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DATA MANAGEMENT Population and Sample

STATISTICS  Population: Includes all objects of interest.

 It is frequently used to refer to recorded data, such  Sample: Only a portion of the population.
as:  Parameters: Associated with the population and
o The number of traffic accidents denoted using Greek letters (e.g., μ, σ).
o The size of enrollment  Statistics: Associated with samples and denoted
o The number of patients visiting a clinic using Roman letters (e.g., x̄ , s).
 Statistics is also used to denote characteristics Variable
calculated for a set of data, for example: A variable refers to a factor, property, attribute,
o Mean characteristic, or behavior that:
o Standard deviation
o Correlation  Differentiates one group, set, or condition from
 Statistics refers to statistical methodology and another.
theory.  Takes on two or more dimensions, categories, or
 Statistics is a body of techniques and procedures levels.
dealing with the collection,  May be qualitative or quantitative.
organization/presentation, analysis, and Examples:
interpretation of information that can be stated  Sex, socio-economic status, geographic location,
numerically. managerial style, motivational factors.
Steps in Statistical Investigation
Types of Variables:
1. Dependent Variables: Depend on controlling
1. Defining the Problem
factors.
2. Collection of Data
2. Independent Variables: Act as the controlling
o Refers to the process of obtaining factors.
numerical measurements.
3. Tabulation and Presentation of Data
o Refers to the organization of data in Classification of Variables:
tables, graphs, or charts so that logical
conclusions can be derived from them.  Discrete Variables:
4. Analysis of Data o Result from a finite or countable number of
o Pertains to the process of deriving from the possible values.
given data relevant information from which o Examples: Number of people playing
numerical descriptions can be formulated. baseball, golf scores.
5. Interpretation of Data  Continuous Variables:
o Refers to the task of drawing conclusions o Result from infinitely many possible values
from the analyzed data. on a continuous scale with no gaps or
interruptions.
Branches of Statistics o Examples: Distance, force, time.
 Descriptive Statistics  Qualitative Variables:
o The collection, enumeration, classification, and o Take the form of attributes or categories.
graphical representation of data. o Examples: Race, sex, religion, “YES” or
o The computation of values to describe the “NO” responses.
characteristics of data.  Quantitative Variables:
Example: o Measurable quantities.
 The census conducted by the NSO: o Examples: Weight, height, temperature.
o All residents are requested to provide
information, such as age, sex, and marital Scales of Measurements
status. 1. Nominal Scale:
o The data obtained is compiled and o Consists of mutually exclusive categories
arranged into tables and graphs that without qualitative differentiation.
describe the population's characteristics at o Examples: Names, labels, political parties,
a given time.
gender (male or female), yes/no responses.
 Inferential Statistics
o Key Feature: Cannot be arranged in an
o Reaching conclusions about large groups of
ordering scheme.
data by studying the characteristics of samples
2. Ordinal Scale:
drawn from the population.
o Data can be arranged in an order, but
o Making inferences on previously formulated
differences between values are either
hypotheses.
indeterminable or meaningless.
Example:
o Examples:
 Opinion polls such as the SWS survey:
o A sample of individuals (frequently fewer  Placement in a ladder
tournament.
than 2000) is selected, and their
 Rankings of Olympic competitors.
preferences are tabulated.
o Inferences are made about how more than o Key Feature: Ordering says nothing about
the magnitude of differences.
80 million people would vote if an election
3. Interval Scale:
were held that day.
o Equal numerical differences correspond to
equal increments in the property.
 o Does not have a true zero point, though a 2. Tabular Form
zero point may be defined arbitrarily. o Organizes and summarizes data into rows
o Examples: IQ test scores, Celsius and columns.
temperature, degree of agreement on a o Allows for efficient comparison of figures
five-point scale. under each category.
4. Ratio Scale:
o Includes an inherent zero starting point, Frequency Distribution Table
indicating the absence of a quantity. A tabular arrangement of data categorized by
o Features: classes/categories with their corresponding class
 Ordered structure. frequencies.
 Equal distances between scale
points. Definition of Terms
 Proportional comparisons. 1. Class Interval and Class Limits
o Examples: Distance, force, time. o A class interval (e.g., 60–62) defines the
o Key Restriction: Negative values cannot class.
exist. o Class limits:
 A person cannot run a race in  Lower Class Limit: Smaller number
negative seconds or weigh less (e.g., 60).
than zero pounds.  Upper Class Limit: Larger number
(e.g., 62).
Collection of Data 2. Class Boundaries
Accurate and correct data is essential for any statistical o Precise expressions of the class limits,
investigation. Ensuring the correctness and accuracy of the usually 0.5 less or more than the limit's
data requires knowledge of the right sources and collection value.
methods. o Also referred to as true limits, situated
between the upper limit of one interval and
Types of Data the lower limit of the next.
1. Primary Data 3. Class Frequency
o Data gathered firsthand or directly from the o The number of observations belonging to a
original source. class interval.
o Examples: Autobiographies, diaries, first- 4. Class Mark/Midpoint (X)
o The midpoint of a class, calculated as:
person accounts.
2. Secondary Data
o Information taken from previously gathered
and published or unpublished data.
o Examples: Books, magazines, journals, 5. Class Size, Width, or Length
newspapers, theses, and dissertations. o The difference between the upper and
lower limits of a class interval.
Methods of Data Collection
1. Interview Method Here is the content arranged for better readability without
o A person-to-person exchange between the altering the wording:
interviewer and the interviewee.
o Ensures consistent and precise
information.
2. Questionnaire Method
o Written responses to prepared questions. Steps in Constructing Frequency Distribution
o Used to elicit answers to a study's
problem. 1. Find the largest and smallest values and
3. Registration Method compute for the range:
o Data collection enforced by law, ensuring
information is systematized and available Range = Maximum - Minimum
to all.
4. Observation Method
o Involves observing the behavior of 2. Compute for the number of classes and class
individuals or organizations and their width using the following formulas:
outcomes. o Number of Classes (k):
o Useful when subjects cannot talk or hear.
5. Experiment Method
o Used to determine cause-and-effect
relationships under controlled conditions. o Class Width (c):

