3A1

1. Explain what is meant by the term ‘ionic bonding’

An ionic bond is the bond formed between positively charged and negatively charged ions (oppositely
charged ions) due to the electrostatic forces of attraction between them

2. Calcium reacts with uorine to form the ionic compound calcium uoride: Ca(s) + F2(g) → CaF2(s)
Use a dot-and-cross diagram to show the electronic changes that occur in this reaction.

3. (a) Suggest why the strength of ionic bonding is greater in sodium uoride than in potassium uoride.
Because potassium has a larger atomic radius, we know the electrons are less attracted to its nucleus than
the electrons in sodium.

(b) Suggest why the strength of ionic bonding in calcium oxide is approximately four times larger than that in
potassium uoride.

The charges of Ca2+ ions and O2- ions in CaO is higher than that of K+ ions and F– ions in KF. The
higher the ionic charge, the higher the electrostatic force of attraction between the oppositely charged ions,
so more energy is required to overcome the electrostatic force in CaO than in KF.

3A2

1. Explain the trend in the following ionic radii:

(a) Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Be2+
(b) P3− > S2− > Cl−

2.

3A3

1. When sodium chloride is solid there are no delocalised electrons and the ions are not free to move if an
applied potential difference is . When sodium chloride is molten the ions are mobile and they will move
to the electrodes of opposite side.

b) Sodium chloride has giant lattice structure thus a large amount of energy is required to overcome the
combined electrostatic forces of attraction so that the ions can break free from the lattice.

c) the positive part of water molecules attracts the negative chloride ions, and the negative part of water
molecules attracts the positive sodium ions ( hydration)
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 3B1

1. Suggest a reason for the following trend in bond strengths: C—C > Si—Si > Ge—Ge

2. The F—F bond in uorine is much shorter (0.142 nm) than the Cl—Cl (0.199 nm) bond in chlorine, and
yet it is much weaker (158 kJ mol−1 compared with 242 kJ mol−1). Suggest a reason for this.

3. Suggest a reason why the sigma (σ) bond between the two carbon atoms in the ethene molecule is stronger
that the pi (π) bond.

3B2

1. Suggest why the electronegativity of uorine is greater than that of chlorine, despite the fact that the
nucleus of a chlorine atom contains more protons.

Since the size of chlorine is bigger than uorine the electrons being farther away from the nucleus experience
a lesser force of attraction, the electron negativity of chlorine is less than uorine.

2. Ionic bonding and covalent bonding are two extremes of chemical bonding. Many compounds have
bonding that is intermediate in character.

Giving an example in each case, explain what is meant by the terms:

(i) ionic bonding= The transfer of electrons between metal and non-metal atoms results in the formation of
oppositely charged ions, which are strongly attracted to each other by electrostatic forces, forming ionic bonds

(ii) covalent bonding = covalent bond is the bond formed between atoms that share electrons. Atoms share
electrons to gain a full outer shell of electrons.

(b) Select a compound that has bonding of an intermediate character and explain why it has this type of
bonding.

3. Place the following bonds in order of decreasing polarity (i.e. place the most polar rst).

C—F, C—Cl, C—Br, C—I

Explain how you arrived at your answer.

Signi cant electronegativity difference to least electronegativity difference

3C1

1. A bond between two atoms in a molecule may possess a dipole.

(a) Explain how this dipole arises.

A dipole in a chemical bond arises due to differences in electronegativity between the two atoms involved in
the bond. When two atoms with different electronegativities form a covalent bond, the more electronegative
atom will pull the shared electrons closer to itself, creating a partial negative charge (δ-) on that atom and a
partial positive charge (δ+) on the less electronegative atom
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 (b) Some bonds that you are likely to meet in organic chemistry are listed. Which of these bonds are likely to
possess a dipole? In each case indicate which atom is δ+ and which is δ−.

C—Cl O—H C—C C—O C=C C—N N—H

C—Cl: This bond is likely to possess a dipole, with Cl being δ- and C being δ+ because chlorine (Cl) is more
electronegative than carbon (C).

O—H: This bond is likely to possess a dipole, with O being δ- and H being δ+ because oxygen (O) is more
electronegative than hydrogen (H).

C—C: This bond is nonpolar because both carbon atoms have similar electronegativities. Therefore, there is
no signi cant difference in electronegativity to create a dipole.

C—O: This bond is likely to possess a dipole, with O being δ- and C being δ+ because oxygen (O) is more
electronegative than carbon (C).

C=C: This bond is nonpolar because both carbon atoms have similar electronegativities. Therefore, there is
no signi cant difference in electronegativity to create a dipole.

C—N: This bond is likely to possess a dipole, with N being δ- and C being δ+ because nitrogen (N) is more
electronegative than carbon (C).

N—H: This bond is likely to possess a dipole, with N being δ- and H being δ+ because nitrogen (N) is more
electronegative than hydrogen (H).

