Table of Contents

Acronyms ............................................................................................................................................vii
Objective of the Manual ....................................................................................................................... ix
Required Hardware, Software and Network tools................................................................................. x
Part I: Introduction to Computer Networks ........................................................................................... 1
Chapter One: Computer Network.......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Characteristics of a Computer Network ........................................................................................ 1
1.3 Categories of Computer Networks ................................................................................................ 1
1.3.1 Personal Area Network (PAN) ................................................................................................... 1
1.3.2 Local Area Network (LAN) ....................................................................................................... 2
1.3.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) .......................................................................................... 3
1.3.4 Wide Area Network (WAN) ...................................................................................................... 3
1.3.5 Peer to Peer Network (P2P) ....................................................................................................... 4
1.3.6 Client-Server Model ................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Network Topology ........................................................................................................................ 8
1.4.1 Physical Topology ...................................................................................................................... 8
1.4.1.1 Bus Topology ...................................................................................................................... 8
1.4.1.2 Star Topology ...................................................................................................................... 9
1.4.1.3 Ring Topology ................................................................................................................... 10
1.4.1.4 Mesh Topology .................................................................................................................. 11
1.4.1.5 Tree Topology ................................................................................................................... 13
1.4.1.6 Daisy Chain Topology ....................................................................................................... 13
1.4.1.7 Hybrid Topology ............................................................................................................... 14
1.4.2 Logical Topology ..................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter Two: Networking Devices ..................................................................................................... 15
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 15
2.2 Network Cables ........................................................................................................................... 15
2.2.1 Unshielded Twisted Pair Vs Shielded Twisted Pair ............................................................. 15
2.2.2 Coaxial Cable ....................................................................................................................... 18
2.2.3 Fiber optic cable ................................................................................................................... 19
i
 2.3 Network interface card (NIC) ..................................................................................................... 20
2.4 Repeater ....................................................................................................................................... 21
2.5 Hub .............................................................................................................................................. 22
2.6 Bridge .......................................................................................................................................... 22
2.7 Switch .......................................................................................................................................... 24
2.8 Router .......................................................................................................................................... 24
Chapter Three: Networking Cables Arrangement ............................................................................... 26
3.1 Making Straight-Through, Crossover and Rollover Cables ........................................................... 26
3.1.1 Straight-Through cables ........................................................................................................... 26
3.1.2 Crossover cables ....................................................................................................................... 27
3.1.3 Rollover cables ......................................................................................................................... 27
3.2 Installation of Network cables practical steps: ............................................................................ 29
Chapter Four: Network Protocols........................................................................................................ 32
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 32
4.2 Change TCP/IP settings ............................................................................................................... 34
4.3 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model ............................................................. 36
4.3.1 OSI Reference Model Layers ............................................................................................... 36
Layer 7: Application ...................................................................................................................... 37
Layer 6: Presentation .................................................................................................................... 37
Layer 5: Session............................................................................................................................. 38
Layer 4: Transport ......................................................................................................................... 38
Layer 3: Network ........................................................................................................................... 39
Layer 2: Data Link ......................................................................................................................... 39
Layer 1: Physical ........................................................................................................................... 39
Part II: Internet Protocol (IP) Addressing & Sub-netting Concepts .................................................... 40
Chapter Five: Internet protocol (IP) Address ...................................................................................... 40
5.1 Types, Features and Classes of IP Address ................................................................................. 41
5.1.1 Types of IP addresses ............................................................................................................... 41
5.1.1.1 Static IP Addresses ............................................................................................................ 41
5.1.1.2 Dynamic IP Addresses....................................................................................................... 41
5.1.2 IP Version 4 and IP Version 6 .................................................................................................. 41

ii
 5.1.2.1 IP Version 6 ....................................................................................................................... 41
5.1.2.2 IP Version 4 ....................................................................................................................... 42
5.1.3 IP Address and Classes ............................................................................................................ 43
5.1.3.1 Class A Address................................................................................................................. 43
5.1.3.2 Class B Address ................................................................................................................. 43
5.1.3.3 Class C Address ................................................................................................................. 43
5.1.3.4 Class D Address................................................................................................................. 43
5.1.3.5 Class E Address ................................................................................................................. 44
5.2 Network Masks ........................................................................................................................... 45
Chapter Six: IPv4 – Subnetting ........................................................................................................... 46
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 46
6.2 Subnet Mask ................................................................................................................................ 46
6.3 Understanding a Subnetting ........................................................................................................ 47
Part III: Administering Windows Server 2012 R2 .............................................................................. 51
Chapter Seven: Introduction to Windows Server 2012 ....................................................................... 51
7.1 Installation of Windows server 2012 .......................................................................................... 51
7.2 Working as an Administrator on Windows server 2012 ............................................................. 58
7.2.1 Rebooting the Server ............................................................................................................ 58
7.2.2 Changing the name of the server .......................................................................................... 58
7.2.3 Accessing the Control Panel ................................................................................................. 63
7.2.4 Accessing the Administrative Tools ..................................................................................... 64
7.2.5 Accessing Applications ........................................................................................................ 65
7.2.6 Creating a local user account in Windows server 2012 ........................................................ 66
7.2.7 The Run Prompt and the Command Line ............................................................................. 69
7.2.8 Configuring the Windows Firewall ...................................................................................... 69
7.2.9 Adding Roles and Features ................................................................................................... 70
7.2.10 Adding Servers to the Server Pool ..................................................................................... 73
7.2.11 Working with Roles and Features ...................................................................................... 75
Part IV: Installation and configuration of several server roles in Windows Server 2012 R2 ............. 76
Chapter Eight: Installation and Configuration of Domain Name System (DNS) ............................... 76
8.1 What is DNS? .............................................................................................................................. 76

iii
 8.2 Installation of Domain Name System (DNS) Role ..................................................................... 76
8.3 Configuration of a DNS Server ................................................................................................... 86
8.3.1 Nslookup ............................................................................................................................. 101
Chapter Nine: Active Directory ........................................................................................................ 108
9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 108
9.2 Active Directory Domain (AD Domain) ................................................................................... 109
9.2.1 Microsoft Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) .................................................... 109
9.2.2 Installation of Active Directory Domain Services role ...................................................... 110
9.2.3 Promote the Server as a Domain Controller ....................................................................... 119
9.2.3.1 Server Notification to Promote ........................................................................................ 119
9.2.3.2 Deployment Configuration .............................................................................................. 119
9.2.3.3 Domain Controller Options ............................................................................................. 121
9.2.3.4 NetBIOS and Directory Path ........................................................................................... 122
9.3 Active Directory Console .......................................................................................................... 126
Chapter Ten: Creating of Users, Computers and Groups Account in Active Directory Domain
Services ............................................................................................................................................. 128
10.1 User Account creation in a Domain controller........................................................................ 128
10.2 Creating steps of users group account ..................................................................................... 134
10.3 Adding a Domain user account in to a Domain group account .............................................. 137
10.4 Deleting a Domain User Account ........................................................................................... 139
10.5 Deleting a Domain Group Account ......................................................................................... 140
10.6 Creating a Client machine (Computer) Account in a domain controller ................................ 141
10.7 Joining a Client Machine to a Domain controller server from the client side ........................ 144
10.3 Enabling and Using Fine-Grained Password Policies in Active Directory Domain Services 155
Chapter Eleven: File and Storage Services ....................................................................................... 159
11.1 Shared folder setup .................................................................................................................. 159
11.2 Disk quota management .......................................................................................................... 175
11.2.1 Creating a quota ................................................................................................................ 178
11.3 File Screening Management .................................................................................................... 182
11.4 Disk partition ............................................................................................................................. 191
Chapter Twelve: Group policy Management .................................................................................... 202