Presentation of Data
To provide useful information, data should be summarized or
organized into a reduced form that is suitable for effective
analysis and interpretation. 3. Organize the class interval. Use the lowest score
as the lower limit of the lowest class. Add cc to each
succeeding lower limit per class.
Methods of Presentation 4. Tally each score into the appropriate class interval.
1. Textual Form 5. Count the tally column and summarize it under "f"
o Presents data in a paragraph or narrative (frequency). Then, calculate the total number of
format. frequencies (N=N = total).
 6. Compute the Midpoint (X) for each class interval:
7. Find the cumulative frequencies (if necessary)

Graphical Form
- Data can also be presented in graphical form, offering an B. Mean for Grouped Data - Used for data organized in a
effective and visually creative way to highlight important frequency distribution table.
relationships through solid, colorful figures.

Types of Graphs
a. Histogram
 A histogram uses vertical bars to represent data,
with the abscissa (x-axis) showing class boundaries
and the ordinate (y-axis) representing frequencies.
 Steps to Construct a Histogram:
1. Prepare the x-axis and y-axis. Characteristics of the Mean
2. Label the x-axis with class boundaries and 1. Most reliable measure of central tendency.
the y-axis with frequencies. 2. Summarizes data in an easy-to-understand
3. Draw bars on the x-axis for each class manner.
interval, ensuring: 3. Includes all data points in its calculation.
 Width of each bar corresponds to 4. Widely used in statistical applications.
the class boundaries. 5. Best suited for symmetrical or normal distributions.
 Height represents the frequency. 6. Sensitive to extreme values (outliers).
4. Ensure the center of the bar aligns with the
midpoint of the class interval.  Median ( ̃ )
b. Frequency Polygon  The median is a measure of central tendency that
 A frequency polygon connects points representing represents the middle value in a data set. It divides
the midpoints of class intervals with lines. the data into two equal halves, with 50% of the data
 Steps to Construct a Frequency Polygon: below it and 50% above it.
1. Label the x-axis with class midpoints and
the y-axis with frequencies.
2. Mark points on the graph at the midpoints
of each class interval where the frequency
is concentrated.
3. Connect these points with straight lines.
4. Extend lines to the x-axis at both ends for
completion.
Interpreting Organized Data
Once data is organized into tables or graphs (like histograms
or frequency polygons), the next step is analysis and
interpretation.
 Analysis: Identifying patterns, trends, or significant
observations in the data.
 Interpretation: Making sense of the numerical data
to draw meaningful conclusions and insights. Characteristics of the Median
1. Easy to understand: Simple to compute and
Measures of Central Tendency interpret.
 Mean ( ̅ ) 2. Divides the data: The median divides the data into
 The mean is the most commonly used measure of two equal halves.
central tendency, representing the average of a data 3. Not affected by extreme values: Unlike the mean,
set. It is sensitive to every value and can be computed the median is not influenced by outliers or extreme
for both ungrouped and grouped data. values in the data.