2. State whether each of the following molecules are non-polar or polar. In each case, explain your reasoning.

(a) H2S

• H—S bonds are polar, with sulfur (S) being more electronegative than hydrogen (H).
• The molecule has a bent shape, with a lone pair on sulfur.
• The polar bonds and the asymmetrical bent shape result in an overall dipole moment.

(b) CH4

• nonpolar, as carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) have similar electronegativities.

• The molecule has a tetrahedral shape, with all hydrogen atoms arranged symmetrically around
carbon.
• The nonpolar bonds and the symmetrical shape result in no net dipole moment.

(c) SO2

• S—O bonds are polar, with oxygen (O) being more electronegative than sulfur (S).
• The molecule has a bent shape, with two oxygen atoms and a lone pair on sulfur.
• The polar bonds and the asymmetrical bent shape result in an overall dipole moment
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(d) SO3

• are polar, with oxygen (O) being more electronegative than sulfur (S).
• The molecule has a trigonal planar shape, with three oxygen atoms arranged symmetrically around
sulfur.
• The polar bonds and the symmetrical shape result in no net dipole moment.

(e) AlBr3

• polar, with bromine (Br) being more electronegative than aluminum (Al).
• The molecule has a trigonal planar shape, with three bromine atoms arranged symmetrically around
aluminum.
• The polar bonds and the symmetrical shape result in no net dipole moment.

(f) PBr3

• polar, with bromine (Br) being more electronegative than phosphorus (P).
• The molecule has a trigonal pyramidal shape, with three bromine atoms and a lone pair on
phosphorus.
• The polar bonds and the asymmetrical trigonal pyramidal shape result in an overall dipole moment.

3D

1. Explain what is meant by the term ‘metallic bonding’.

A metallic bond is the attraction between delocalised electrons and positive ions.

2. Suggest why the melting temperatures and electrical conductivities of sodium, magnesium and aluminium
are in the order Na , Mg , Al
the order of melting temperatures and electrical conductivities is related to the strength of metallic bonding,
which increases with the number of valence electrons and electron density in the metal. Aluminum, with its
greater number of valence electrons, exhibits the strongest metallic bonding and the highest melting
temperature and electrical conductivity among the three metals.

3E

Explain why the melting temperature of magnesium oxide is higher than that of sodium chloride.

This is because of the chemical bonds. MgO is held together by strong covalent bonds, where electrons are
shared between magnesium and oxygen atoms, leading to a more tightly bound lattice structure that requires
a substantial amount of energy to break, resulting in a higher melting point. In contrast, NaCl is composed
of ionic bonds, in which positively charged sodium ions and negatively charged chloride ions are attracted to
each other through electrostatic forces, which, although relatively strong, are not as strong as covalent bonds,
making the energy required to break these bonds lower, resulting in a lower melting temperature for sodium
chloride.
 2. Explain the following observations:

(a) Magnesium and magnesium uoride both have giant lattice structures containing ions. Solid magnesium
conducts electricity, but solid magnesium uoride does not.

Magnesium forms a metallic lattice structure when solid. This forms a ‘sea’ of delocalized electrons. These
electrons act as mobile charge carriers carrying an electric current when a voltage is applied. The presence
of these free electrons allow solid magnesium to conduct electricity effectively.

Magnesium oride forms an ionic lattice structure in its solid state. In this structure, magnesium ions (Mg²⁺)
are surrounded by uoride ions (F⁻) in a three-dimensional lattice. The strong electrostatic attraction between
the oppositely charged ions holds the lattice together.Unlike in metals, there are no delocalized electrons in
the lattice structure of magnesium uoride. Instead, the electrons are localized on the uoride ions, and there
are no free, mobile charge carriers.As a result, solid magnesium uoride is an insulator and does not conduct
electricity because there are no mobile charge carriers available to carry an electric current.

(b) Silicon and phosphorus are both described as covalent substances, but silicon has a much higher melting
temperature than phosphorus.

the difference in melting temperatures between silicon and phosphorus can be attributed to their distinct
structural arrangements and the type of covalent bonds involved. Silicon forms a covalent network solid with
a highly ordered and interconnected lattice, while white phosphorus exists as discrete P4 molecules held
together by weaker van der Waals forces. The stronger and more numerous covalent bonds in silicon lead to
a much higher melting temperature compared to phosphorus

3. Hexagonal boron nitride has a structure similar to that of graphite.

Suggest why solid boron nitride can act as a lubricant in a vacuum, whereas graphite cannot.