iv
 12.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 202
12.2 Configuration of a Group policy ............................................................................................. 202
12.3 Audit policy ............................................................................................................................. 212
12.3.1 Audit policy settings ......................................................................................................... 213
12.3.2 Implementation of an Audit policy................................................................................... 214
Chapter Thirteen: Installation and Configuration of DHCP role ...................................................... 223
13.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 223
13.2 Steps of the installation of DHCP role .................................................................................... 224
13.3 Configuration of DHCP role after installation ........................................................................ 234
10.3.1 Creating a new IPv4 DHCP scope .................................................................................... 239
Chapter Fourteen: Installation and configuration of FTP server ....................................................... 250
14.1 Enable Web Server (IIS) role and FTP Server role service: ................................................... 250
14.2 Create FTP users: .................................................................................................................... 250
14.3 Configuring FTP global IIS settings: ...................................................................................... 251
14.4 Creating FTP site:.................................................................................................................... 252
14.5 IIS Firewall setup: ................................................................................................................... 253
14.6 Windows Firewall setup:......................................................................................................... 253
14.7 Testing: .................................................................................................................................... 254
Chapter Fifteen: Installation and Configuration of a Print Server .................................................... 255
15.1 Print and Document Services role installation ........................................................................ 255
15.2 Installation of a Printer ............................................................................................................ 266
15.3 Sharing a printer to clients ...................................................................................................... 274
Chapter Sixteen: Backup ................................................................................................................... 275
16.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 275
16.1.2 Types of Backups ................................................................................................................. 276
16.1.2.1 Full Backup ....................................................................................................................... 276
16.1.2.2 Incremental Backup ....................................................................................................... 276
16.1.2.3 Differential Backup ....................................................................................................... 276
16.1.2.4 Synthetic Full Backup ................................................................................................... 277
16.1.2.5 Incremental-Forever Backup ......................................................................................... 277
16.2 Installation of Windows server 2012 Backup components ..................................................... 278

v
16.3 How to Restore a Windows Server 2012 Domain Controller from a Backup .......................... 292
Part V: Removing Roles and Features in Windows Server 2012...................................................... 297
Chapter Seventeen: Removal process of Roles ................................................................................. 297
References: ........................................................................................................................................ 311

vi
Acronyms
ADAC Active Directory Administrative Center
ADDS Active Directory Administrative Service
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ASP AppleTalk Session Provider
DVD Digital Versatile Disk
DC Domain Controller
DNS Domain Name System
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
EBCDIC Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
FDDI Fiber Distributed Data Interface
FSRM File Server Resource Manager
FTP File Transfer Protocol
FGGP Fine Grained Password Policy
GPO Group Policy Object
HP Hewlett Packard
HTML HyperText Markup Language
HTTP HyperText Transfer Protocol
I/O Input Output
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol
IIS Internet Information Services
IP Internet Protocol
IPV4 Internet Protocol Version 4
IPV6 Internet Protocol Version 6
ISP Internet Service Provider
ISCSI Internet Small Computer Systems Interface
IPX Internetwork Package Exchange
JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group
LDAP Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

vii
LAN Local Area Network
MAC Media Access Control
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
MPEG Moving Picture Experts Group
MAU Multi-station Access Unit
NIC Network Interface Card
NTFS New Technology File System
OSI Open System Interconnection
OS Operating System
OUI Organizationally Unique Identifier
OU Organizational Unit
P2P Peer-to-Peer
PAN Personal Area Network
PC Personal Computer
STP Shielded Twisted Pair
SQL Structured Query Language
SACL System Access Control List
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
UNC Universal Naming Convention
UTP Unshielded Twisted pair
VGA Video Graphics Array
WAN Wide Area Network
WINS Windows Internet Name Service

viii
Objective of the Manual
This laboratory manual is prepared to help and guide Network Administration trainees to understand
the general concepts of Computer Network and its practical application using Windows Server 2012
R2 operating system. This manual has been classified in to five (5) parts and seventeen (17) chapters.
After successfully completing the training session using this manual, trainees are expected to
understand and be able to implement the following topics:
 Computer Network
 Network Topologies
 Networking devices
 Making Straight-Through, Crossover and Rollover cables
 Network protocols
 OSI reference model and layers
 IP addressing and Subnetting
 Windows Server 2012 R2 installation and administration
 Adding Roles and Features
 Domain Name System (DNS)
 Active Directory and Active Directory Domain Name Service
 Fine-Grained password policies in Active Directory Domain Name Service
 Shared folder setup
 File server and Disk quota management
 Group Policy Management
 Audit policy
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
 Configuration of File transfer protocol (FTP)
 Install and configure a print server
 Backup and Restore
 Removing roles and features from Windows Server 2012 R2

ix
Required Hardware, Software and Network tools
Hardware, Software and Network tools required for the practical session are listed in the following
tables:

No. Required Hardware Description

1. Computer Used to as a main working area by running the virtual
machine workstation
2. Switch/Hub Used to interconnect the different network devices that
we have
3. Printer (if available) Used to work on the installed print server.

No. Required Software Version Description

1. Virtual Machine Workstation 12 Pro Used to run Windows server 2012
and Windows seven operating
systems simultaneously.
2. Windows Server 2012 R2 Data center Used to working on it as a
Network Administrator
3. Windows Operating System Any versions of Serves us as a client machine
Windows 7

No. Required Network tool Description

1. Cable (UTP Cat 5 and above) Used to make a Straight-through, Crossover and
Rollover cable arrangements.
2. Crimper Used to affix a connector to the end of a cable.
3. RJ 45 Used to connect to the network through cables
4. Tester Used to test the strength and connectivity of our
crimped cables.

x
Part I: Introduction to Computer Networks
Chapter One: Computer Network
1.1 Introduction

A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to share
information and resources.

A Computer Network

1.2 Characteristics of a Computer Network

 Share Resources from one computer to another.
 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other computer(s)
connected over the network.
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let other
computers of the network use the machines available over network.

1.3 Categories of Computer Networks

1. Based on size, ownership, the distance it covers:

1.3.1 Personal Area Network (PAN)

Personal area network is a computer network used for data transmission amongst devices such
as computers, telephones, tablets and personal digital assistants. PANs can be used for

1
communication amongst the personal devices themselves (interpersonal communication), or for
connecting to a higher level network and the Internet (an uplink) where one "master" device takes up
the role as internet router.

 Wired Personal Area Network: The data cable is an example of the above PAN. This is also a
Personal Area Network because that connection is for the user’s personal use. PAN is used for
personal use only.

 Wireless Personal Area Network: - is a low-powered PAN carried over a short-

distance wireless network technology such as: INSTEON, IrDA, Wireless USB, Bluetooth, Z-Wave,
ZigBee, and Body Area Network.

