigned char x;
for (x=0;x<4;x++) { for (x=0;x<5;x++)
P2=mydata[x]; chksum=chksum+mydata[x];
sum=sum+mydata[x]; if (chksum==0)
P1=sum; P0=‘Good’;
} else
chksumbyte=~sum+1; P0=‘Bad’;
P1=chksumbyte; }
}

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Checksum 8 bit
#include <reg51.h>  Summation:
void main(void) {
unsigned char mydata[]
25H+ 62H+ 3FH+ 52H = 118H
={0x25,0x62,0x3F,0x52};  Two complements of 118H
unsigned char sum=0, x
unsigned char chksumbyte;
is E8H
for (x=0;x<4;x++) {
P2=mydata[x];
sum=sum+mydata[x];
P1=sum;
}
chksumbyte=~sum+1;
P1=chksumbyte;
}

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Checksum 8 bit
 Summation: #include <reg51.h>
void main(void) {
25H+ 62H+ 3FH+ 52H = 118H unsigned char mydata[]
 Two complements of 118H is ={0x25,0x62,0x3F,0x52,0xE8};
E8H unsigned char shksum=0;
unsigned char x;
 Verify the check sum: for (x=0;x<5;x++)
25H+ 62H+ 3FH+ 52H + E8H = 0 chksum=chksum+mydata[x];
if (chksum==0)
P0=‘Good’;
else
P0=‘Bad’;
}

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Bit masking
 Bit operators are used for 2 main purposes:
 Save memory by storing status flags in one byte
 Interface with hardware register
 In these 2 cases, it is required the capability of
modifying each bit and check each bit status.
 C enables to create macro, which can set, reset (clear)
bit or reverse bit status, named masking

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Bit masking
 Step 1: Create one integer which represents the status of
each bit or a group of bits
 E.g.:
enum {
FIRST = 0x01, /* 0001 binary */
SECND = 0x02, /* 0010 binary */
THIRD = 0x04, /* 0100 binary */
FORTH = 0x08, /* 1000 binary */
ALL = 0x0f /* 1111 binary */
};

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Bit masking
 In another way:
enum {
FIRST = 1 << 0,
SECND = 1 << 1,
THIRD = 1 << 2,
FORTH = 1 << 3,
ALL = ~(~0 << 4)
};
 The last line is used to set/reset a group of bit
1111 1111 /* ~0 */
1111 0000 /* ~0 << 4 */
0000 1111 /* ~(~0 << 4) */
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Operations with Bit masking
unsigned flags = 0;
flags |= SECND | THIRD | FORTH; /* (1110). */
flags &= ~(FIRST | THIRD); /* (1010). */
flags ^= (THIRD | FORTH); /* (1100). */
if ((flags & (FIRST | FORTH)) == 0)
flags &= ~ALL; /* (0000). */
 Operator | (can be called a pipe ) is used to obtain a combination of bit masks
 Operator ~ is used to reverse all the bits (all bits are 1 except the ones with
masks)
 Operator |= is used to set bits
 Opertor &= is used to reset bits
 Opertor ^= is used to flip bits
 Opertor & is used to select bits (for checking status).

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Macro for each bit
#define BitSet(arg,posn) ((arg) | (1L << (posn)))
#define BitClr(arg,posn) ((arg) & ~(1L << (posn)))
#define BitFlp(arg,posn) ((arg) ^ (1L << (posn)))
#define BitTst(arg,posn) ((arg) & (1L << (posn)))

enum {FIRST, SECND, THIRD};

unsigned flags = 0;

flags = BitSet(flags, FIRST); /* Set first bit. */

flags = BitFlp(flags, THIRD); /* Toggle third bit. */
if (BitTst(flags, SECND) == 0)/* Test second bit. */
flags = 0;

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Example
 Implement an operation to swap 2 variables using XOR
 #define SWAP(a,b) {a^=b; b^=a; a^=b;}