The difference in behavior between solid boron nitride (h-BN) and graphite as lubricants in a vacuum can be
attributed to the nature of the interlayer forces. The weak van der Waals forces in graphite lead to adhesion
and increased friction between layers in a vacuum, while the relatively weak interlayer forces in h-BN allow its
layers to slide past each other easily, maintaining its lubricating properties even in a vacuum

4. Explain, in terms of their bonding and structure, why

(a) diamond is hard and graphite is soft, and

• Diamond is extremely hard due to its structure and the type of bonding it possesses. Each
carbon atom in diamond is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral
arrangement, forming a three-dimensional crystal lattice.
• The carbon-carbon covalent bonds in diamond are very strong and require a signi cant
amount of energy to break. The strong covalent bonds and the tetrahedral arrangement of
carbon atoms make diamond exceptionally hard, as it is dif cult for external forces to disrupt
the crystal lattice.
• Graphite:
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 • Graphite is soft and slippery because of its layered structure. In graphite, carbon atoms are
arranged in hexagonal layers, with each carbon atom bonded to three other carbon atoms
within a layer.
• The layers in graphite are held together by weak van der Waals forces, which are much
weaker than the covalent bonds found in diamond. These weak interlayer forces allow the
layers to slide past each other easily, giving graphite its slippery and soft characteristics.

(b) diamond does not conduct electricity but graphite does

• Diamond:
• Diamond is a poor conductor of electricity because all of its carbon atoms are tetrahedrally
bonded to other carbon atoms in a three-dimensional network. Each carbon atom in diamond
forms strong, localized covalent bonds with its neighboring carbon atoms, and there are no
free, mobile electrons to carry an electric current.
• The strong covalent bonds between carbon atoms in diamond do not allow for the
movement of electrons, resulting in an insulating material.
• Graphite:
• Graphite is an excellent conductor of electricity because of its unique structure. While each
carbon atom within a layer of graphite forms strong covalent bonds with its neighboring
carbon atoms, the electrons in the pi-bonds above and below the layers are delocalized and
free to move within the layers.
• These delocalized electrons can carry an electric current through the layers of graphite,
making it a good conductor. The weak van der Waals forces between the layers also allow for
ease of electron mobility.

Exam Practice

1) Which of the following statements about the properties associated with ionic and covalent compounds is
correct?

C A compound cannot contain both ionic bonding and covalent bonding.

2) Which is the best explanation for the ability of graphite to act as a solid lubricant?

3) Which of the following molecules contains six bonding electrons?

C2H4 CO2 H2S NCl

4) C

5) C

6)A. CF4
CF4 (carbon tetra uoride) is a symmetrical tetrahedral molecule with four identical uorine atoms
surrounding a central carbon atom. Because of its symmetrical arrangement, the dipole moments of the
individual C-F bonds cancel each other out, resulting in a net dipole moment of zero. Therefore, CF4 does
not have a permanent dipole. In contrast, the other molecules (B, C, and D) have a permanent dipole due to
their asymmetric molecular structures.
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 7)
a) The electrostatic attraction between positively charged metal ions and delocalized electrons within a
metal lattice, resulting in properties like electrical conductivity and malleability.
b) the ability of metals to conduct electricity is attributed to the presence of delocalized electrons within
their lattice structure, which is a consequence of metallic bonding.When an electric potential (voltage) is
applied across a metal, it establishes an electric eld within the metal. The delocalized electrons,
responding to this electric eld, drift in an ordered manner through the lattice, forming an electric
current. Since these electrons are not bound to individual atoms and can move freely without disrupting
the overall structure, they facilitate the ef cient conduction of electricity

c) Magnesium has more delocalized electrons than sodium.It also has higher positevly charged ions compared
to sodium ions. The greater charge of magnesium ions results in a stronger electrostatic attraction to the
delocalized electrons, promoting a more stable and ef cient electron sea.Magnesium has a more closely
packed and regular lattice structure compared to sodium.

d) odium is a better electrical conductor than lithium because it has more delocalized electrons and has
cations with a higher charge.

8)

A=
Type of Bonding: Ionic
Structure: Ionic lattice
Explanation: Substance A is insoluble in water, and its electrical conductivity in both solid and aqueous states
is poor. This indicates the presence of ionic bonding.

b=
Type of Bonding: Covalent
Structure: Molecular or covalent structure
Explanation: Substance B is soluble in water and has poor electrical conductivity in the solid state but good
electrical conductivity in aqueous solution. This suggests the presence of covalent bonds in a molecular
structure. Covalent compounds like B typically dissolve in water and may conduct electricity in the form of
ions when dissolved

c=
Type of Bonding: Metallic
Structure: Metallic lattice or crystal structure
Explanation: Substance C is insoluble in water, but it has good electrical conductivity in the solid state and
poor electrical conductivity in aqueous solution. These characteristics are indicative of metallic bonding,
where metal cations are held together in a lattice with a sea of delocalized electrons. This structure allows for
ef cient electrical conductivity in the solid state.

D=
Type of Bonding: Covalent
Structure: Molecular or covalent structure
Explanation: Substance D is soluble in water and has poor electrical conductivity in the solid state but good
electrical conductivity in aqueous solution. Like Substance B, it is likely held together by covalent bonds in a
molecular structure
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