1.3.2 Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is a group of computers and associated devices that share a common communications line or
wireless link to a server. Typically, a LAN encompasses computers and peripherals connected to a
server within a distinct geographic area such as an office or a commercial establishment. Computers
and other mobile devices use a LAN connection to share resources such as a printer or network
storage. Ethernet and Wi-Fi are the two primary ways to enable LAN connections. Ethernet is a
specification that enables computers to communicate with each other. Wi-Fi uses radio waves to
connect computers to the LAN. Other LAN technologies, including Token Ring, Fiber Distributed
Data Interface and ARCNET, have lost favor as Ethernet and Wi-Fi speeds have increased. The rise
of virtualization has fueled the development of virtual LANs, which allows network administrators to
logically group network nodes and partition their networks without the need for major infrastructure
changes.

Local Area Network

Local Area Network

2
1.3.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Metropolitan area network is designed to extend over an entire city; it may be a single network or
interconnected Local Area Networks.

Metropolitan Area Network

1.3.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Slightly more complex than a Local Area Network (LAN), a WAN connects computers together
across longer physical distances. This allows computers and low-voltage devices to be remotely
connected to each other over one large network to communicate even when they are miles apart. The
Internet is the most basic example of a WAN, connecting all computers together around the world.
Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically owned and maintained by multiple administrators or
the public.

Wide Area Network

Wide Area Network

3
 Distance coverage areas of Network categories summary

2. Based on Functional Relationship:

The functional relationship category of a computer network is also referred to as architecture of the
network; this includes the type of computers on the network and determines how network resources
are handled.

The two common types are:

 Peer-to-peer
 Client-Server

1.3.5 Peer to Peer Network (P2P)

It is a type of decentralized and distributed network architecture in which individual nodes in the
network (called "peers") act as both suppliers and consumers of resources. In other words, Networks
in which all computers have equal status are called peer-to-peer or P2P networks. In a peer-to-peer
network, tasks (such as searching for files or streaming audio/video) are shared amongst multiple
interconnected peers who each make a portion of their resources (such as processing power, disk
storage or network bandwidth) directly available to other network participants, without the need for
centralized coordination by servers.

4
 Peer-to-Peer Network Model

Advantages:

 Easy to set up
 Less expensive
 Demands moderate level of skill to administer
 User is able to control their own resources

Disadvantages:

 Only works with less than ten nodes

 Very low level of security
 Performance suffers when a computer is accessed

Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:

 There are 10 users or fewer

 Users share resources, such as printers, but no specialised servers exist
 Security is not an issue
 The organization and the network will experience only limited growth within the foreseeable
future

5
1.3.6 Client-Server Model

The client–server model of computing is a distributed application structure that partitions tasks or
workloads between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters,
called clients. A server host runs one or more server programs which share their resources with
clients. A client does not share any of its resources, but requests a server's content or service function.
Clients therefore initiate communication sessions with servers which await incoming requests.
Examples of computer applications that use the client–server model are Email, network printing, and
the World Wide Web.

Server: - is a computer designed to process requests and deliver data to other (client) computers over
a local network or the internet with more RAM, larger hard disk and more processing capability.

Some examples of servers in Networking Environment:

 File and Print Servers: manage user access and use of file and printer resources.
 Application Servers: make the server side of client/server applications, as well as the data,
available to clients. An application server differs from a file and print server. With a file and
print server, the data or file is downloaded to the computer making the request. With an
application server, the database stays on the server and only the results of a request are
downloaded to the computer making the request.
 Web servers deliver (serves up) Web pages.
 Mail Servers: operates like application servers in that there are separate server and client
applications, with data selectively downloaded from the server to the client.
 Fax Servers: manage fax traffic into and out of the network by sharing one or more fax
modem boards.
 Directory Services Server: enable users to locate, store, and secure information on the
network.

Advantages of client/server architecture

 All files are stored in central location

 Network peripherals are controlled centrally
 Backups and network security is controlled centrally
 Users can access shared data which is centrally controlled
 A server-based network can support thousands of users

6
Disadvantages of client/server architecture

 A special network operating system is needed

 More complex to install, configure, and manage
 Specialist staff such as Network Administrator is needed
 The server is expensive to purchase
 If any part of the network fails a lot of disruption can occur

Client-Server Relationship

7
1.4 Network Topology
The topology of a network defines how the nodes of a network are connected through communication
links. A network can be defined by a physical topology and a logical topology.

1.4.1 Physical Topology: defines how the nodes of the network are physically connected; it is
the arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on the network and
can be referred as Physical layout, Design, Diagram or Map of the network. Bus Topology, Star
Topology, Ring Topology, Mesh Topology, Tree Topology, Daisy chain Topology and Hybrid
Topology are the main types of physical topology.

1.4.1.1 Bus Topology

All devices share a single communication line or backbone cable. A network that uses a bus topology
is referred to as a "bus network" which was the original form of Ethernet networks. Ethernet 10Base2
(also known as thinnet) is used for bus topology. This network can still work if one of the computers
malfunctions. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

Advantages:

 Easy to wire and less expensive

 It is easy to extend a network by adding cable with a repeater that boosts the signal and allows
it to travel a longer distance

Disadvantages:

 Becomes slow by heavy network traffic with a lot of computer because networks do not
coordinate with each other to reserve times to transmit
 It is difficult to troubleshoot a bus because a cable break or loose connector will cause
reflections and bring down the whole network

8
 Bus Topology

1.4.1.2 Star Topology

Links the computers by individual cables to a central unit called hub, multiport repeater or
concentrator. The central point may be “passive”, “active”, or “intelligent”. A passive hub simply
connects the arms of a star, no signal regeneration is performed. An active hub is like a passive hub,
except that it regenerates signals. Intelligent hubs are not only regenerate signals but also perform
activities such as intelligent path selection and network management. When a computer or other
networking component transmits a signal to the network, the signal travels to the hub. Then, the hub
forwards the signal simultaneously to all other components connected to the hub. Ethernet 10BaseT is
a network based on the star topology. Star topology is the most popular way to connect computers in
a workgroup network.

Advantages:

 The failure of a single computer or cable doesn't bring down the entire network.
 fault identification and isolation are easy
 less expensive than mesh topology (but more expensive than others)

Disadvantages:

 Failure of the central unit causes the whole network failure

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators

9
 Star Topology

1.4.1.3 Ring Topology

The nodes are joined by point-to-point connection to form a closed loop or ring. The signal is passed
along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination; each device
incorporates a repeater to regenerate received signal before passing it. Some form of access control is
needed to determine which node and when will transmit the signal. The ring topology is commonly
used in token ring networks that the ring of a token ring network is concentrated inside a device
called a Multi-station Access Unit (MAU) and fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) networks that
the ring in this case is both a physical and logical ring and usually runs around a campus or collection
of buildings to form a high-speed backbone network.

Advantages:

 Equal access for all users

 Each workstation has full access speed to the ring
 As workstation numbers increase performance diminishes slightly
 One computer cannot monopolize the network
 Easy to insert and remove a node

10
Disadvantages:

 Costly wiring
 The number of edges involved in each communication will be very high resulting in high
signal attenuation and network blocking probability
 Failure of one computer can affect the whole network.
 It is difficult to troubleshoot
 Adding and removing computers disrupts the network

Ring Topology

1.4.1.4 Mesh Topology

Every node in the network has a connection to each of the other nodes in that network. Every
connected device must have n-1 I/O ports. A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or
a partially connected mesh topology.