A. Mean for Ungrouped Data  Mode ( ̂ )

- The mode is the value or values that appear most
1. Arithmetic Mean: The sum of all values divided by frequently in a data set. It represents the most common
the total number of values. score or observation in the series.

Types of Distributions Based on Mode:

1. Unimodal: A distribution with only one mode (a
single value occurs most frequently).
2. Bimodal: A distribution with two modes (two values
occur with the highest frequency and are tied).

2. Weighted Arithmetic Mean: Accounts for different

weights of items.
 3. Multimodal: A distribution with more than two the sum of squared deviations by n−1n - 1 (degrees
modes (multiple values occur with the same highest of freedom).
frequency).

3. Standard
Measure of Dispersion Deviation
 The square
 A root of the
data is. It provides insights into the variability or variance,
consistency within a data set. There are several bringing the
measures of dispersion, including the range, units back to
variance, and standard deviation. the same as
the original
data set.

A. Range
 simplest measure of dispersion, calculated as the
difference between the highest (maximum) and
lowest (minimum) values in the data set.

 Characteristics:
1. Easy to compute and understand.
2. Emphasizes the extreme values (outliers).
3. Highly sensitive to changes in the
minimum or maximum value, making it an
unstable and unreliable measure.
To compute for the variance and standard deviation of
ungrouped data, follow these steps:

1. Find the Mean: Calculate the mean (Xˉ\bar{X}) of

the data.
2. Subtract the Mean: Subtract the mean from each
 Example: data point and square the result.
3. Summation of Squared Differences: Add up all
o Set A: 5, 7, 8, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 → the squared differences from Step 2.
Range = 12 - 5 = 7 4. Compute Variance: Divide the sum of squared
differences by n−1n - 1 (for a sample).
5. Compute Standard Deviation: Take the square
o Set B: 8, 9, 9, 10, 11, 11, 12, 12 → Range
root of the variance.
= 12 - 8 = 4
o Set C: 7, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9, 10, 10, 10 → Range
= 10 - 7 = 3
 Interpretation: Set A has greater variability
compared to Sets B and C.
B. Variance and Standard Deviation

 Variance measures how far, on average, each data

point is from the mean of the data set.
o Sample Variance (s2s^2) and Population
Variance (σ2\sigma^2) are computed
differently.
1. Variance of a Population
 The population variance is the average of the
squared deviations from the population mean.

2. Variance of a Sample
 The sample variance is an unbiased estimator of
the population variance. It is calculated by dividing Measures of Relative Position

Measures of relative position describe how a particular value

compares to the other values in a data set. They are useful
for understanding where a data point stands in relation to
others. These measures include standard scores (z-
scores), percentiles, quartiles, and box-and-whisker
plots.
1. Standard Scores (z-Scores) 3. Draw a vertical line inside the box at the median
(Q2).
A z-score indicates how many standard deviations a 4. Draw whiskers extending from the box to the
particular value is from the mean of a dataset. It minimum and maximum values.
standardizes values, making it easier to compare data points
from different distributions. Linear Regression and Correlation

Interpretation of z-Scores: Linear regression and correlation are statistical methods

used to model relationships between two (or more) variables.
 z < 0: The value is below the mean. Linear regression fits a line to the data, while correlation
 z > 0: The value is above the mean. measures the strength and direction of the relationship
 z = 0: The value is equal to the mean. between two variables.
 z = 1: The value is 1 standard deviation above the
mean. 1. Scatter Plot
 z = -1: The value is 1 standard deviation below the A scatter plot is used to visually represent the relationship
mean. between two variables. Each point on the plot represents a
 z = 2: The value is 2 standard deviations above the pair of values. Scatter plots help to:
mean.
 z = -2: The value is 2 standard deviations below the  Determine if the relationship between the variables
mean. is linear.
 Detect any outliers (data points that fall far from the
2. Percentile general trend).
A percentile indicates the percentage of data points that fall  Visualize the strength and direction of the
below a given value in a data set. It is useful for relationship (positive, negative, or null).
understanding the relative position of a value within the
distribution. Types of Correlation Patterns in Scatter Plots:

 Positive Correlation: Both variables increase

together (points trend upward).
 Negative Correlation: As one variable increases,
3. Quartiles the other decreases (points trend downward).
Quartiles divide the data into four equal parts, representing  No Correlation: No clear pattern between the
the distribution of values. variables (scattered points).
 Q1: The first quartile is the median of the lower half 2. Linear Regression
of the data (25th percentile). Linear regression is a method to model the relationship
 Q2: The second quartile is the median of the entire between two variables using a linear equation. One variable
data set (50th percentile). is independent (explanatory), and the other is dependent
 Q3: The third quartile is the median of the upper (response).
half of the data (75th percentile). 3.

Example:

Find the quartiles for the data set:

23, 21, 24, 21, 22, 30, 16, 18, 22, 28, 25, 26, 30

 Step 1: Arrange the data:

16, 18, 21, 21, 22, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 30, 30
 Step 2: Find the median (Q2): Significance F and P-values
Median = 23 - To determine if the results of the regression analysis
 Step 3: Find the median of the lower half (Q1): are statistically significant, you can look at Significance F
16, 18, 21, 21, 22, 22 → Q1 = 21 and P-values:
 Step 4: Find the median of the upper half (Q3):  Significance F: If this value is less than 0.05, the
24, 25, 26, 28, 30, 30 → Q3 = 27 regression model is statistically significant.
 P-value: If the P-value for any independent variable
4. Box-and-Whisker Plots is greater than 0.05, it should be removed from the
A box-and-whisker plot visually represents the distribution model, and the regression should be recalculated.
of data using the five-number summary: 4. Correlation
- Correlation measures the strength and direction of the
 Minimum value relationship between two variables. The result is represented
 First quartile (Q1) by the correlation coefficient (r), which ranges from -1.0 to
 Median (Q2) +1.0:
 Third quartile (Q3)
 Maximum value  r = +1: Perfect positive correlation (both variables
increase together).
Steps to Construct a Box-and-Whisker Plot:
 r = -1: Perfect negative correlation (one variable
1. Draw a number line that includes the minimum increases as the other decreases).
and maximum values.  r = 0: No correlation.
2. Draw a rectangular box from Q1 to Q3. Strength of Correlation (based on the absolute value of
(r):
 0.00 - 0.19: Very weak
 0.20 - 0.39: Weak
 0.40 - 0.59: Moderate
 0.60 - 0.79: Strong
 0.80 - 1.0: Very strong

5. Pearson Correlation
- Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) measures
the strength of a linear relationship between two
variables. It assumes that the data is:

 Interval or ratio level

 Linearly related
CONCEPTS AND TRANSFORMATIONS OF GEOMETRIC
SHAPES

EUCLID
– Father of Geometry
– 5 Postulates – Book of Elements

Point
– no length, no width, no thickness
– it’s just an idea

TRANSFORMATION IN MATHEMATICS

1. Rotation
- no change, rotates an object
2. Reflection
- flipping
3. Translation
- Moving
4. Dilation
- resizing but the shape is still the same

INTEREST

SIMPLE INTEREST

Is = Prt
Is
P – Principal
R – Rate
T- Time
Is – Simple Interest P R T

Maturity Value

MV = P + (Prt)

COMPOUND INTEREST

Ic = P(1+r/n)nt

P – Principal
R – Rate
T- Time
N – compounding period
Semi-annually
Quarterly
Annually
Ic – Compound Interest

Stocks: Dividends

- if invested in this, you will be the shareholder of the assets

- risky
- ownership, equity (the higher the percentage you invested,
the higher your earnings will be)
- over time, it will increase if the company/business you
invested performs well, it will decrease if the
company/business you invested do not perform well

Bonds: Coupons
- loans from you to a company/business/government
- no equity
- lesser risk
- fixed-income, predetermined payments over a specific term