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Union revise

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Example of Union

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Bit Field

Assuming that we have a 32bit register with the above parameters

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Bit Field Example

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Working with Union

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Examples with Union

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Portability
 Compilers for microcontrollers may consider int as
16bit or 32bit number depending on the
microcontroller
 C Compiler may read it:
 From left to right
 From right to left

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Data transfer

Temperature: 25.28 Humidity: 87 Power 111.4W

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Sscanf/Sprintf

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Example of union usage

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Float to IEEE 32bit conversion
(or mantisa)

 E.g.:


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Float to IEEE 32bit conversion

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Convert float to hex and hex to float

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4.8 Event-driven programming
 Event-driven programming is a programming paradigm
in which the flow of the program is determined by
events such as
 Starting the program, initializing variables
 Stepping in a loop, waiting for a command or an event
occurring such as mouse clicks, key presses, sensor outputs, or
messages from other programs or threads, timer stop
 Event handling subroutines/functions
 Getting back to the loop and wait for subsequent
events/commands
 Embedded software also follows this paradigm
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Example
 Read “command” from keyboard and perform
corresponding tasks
 Inputs: character from keyboard
 a: execute “command A” via function A_handler()
 b: execute “command B” via function B_handler()
 q: exit the software
 Pseudo code of the main loop
 Wait for the next command
 If a, execute command A
 If b, execute command B
 If q, exit

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Loop control scheme
 Repeat until stopping condition matches
 Use variable done to verify stopping condition

set done to false

while not done
body statements
if quit command, set done to true

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Source code
#define FALSE 0
#define TRUE 1
int main(void) {
char command;
int done;
done = FALSE;
while (!done) {
command = ReadCommand( );
/* Input command from user */
switch (command) {
case ‘a’: A_handler(); /* Execute command A */
break;
case ‘b’: B_handler(); /* Execute command B */
break;
case ‘q’: done = TRUE; /* quit */
break;
default: printf(“Unrecognized command\n”);
}
}
return 0;
}

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Multithreading
 Multithreading is a specialized form of multitasking
which allows the computer to run two or more tasks
concurrently
 Two types of multitasking:
 Process-based multitasking handles the concurrent execution of
programs.
 Thread-based multitasking deals with the concurrent execution
of pieces of the same program.
 A multithreaded program contains two or more parts
that can run concurrently. Each part of such a program
is called a thread, and each thread defines a separate
path of execution.
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Multithreading

Image courtesy: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_(computing)#/media/File:Multithreaded_process.svg

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Multithreading

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Function call within a thread
1. Using The Function Object
/</em>/ Define the class for function object
class functionObject_class {
// Overload () operator
void operator()(params)
{
// code to be executed
}
};
// Cr
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Function call within a thread
2. Using Function Pointer
void funct_call(params){
//code to be executed
}
std::thread thread_obj(funct_call, params);

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Function call within a thread
3. Using A Lambda Expression
// Define a lambda expression
auto f = [](params) {
// code for execution
};
std::thread thread_object(f, params);

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Example
#include <iostream> int main() {
#include <thread> // Define a Lambda Expression
using namespace std; auto f = [](int n) {
// function to be used in callable for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
void func_dummy(int N) { cout << "Thread 3 :: callable => lambda
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) { expression\n";
cout << "Thread 1 :: callable => };
function pointer\n"; //launch thread using function pointer as
} callable
} thread th1(func_dummy, 2);
// A callable object // launch thread using function object as
class thread_obj { callable
public: thread th2(thread_obj(), 2);
void operator()(int n) { //launch thread using lambda expression
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) as callable
cout << "Thread 2 :: callable => thread th3(f, 2);
function object\n"; // Wait for thread t1 to finish
} th1.join();
}; // Wait for thread t2 to finish
th2.join();
// Wait for thread t3 to finish
th3.join();
return 0;
}

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 END OF CHAPTER 4

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