Full Mesh Topology

Every computer in the network has a connection to each of the other computers in that network. The
number of connections in this network can be calculated using the following formula (n is the number
of computers in the network): n(n-1)/2.

Partially connected Mesh Topology

At least two of the nodes in the network have connections to multiple other computers in that
network. It is an inexpensive way to implement redundancy in a network. In the event that one of the
primary nodes or connections in the network fails, the rest of the network continues to operate
normally.
11
Advantages:

 Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data
simultaneously.
 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.
 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.
 fault identification and isolation are easy
 privacy or security guaranteed
 provides fault tolerance-if a wire or other components fails, data can travel along an alternate
path

Disadvantages:

 The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less desirable
option (The amount of cabling and I/O ports needed is very expensive)
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and potential for
reduced efficiency.

Mesh Topology

12
1.4.1.5 Tree Topology

Tree topology is the most common form of network topology in use presently; imitates as extended
Star topology and inherits properties of Bus topology.

Tree topology divides the network in to multiple levels of network. Mainly in LANs, a network is
divided into three types of network devices. The lowermost is access-layer where computers are
attached. The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper
layer and lower layer. The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the network,
i.e. root of the tree from which all nodes divide.

Tree Topology

1.4.1.6 Daisy Chain Topology

Connects all the hosts in a linear fashion; Similar to Ring topology, all hosts are connected to two
hosts only, except the end hosts, Means, if the end hosts in daisy chain are connected then it
represents Ring topology. Each link in daisy chain topology represents single point of failure. Every
link failure splits the network into two segments. Every intermediate host works as relay for its
immediate hosts.

Daisy Chain Topology

13
1.4.1.7 Hybrid Topology

Contains more than one topology, inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.

Hybrid Topology

1.4.2 Logical Topology: is bound to network protocols and describe how data is moved across
the network. In order to have an efficient system, the logical topology should be chosen. It is also an
important issue to select the logical topology for the simplicity of the routing.

14
Chapter Two: Networking Devices
2.1 Introduction
All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes, such as
Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers etc. These devices also need
cables to connect them.so; we are going to discuss these important devices.

2.2 Network Cables

Network Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to
another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a
network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types. The type
of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size. Understanding
the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to other aspects of a network is
necessary for the development of a successful network

The following are the types of cables used in networks and other related topics.

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Coaxial Cable
 Fiber Optic Cable

2.2.1 Unshielded Twisted Pair Vs Shielded Twisted Pair

Twisted pair cables are widely used in transmitting information, especially across great distances. The
twist in the wire cancels out any magnetic interference that may develop in the wiring. There are two
common types of twisted pair cabling, STP and UTP. The S stands for Shielded, the U stands for
Unshielded, and the TP stands for twisted pair for both. STP simply has additional shielding material
that is used to cancel any external interference that may be introduced at any point in the path of the
cable. UTP cables have no protection against such interference and its performance is often degraded
in its presence. Using STP cables ensure that you get the maximum bandwidth from your cabling
even if the external condition is less than ideal.

The biggest drawback to using STP cables is the higher cost. The shielding is an additional material
that goes into every meter of the cable, thereby raising its total cost. The shielding also makes the
cable heavier and a bit more difficult to bend or manipulate in any way. This is not a big issue but
something that users should know when choosing between STP and UTP.

15
In terms of usage, UTP is the more prevalent and popular cabling that is used in most homes, offices,
and even in large scale businesses due to its lower cost. STP is commonly used by large scale
companies in high-end applications that require the maximum bandwidth. STP cables are also used in
outdoor environments where the cables are exposed to the elements and manmade structures and
equipment that may introduce additional interference. Good examples of this would be the
telephone/internet cables that run from your home, to the junction box, down to the establishments of
your provider or ISP.

For most common uses, it does not really matter whether you use STP or UTP as both would
probably perform well. UTP is the more logical choice as it is cheaper and much easier to find in the
majority of computer equipment retailers.

Summary:

1. STP cables are shielded while UTP cables are unshielded

2. STP cables are more immune to interference and noise than UTP cables
3. STP cables are better at maximizing bandwidth compared to UTP cables
4. STP cables cost more per meter compared to UTP cables
5. STP cables are heavier per meter compared to UTP cables
6. UTP cables are more prevalent in SOHO networks while STP is used in more high-end
applications

Unshielded Twisted Pair

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

16
 Table 1: UTP cable Categories

UTP Category Data Rate MAX-Length Cable Type Application

CAT 1 Up to 1Mbps --- Twisted pair Old telephone
cable

CAT 2 Up to 4 Mbps --- Twisted pair Token ring

Networks

CAT 3 Up to 10Mbps 100m Twisted pair Token ring &

10BASE-T
Ethernet

CAT 4 Up to 16Mbps 100m Twisted pair Token ring

Networks

CAT 5 Up to 100m Twisted pair Ethernet, Fast

100Mbps Ethernet and
Token ring

CAT 5e Up to 1Gbps 100m Twisted pair Ethernet, Fast

Ethernet and
Gigabit
Ethernet

CAT 6 Up to 10Gbps 100m Twisted pair Gigabit

Ethernet, 10G
Ethernet (55
meters)

CAT 6a Up to 10Gbps 100m Twisted pair Gigabit

Ethernet, 10G
Ethernet (55
meters)

CAT 7 Up to 10Gbps 100m Twisted pair Gigabit

Ethernet, 10G
Ethernet (100
meters)

 The most commonly used Ethernet cable is Category 5 cable with a connector RJ-45.

17
 UTP Category 5 cable with a connector RJ-45

2.2.2 Coaxial Cable

A Coaxial cable is a cable used in the transmission of video, communications, and audio. This cable
has high bandwidths and greater transmission capacity. Most users relate to a coaxial or coax cable as
a cable used to connect their TVs to a cable TV service. However, these cables are also used in
networks and what allow a broadband cable Internet connection using a cable modem.

Coaxial cable

18
2.2.3 Fiber optic cable

A fiber optic cable defined in IEEE 802.8 is cable that contains optical fibers (usually glass) coated
in plastic that are used to send data by pulses of light. The coating helps protect the fibers from heat,
cold, electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring, as well as some protection from
ultraviolet rays from the sun. Fiber optics allow for a much faster data transmission than standard
copper wires, because they have a much higher bandwidth. They are common amongst corporate
networks or world-wide networks, such as Internet backbones, because of the capabilities of the
cable. In TV and stereo systems, an optical cable can be used to transmit sound from a DVD player
or TV to a sound system, such as a stereo receiver or sound bar. The optical cable can transmits high
quality of sound, ensuring little or no sound degradation.

Fiber optic cable

19
2.3 Network interface card (NIC)
A network interface card is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to
communicate over a computer network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and
often provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses. It allows users to
connect to each other either by using cables or wirelessly. The NIC provides the transfer of data
in megabytes.

Network Interface Card (NIC)

Every device on a network that needs to transmit and receive data must have a network interface
card (NIC) installed. They are sometimes called network adapters, and are usually installed into one
of the computer's expansion slots in the same way as a sound or graphics card. The NIC includes
a transceiver, (a transmitter and receiver combined). The transceiver allows a network device to
transmit and receive data through the transmission medium. Each NIC has a unique 48-bit Media
Access Control (MAC) address burned in to its ROM during manufacture. The first 24 bits make up a
block code known as the Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI) that is issued to manufacturers of
NICs, and identify the manufacturer. The issue of OUIs to organizations is administered by
the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The last 24 bits constitute a sequential
number issued by the manufacturer.

The Media Access Control (MAC) address is sometimes called a hardware address or physical
address, and uniquely identifies the network adapter. It is used by many data link layer
communications protocols, including Ethernet, the 802.11 wireless protocol and Bluetooth. The use
of a 48-bit address allows for 248(281,474,976,710,656) unique addresses. A MAC address is usually
shown in hexadecimal format, with each octet separated by a dash or colon,

For example: 00-60-55-93-R2-N7

20
2.4 Repeater
A Repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher power level, or
to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation.
In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable runs longer than 100
meters away from the computer. As signals travel along a transmission medium there will be a loss of
signal strength i.e. attenuation. A repeater is a non-intelligent network device that receives a signal on
one of its ports, regenerates the signal, and then retransmits the signal on all of its remaining ports.
Repeaters can extend the length of a network (but not the capacity) by connecting two network
segments. Repeaters cannot be used to extend a network beyond the limitations of its underlying
architecture, or to connect network segments that use different network access methods. They can,
however, connect different media types, and may be able to link bridge segments with different data
rates.

Repeater

Repeaters are used to boost signals in coaxial and twisted pair cable and in optical fibre lines. An
electrical signal in a cable gets weaker the further it travels, due to energy dissipated in conductor
resistance and dielectric losses. Similarly a light signal traveling through an optical fiber suffers
attenuation due to scattering and absorption. In long cable runs, repeaters are used to periodically
regenerate and strengthen the signal.

21
2.5 Hub
A Hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to all the ports of the
hub for transmission. In a hub, a frame is passed along or "broadcast" to every one of its ports. It
doesn't matter that the frame is only destined for one port. The hub has no way of distinguishing
which port a frame should be sent to. Passing it along to every port ensures that it will reach its
intended destination. This places a lot of traffic on the network and can lead to poor network response
times. Additionally, a 10/100Mbps hub must share its bandwidth with each and every one of its ports.
So when only one PC is broadcasting, it will have access to the maximum available bandwidth. If,
however, multiple PCs are broadcasting, then that bandwidth will need to be divided among all of
those systems, which will degrade performance.

Network Hub

2.6 Bridge
A network Bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI
model. Bridges do not copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which MAC addresses are
reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic
for that address only to that port. Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the
broadcast was received.

Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it
sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge
assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown
destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which
the frame arrived.

22
Bridges don't know anything about protocols, but just forward data depending on the destination
address in the data packet. This address is not the IP address, but the MAC (Media Access Control)
address that is unique to each network adapter card. The bridge is basically just to connect two local-
area networks (LANs), or two segments of the same LAN that use the same protocol. Bridges can
extend the length of a network, but unlike repeaters they can also extend the capacity of a network,
since each port on a bridge has its own MAC address. When bridges are powered on in an Ethernet
network, they start to learn the network's topology by analyzing the source addresses of incoming
frames from all attached network segments (a process called backward learning). Over a period of
time, they build up a routing table.

The bridge monitors all traffic on the segments it connects, and checks the source and destination
address of each frame against its routing table. When the bridge first becomes operational, the routing
table is blank, but as data is transmitted back and forth, the bridge adds the source MAC address of
any incoming frame to the routing table and associates the address with the port on which the frame
arrives. In this way, the bridge quickly builds up a complete picture of the network topology. If the
bridge does not know the destination segment for an incoming frame, it will forward the frame to all
attached segments except the segment on which the frame was transmitted. Bridges reduce the
amount of traffic on individual segments by acting as a filter, isolating intra-segment traffic. This can
greatly improve response times.

23
2.7 Switch
The switch is a relatively new network device that has replaced both hubs and bridges in Local Area
Networks. A switch uses an internal address table to route incoming data frames via the port
associated with their destination MAC address. Switches can be used to connect together a number of
end-user devices such as workstations, or to interconnect multiple network segments. A switch that
interconnects end-user devices is often called a Workgroup Switch. Switches provide dedicated full-
duplex links for every possible pairing of ports; effectively giving each attached device its own
network segment, this significantly reduces the number of intra-segment and inter-segment
collisions. A switch normally has numerous ports, with the intention being that most or the entire
network is connected directly to the switch, or another switch that is in turn connected to a switch.

24 and 48 port Network Switches

2.8 Router
Router is a networking device that forward data packets between networks using headers and
forwarding tables to determine the best path to forward the packets. A network environment that
consists of several interconnected networks employing different network protocols and architectures
requires a sophisticated device to manage the flow of traffic between these diverse networks. Such a
device, sometimes referred to as an intermediate system, but more commonly called a Router, must
be able to determine how to get incoming packets (or datagrams) to the destination network by the
most efficient route. Routers gather information about the networks to which they are connected, and
can share this information with routers on other networks. The information gathered is stored in the
router's internal routing table, and includes both the routing information itself and the current status of
various network links. Routers exchange this routing information using special routing protocols.

A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its
Internet Service Provider's network. Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more
networks connect, and are the critical device that keeps data flowing between networks and keeps the
networks connected to the Internet. When data is sent between locations on one network or from one

24
network to a second network the data is always seen and directed to the correct location by the router.
The router accomplishes this by using headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for
forwarding the data packets, and they also use protocols such as The Internet control message
protocol (ICMP) to communicate with each other and configure the best route between any two
hosts.

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a supporting protocol in the Internet protocol suite;
it is used by network devices, including routers, to send error messages and operational information
indicating, for example, that a requested service is not available or that a host or router could not be
reached

Router

25
Chapter Three: Networking Cables Arrangement
3.1 Making Straight-Through, Crossover and Rollover Cables
3.1.1 Straight-Through cables

A straight through (Straight over) network cable acts as an extension enabling a device with a
network interface card to be attached to a network. A common form of network media is the UTP
Cat5 (Unshielded Twisted Pair Category 5) cable.

The cables should have trimmed back at each end by approximately 13mm in order to expose the
wires for sorting. The wires should then be flattened out and sorted into the following order from left
to right; White/Orange, Orange, White/Green, Blue, White/Blue, Green, White/Brown, Brown.

At this point it is best to make sure that the wires are the same length and trim them as necessary. It’s
a good idea to check the order of the wires before moving onto the next stage to make sure that orange
and brown have not been mixed up as some white wires don’t have their markings colored clearly.
Once the wires are confirmed to be in the correct order then it is time to attach the RJ-45 connectors.
This is a simple case of pushing the wires in as far as they will go and then using a crimping tool to
secure them into place.

Once one end is done simply repeat the process for the second end, after that be sure to test the cable
with an appropriate device before using it in your network. RJ-45 connectors are the most common
form of connectors used on UTP Cat5 cables. The RJ simply means Registered Jack and the 45
designation specifies the pin numbering scheme. The cable itself contains four twisted pairs of wires
making a total of eight wires.

26
3.1.2 Crossover cables

Crossover wired cables (commonly called crossover cables) are very much like Straight-Through
cables with the exception that TX and RX lines are crossed (they are at opposite positions on either
end of the cable. Using the 568-B standard as an example below you will see that Pin 1 on connector
A goes to Pin 3 on connector B. Pin 2 on connector A goes to Pin 6 on connector B etc. Crossover
cables are most commonly used to connect two hosts directly. Examples would be connecting a
computer directly to another computer, connecting a switch directly to another switch, or connecting
a router to a router.

3.1.3 Rollover cables

Rollover cables have opposite Pin assignments on each end of the cable or in other words it is "rolled
over". Pin 1 of connector A would be connected to Pin 8 of connector B. Pin 2 of connector A would
be connected to Pin 7 of connector B and so on. Rollover cables, sometimes referred to as Yost
cables are most commonly used to connect to a devices console port to make programming changes
to the device. Unlike crossover and straight-wired cables, rollover cables are not intended to carry
data but instead create an interface with the device.

27
 Table 2: The relationship among Network devices with cable arrangement

Hub Switch Router Workstation

Hub Crossover Crossover Straight Straight
Switch Crossover Crossover Straight Straight
Router Straight Straight Crossover Crossover
Workstation Straight Straight Crossover Crossover

Table 3: Cable Arrangement and RJ-45 Installation

PIN Color Pair Name

1 Orange-White 2 Transmit Data +
2 Orange 2 Transmit Data -
3 White-Green 3 Receive Data +
4 Blue 1 Not Used-POE
5 White-Blue 1 Not Used-POE
6 Green 3 Receive Data -
7 White-Brown 4 Not Used-POE
8 Brown 4 Not Used-POE

28
3.2 Installation of Network cables practical steps:

1. Fit Boot - Expose 40mm Wires

2. Straighten Wires Put in Order

29
3. Use Crimper to fit Wires

N.B. Fit to 13mm

5. Insert into RJ45 Connector

30
7. Crimp Cable to RJ45 Connector

8. Completed Connection

31
Chapter Four: Network Protocols
4.1 Introduction
A protocol is the special set of rules that end points in a Network connection use when they
communicate. Protocols specify interactions between the communicating entities; in other word it is a
set of rules that governs data communications.

A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated

The TCP/IP Internet protocol is a common example protocol.

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which uses a set of rules to exchange messages with
other Internet points at the information packet level
 Internet Protocol (IP), which uses a set of rules to send and receive messages at the Internet
address level
 Additional protocols that include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and File
Transfer Protocol (FTP), each with defined sets of rules to use with corresponding programs
elsewhere on the Internet

The key elements of a protocol are:-

 Syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data.

 Semantics: refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
 Timing: refers to when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.

 In a network environment each device must perform the same steps in the same way, so that the
data will arrive and reassemble properly; if one device uses a protocol with different steps, the
two devices will not be able to communicate with each other

32
 Whether communication is one way or in both directions simultaneously.
 Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates,
maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes are defined
by physical layer specifications.

33
4.2 Change TCP/IP settings
TCP/IP defines how a computer communicates with other computers, to make it easier to manage
TCP/IP settings; the recommend one is using automated Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP). DHCP automatically assigns Internet Protocol (IP) addresses to the computers on your
network, if your network supports it. If you use DHCP, then you don't have to change your TCP/IP
settings if you move your computer to another location, and DHCP doesn't require you to manually
configure TCP/IP Settings, such as Domain Name System (DNS) and Windows Internet Name
Service (WINS). To enable DHCP or change other TCP/IP settings, follow these steps:

1. Open Network Connections by clicking the Start button, and then clicking Control Panel. In the
search box, type adapter, and then, under Network and Sharing Center, click View network
connections.
2. Right-click the connection that you want to change, and then click Properties. If you're prompted
for an administrator password or confirmation, type the password or provide confirmation.
3. Click the Networking tab. Under This connection uses the following items, click either
Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) or Internet Protocol Version 6 (TCP/IPv6), and then
click Properties.

34
4. To specify IPv4 IP address settings, do one of the following:

4.1 To get IP settings automatically using DHCP, click Obtain an IP address automatically, and then
click OK.

4.2 To specify an IP address, click Use the following IP address, and then, in the IP address, Subnet
mask, and Default gateway boxes, type the IP address settings.
4.3 To specify IPv6 IP address settings, do one of the following:

4.5 To get IP settings automatically using DHCP, click Obtain an IPv6 address automatically and
then click OK.

4.4 To specify an IP address, click Use the following IPv6 address, and then, in the IPv6 address,
Subnet prefix length, and Default gateway boxes, type the IP address settings.

5. To specify DNS server address settings, do one of the following:

5.1 To get a DNS server address automatically using DHCP, click Obtain DNS server address
automatically, and then click OK.

5.2 To specify a DNS server address, click Use the following DNS server addresses, and then,
in the Preferred DNS server and Alternate DNS server boxes, type the addresses of the
primary and secondary DNS servers.

6. To change advanced DNS, WINS, and IP settings, click Advanced.

35
4.3 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model
Open System Interconnection (OSI) is the reference model for how applications can communicate
over a network. It was developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) in 1984
and now days considered the primary Architectural model for inter-computer communications. A
reference model is a conceptual framework for understanding relationships.

 To ensure greater compatibility and interoperability between various types of network

Purposes of OSI reference model:

technologies.
 To describe how information or data makes its way from application programmes (such as
word processor) through a network medium (such as cable) to another application programme
located on another network.
 To divide the problem of moving information between computers over a network medium into
SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems.
 To define how each layer communicates and works with the layers immediately above and
below it.

4.3.1 OSI Reference Model Layers

The main concept of OSI is that the process of communication between two endpoints in a network
can be divided into seven distinct groups of related functions, or layers. Each communicating user or
program is at a computer that can provide those seven layers of function. So in a given message
between users, there will be a flow of data down through the layers in the source computer, across the
network and then up through the layers in the receiving computer. The seven layers of function are
provided by a combination of Applications, Operating systems, Network card device drivers and
Networking hardware that enable a system to put a signal on a network cable or out over Wi-Fi or
other wireless protocol).

The Seven OSI Reference Model Layers:

 Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification.
 Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on other computers.
 The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are
concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network.
 The upper three layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and session—Layers 7, 6
and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications.

36
  Data is encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it moves down the layers
before network transit.

The seven OSI Reference Model Layers

Layer 7: Application

 The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user.
 It provides network services to the user’s applications.
 Contains all the higher level protocols that are commonly needed by users

Layer 6: Presentation

 The presentation layer ensures that the information that the application layer of one system
sends out is readable by the application layer of another system.
 If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data formats by using a
common format.
 Provides encryption and compression of data.

Examples: - JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC, HTML.

37
Layer 5: Session

 The session layer defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions)
between applications.
 This includes the control and management of multiple bi-directional messages using dialogue
control.
 keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit
 It also synchronizes dialogue between two hosts' presentation layers and manages their data
exchange.
 Preventing two parties from attempting the same critical operation at the same time.
 The session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer.
 check pointing long transmissions to allow them to continue from where they were after a
crash

Examples: - SQL, ASP (AppleTalk Session Protocol).

Layer 4: Transport

 Accepts data from above, splits it up into smaller units if need be, passes them to the network
layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end
 The transport layer segments data from the sending host's system and reassembles the data
into a data stream on the receiving host's system.
 End-to-end error free delivery of entire message
 Services include:
 Service port addressing
o Port number
 Segmentation /reassembly
 Connection control
o Connectionless or connection oriented
 Flow and error control

38
Layer 3: Network

 Defines end-to-end delivery of packets.

 Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
 Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that the packets can be delivered.
 The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to accommodate
different media.

Examples: - IP, IPX, AppleTalk.

Layer 2: Data Link

 Provides access to the networking media and physical transmission across the media and this
enables the data to locate its intended destination on a network.
 Provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by using the Media Access Control
(MAC) addresses.
 Uses the MAC address to define hardware or data link address in order for multiple stations to
share the same medium and still uniquely identify each other.
 Concerned with network topology, network access, error notification, ordered delivery of
frames, and flow control.
Examples: - Ethernet, Frame Relay, FDDI.

Layer 1: Physical

 The layer that actually interacts with the transmission media

 The physical part of the network that connects network components together
 Involved in physically carrying information from one node in the network to the next
 The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of the transmission medium.

Physical layer defines:

 Mechanical: the size and shape of the network connector, how many pins does the network
connector has and what each pin is used for.
 Electrical: how many volts represent a one (1) and how many a zero (0).
 Timing: how many nanoseconds a bit lasts.

39
Part II: Internet Protocol (IP) Addressing & Sub-netting
Concepts
Chapter Five: Internet protocol (IP) Address
An Internet protocol address is an address used in order to uniquely identifies a device on an IP
network; in another word An IP address is the unique numerical address of a device in a computer
network that uses Internet Protocol for communication. The address is made up of 32 binary bits,
which can be divisible into a network portion and host portion with the help of a subnet mask. The 32
binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits). Each octet is converted to decimal and
separated by a period (dot). For this reason, an IP address is said to be expressed in dotted decimal
format (for example, 172.16.81.100). The value in each octet ranges from 0 to 255 decimal, or
00000000 - 11111111 binary.

Here is how binary octets convert to decimal: The right most bit, or least significant bit, of an octet
holds a value of 20. The bit just to the left of that holds a value of 21. This continues until the left-
most bit, or most significant bit, which holds a value of 27. So if all binary bits are a one, the decimal
equivalent would be 255 as shown here:

11111111

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 (128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1=255)

Here is a sample octet conversion when not all of the bits are set to 1.

01000001

0 64 0 0 0 0 0 1 (0+64+0+0+0+0+0+1=65)

And this sample shows an IP address represented in both binary and decimal.

10. 1. 23. 19 (decimal)

00001010.00000001.00010111.00010011 (binary)

40
5.1 Types, Features and Classes of IP Address

5.1.1 Types of IP addresses

The IP addresses can be classified into two. They are listed below.

1) Static IP addresses

2) Dynamic IP addresses

5.1.1.1 Static IP Addresses

As the name indicates, the static IP addresses usually never change but they may be changed as a
result of network administration. They serve as a permanent Internet address and provide a simple
and reliable way for the communication. From the static IP address of a system, we can get many
details such as the continent, country, region and city in which a computer is located, The Internet
Service Provider (ISP) that serves that particular computer and non-technical information such as
precise latitude and longitude of the country, and the locale of the computer.

5.1.1.2 Dynamic IP Addresses

Dynamic IP addresses are the second category. These are temporary IP addresses. These IP addresses
are assigned to a computer when they get connected to the Internet each time. They are actually
borrowed from a pool of IP addresses, shared over various computers. Since limited numbers of static
IP addresses are available, ISPs usually reserve the portion of their assigned addresses for sharing
among their subscribers in this way.
 Static IP addresses are considered as less secure than dynamic IP addresses because they are
easier to track.

5.1.2 IP Version 4 and IP Version 6

The two versions of IP addresses currently running are IP versions 4 (IPv4) and IP versions 6 (IPv6).
There are many features with these two versions.

5.1.2.1 IP Version 6

The IPv6 is the most recent version of Internet Protocol. As the Internet is growing rapidly, there is a
global shortage for IPv4. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). IPv6 is
intended to replace the IPv4. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address and it allows 2128 i.e. approximately
3.4×1038 addresses. The actual number is slightly smaller as some ranges are reserved for special use
or not used. The IPv6 addresses are represented by 8 groups of four hexadecimal digits with the
groups being supported by colons. An example is given below:

41
Eg: 2001:0db8:0000:0042:0000:8a2e:0370:7334

The features of IPv6

The main features of the IPv6 are :

 IPv6 provides better end-to-end connectivity than IPv4.

 Comparatively faster routing.
 IPv6 offers ease of administration than IPv4.
 More security for applications and networks.
 It provides better Multicast and Anycast abilities.
 Better mobility features than IPv4.
 IPv6 follows the key design principles of IPv4 and so that the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is
smoother.

These are the key features of the IPv6 when compared to the IPv4. However, IPv6 has not become
popular as IPv4.

5.1.2.2 IP Version 4

IP Version 4 (IPv4) was defined in 1981. It has not undergone many changes from that time.
Unfortunately, there is a need of IP addresses more than IPv4 could supply.

IPv4 uses 32-bit IP address. So the maximum number of IP address is 232—or 4,294,967,296.

This is a little more than four billion IP addresses. An IPv4 address is typically formatted as four 8-bit
fields. Each 8-bit field represents a byte of the IPv4 address. As we have seen earlier, each field will
be separated with dots. This method of representing the byte of an IPv4 address is referred to as the
dotted-decimal format. The bytes of the IPv4 are further classified into two parts, the Network part
and the Host part.

Network Part
This part specifies the unique number assigned to your network. It also identifies the class of network
assigned. The network part takes two bytes of the IPv4 address.
Host Part
This is the part of the IPv4 address that you can assign to each host. It uniquely identifies this
machine on your network. For all hosts on your network, the network part of the IP address will be
the same and host part will be changing.

42
5.1.3 IP Address and Classes

The IP hierarchy contains many classes of the IP addresses. Broadly, the IPv4 addressing system is
divided into five classes of IP address. All the five classes are identified by the first octet of the IP
address.
The different classes of the IPv4 address are the following:
1. Class A address
2. Class B address
3. Class C address
4. Class D address
5. Class E address

5.1.3.1 Class A Address

The first bit of the first octet is always set to zero, so that the first octet ranges from 1 –> 127. The
class A address only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x. The IP range 127.x.x.x is reserved
for loop back IP addresses. The default subnet mask for class A IP address is 255.0.0.0. This means it
can have 126 networks (27-2) and 16777214 hosts (224-2). Class A IP address format is
thus: 0NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.

5.1.3.2 Class B Address

Here the first two bits in the first two bits are set to zero. Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x
to 191.255.x.x. The default subnet mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x. Class B has 16384 (214) Network
addresses and 65534 (216-2) Host addresses. Class B IP address format
is: 10NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.

5.1.3.3 Class C Address

The first octet of this class has its first 3 bits set to 110. Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x to
223.255.255.x. The default subnet mask for Class C is 255.255.255.x. Class C gives 2097152 (221)
Network addresses and 254 (28-2) Host addresses. Class C IP address format
is: 110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH

5.1.3.4 Class D Address

The first four bits of the first octet in class D IP address are set to 1110. Class D has IP address rage
from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Class D is reserved for Multicasting. In multicasting data is not

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intended for a particular host, but multiple ones. That is why there is no need to extract host address
from the class D IP addresses. The Class D does not have any subnet mask.

5.1.3.5 Class E Address

The class E IP addresses are reserved for experimental purpose only for R&D or study. IP addresses
in the class E ranges from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. This class too is not equipped with any
subnet mask.

Given an IP address, its class can be determined from the three high-order bits (the three left-most
bits in the first octet), the below figure shows the significance in the three high order bits and the
range of addresses that fall into each class.

IPv4 addresses

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5.2 Network Masks
A network mask helps you know which portion of the address identifies the network and which
portion of the address identifies the node. Class A, B, and C networks have default masks, also
known as natural masks, as shown here:

1. Class A: 255.0.0.0

2. Class B: 255.255.0.0

3. Class C: 255.255.255.0

4. We can’t have mix of 1s and 0s in subnet mask. Only consecutive 1s is followed by consecutive 0s

Table 4: Default subnet masks for each Available TCP/IP network classes

Address Class Bits for Subnet Mask Subnet Mask

Class A 11111111 00000000 00000000 00000000 255.0.0.0

Class B 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 255.255.0.0

Class C 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000 255.255.255.0

An IP address on a Class A network that has not been subnetted would have an address/mask pair
similar to: 8.20.15.1 255.0.0.0. In order to see how the mask helps you identify the network and node
parts of the address, convert the address and mask to binary numbers.

8.20.15.1 = 00001000.00010100.00001111.00000001

255.0.0.0 = 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

Once you have the address and the mask represented in binary, then identification of the network and
host ID is easier. Any address bits which have corresponding mask bits set to 1 represent the network
ID. Any address bits that have corresponding mask bits set to 0 represent the node ID.

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8.20.15.1 = 00001000.00010100.00001111.00000001

255.0.0.0 = 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

-----------------------------------

netid | host id
netid = 00001000 = 8

hostid = 00010100.00001111.00000001 = 20.15.1

Chapter Six: IPv4 – Subnetting

6.1 Introduction
A subnetwork or subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network. The practice of dividing a network
into two or more networks is called subnetting. Subnetting an IP network is to separate a big network
into smaller multiple networks for reorganization and security purposes. All nodes (hosts) in a
subnetwork see all packets transmitted by any node in a network. Performance of a network is
adversely affected under heavy traffic load due to collisions and retransmissions.

6.2 Subnet Mask

A Subnet mask is a 32-bit number that masks an IP address, and divides the IP address into network
address and host address. Subnet Mask is made by setting network bits to all "1"s and setting host bits
to all "0"s. Within a given network, two host addresses are reserved for special purpose, and cannot
be assigned to hosts. The "0" address is assigned a network address and "255" is assigned to a
broadcast address, and they cannot be assigned to hosts.

In a Class A address, the first octet is the network portion, so the Class A has a major network
address of 1.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255. Octets 2, 3, and 4 (the next 24 bits) are for the network manager
to divide into subnets and hosts as anyone sees fit. Class A addresses are used for networks that have
more than 65,536 hosts (actually, up to 16777214 hosts!).

In a Class B address, the first two octets are the network portion, so the Class B has a major network
address of 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255. Octets 3 and 4 (16 bits) are for local subnets and hosts. Class
B addresses is used for networks that have between 256 and 65534 hosts.

In a Class C address, the first three octets are the network portion. The Class C has a major network
address of 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.255. Octet 4 (8 bits) is for local subnets and hosts - perfect for
networks with less than 254 hosts.

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 Table 5: Summary of IPV4 classes

Class A Networks 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 Supports 16 million hosts on each of 127

Class B Networks
128.1.0.1 to 191.255.255.254 Supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000
networks

Class C Networks 192.0.1.1 to 223.255.254.254 Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million

Class D Networks 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 Reserved for multicast groups.

Class E Networks 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.254 Reserved.

6.3 Understanding a Subnetting

Subnetting allows you to create multiple logical networks that exist within a single Class A, B, or C
network. If you do not subnet, you are only able to use one network from your Class A, B, or C
network, which is unrealistic.

Each data link on a network must have a unique network ID, with every node on that link being a
member of the same network. If you break a major network (Class A, B, or C) into smaller
subnetworks, it allows you to create a network of interconnecting subnetworks. Each data link on this
network would then have a unique network/subnetwork ID. Any device, or gateway, that
connects n networks/subnetworks has n distinct IP addresses, one for each network / subnetwork that
it interconnects.

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In order to subnet a network, extend the natural mask with some of the bits from the host ID portion
of the address in order to create a subnetwork ID. For example, given a Class C network of
204.17.5.0 which has a natural mask of 255.255.255.0, you can create subnets in this manner:

204.17.5.0 - 11001100.00010001.00000101.00000000

255.255.255.224 - 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000

--------------------------|sub|----

By extending the mask to be 255.255.255.224, you have taken three bits (indicated by "sub") from
the original host portion of the address and used them to make subnets. With these three bits, it is
possible to create eight subnets. With the remaining five host ID bits, each subnet can have up to 32
host addresses, 30 of which can actually be assigned to a device since host ids of all zeros or all ones
are not allowed (it is very important to remember this). So, with this in mind, these subnets have been
created.

204.17.5.0 255.255.255.224 host address range 1 to 30

204.17.5.32 255.255.255.224 host address range 33 to 62

204.17.5.64 255.255.255.224 host address range 65 to 94

204.17.5.96 255.255.255.224 host address range 97 to 126

204.17.5.128 255.255.255.224 host address range 129 to 158

204.17.5.160 255.255.255.224 host address range 161 to 190

204.17.5.192 255.255.255.224 host address range 193 to 222

204.17.5.224 255.255.255.224 host address range 225 to 254

Example 1

Now that you have an understanding of subnetting, put this knowledge to use. In this example, you
are given two addresses / mask combinations, written with the prefix/length notation, which have
been assigned to two devices. Your task is to determine if these devices are on the same subnet or
different subnets. You can use the address and mask of each device in order to determine to which
subnet each address belongs.

DeviceA: 172.16.17.30/20

DeviceB: 172.16.28.15/20

Determine the Subnet for DeviceA:

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172.16.17.30 - 10101100.00010000.00010001.00011110

255.255.240.0 - 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000

-----------------| sub|------------

Subnet = 10101100.00010000.00010000.00000000 = 172.16.16.0

Looking at the address bits that have a corresponding mask bit set to one, and setting all the other
address bits to zero (this is equivalent to performing a logical "AND" between the mask and address),
shows you to which subnet this address belongs. In this case, DeviceA belongs to subnet 172.16.16.0.

Determine the Subnet for DeviceB:

172.16.28.15 - 10101100.00010000.00011100.00001111

255.255.240.0 - 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000

-----------------| sub|------------

Subnet = 10101100.00010000.00010000.00000000 = 172.16.16.0

From these determinations, DeviceA and DeviceB have addresses that are part of the same subnet.

Example 2

Given the Class C network of 204.15.5.0/24, subnet the network in order to create the network in the
below figure with the host requirements shown.

Looking at the network shown in the above figure, you can see that you are required to create five
subnets. The largest subnet must support 28 host addresses. Is this possible with a Class C network?
If so, then how?

You can start by looking at the subnet requirement. In order to create the five needed subnets you
would need to use three bits from the Class C host bits. Two bits would only allow you four subnets
(22).

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