First language

Acquisition
Muneerah Al Shuhail
 Introduction

 Acquiring a first language is an amazing process to witness for

several reasons:

1. Every language is complex.

2. Before the age of 5, the child knows most of the complicated system
of grammar.
 Use the syntactic, phonological, morphological and semantic rules of
the language.
 Join sentences.
 Ask questions.
 Use appropriate pronouns.
 Negate sentences.
 Form relative clauses.
 Basic requirements
1.A child requires interaction with other language-users in order to

bring the general language capacity s/he has into operation.

 Genie

 Cultural transmission

2.The child must be physically capable.

 Being able to speak

 Being able to hear

 Is hearing enough?

 Interaction (The crucial requirement)

 All these requirements are related.

The acquisition schedule

 All normal children develop language at roughly

the same time, along the same schedule.

 The biological schedule is related to the

maturation of the infant’s brain to cope with the
linguistic input.

 Young children acquire the language by

identifying the regularities in what is heard and
applying those regularities in what they say.
Caregiver speech

 A type of simplified speech adopted by

someone who spends time interacting with a
child is called caregiver speech.

 Caregiver speech is characterized by:

 Frequent use of questions
 Simplified lexicon
 Phonological reduction
 Higher pitch- extra loudness
 Stressed intonation
 Simple sentences
 A lot of repetition
 cont.,

 Caregiver speech is also called ‘motherese’.

 caregiver speech Assigns interactive roles to
young children
 E.g.
MOTHER: Look!
CHILD: (touches picture)
MOTHER: what are those?
CHILD: (vocalizes a babble string and smiles)
MOTHER: yes, there are rabbits
CHILD: Vocalizes and smiles
MOTHER: (laughs) yes, rabbit
Cooing

 Cooing:
1. Few weeks: cooing and gurgling,
playing with sounds. Their abilities are
constrained by physiological limitations
2. They seem to be discovering phonemes
at this point.
3. Producing sequences of vowel-like
sounds- high vowels [i] and [u].
 Babbling

 Babbling:
1. Different vowels and consonants ba-ba-
ba and ga-ga-ga
2. 9-10 months- intonation patterns and
combination of ba-ba-ba-da-da
3. Nasal sounds also appear ma-ma-ma
4. 10-11- use of vocalization to express
emotions
5. Late stage- complex syllable
combination (ma-da-ga-ba)
 The one-word stage

 12-18 months.

 recognizable single-unit utterances.

 single terms are uttered for everyday objects “milk”,

“cookie”, “cat”, “cup”, and “spoon” [pun].

 Holophrastic (wasa = what's that)

 The two-word stage
 Vocabulary moves beyond 50 words

 By 2 years old, children produce utterances ‘baby chair’,

‘mommy eat’

 Interpretation depends on context

 Adults behave as if communication is taking place.

 The child not only produces speech, but receives feedback

confirming that the utterance worked as a contribution to the
interaction.

 By this age, whether the child is producing 200 or 300 words,

he or she will be capable of understanding 5 times as many
 Telegraphic speech
 2-2½ years:

1. The child produces ‘multiple-word’ speech.

2. The child has already developed sentence-building capacity & can get
the word order correct („cat drink milk‟, „daddy go bye-bye’)

3. A number of grammatical inflections begin to appear.

4. Simple prepositions (in, on) are also used

5. Vocabulary is expanding rapidly.

 3 years:

1. Vocabulary has grown more.

2. Better pronunciation
 The acquisition process
 The child does not acquire the language by
imitating adults- but by trying out constructions
and testing them. They also do not respond to
grammatical corrections.

 CHILD: my teacher holded the baby rabbit and

we patted them
MOTHER: did you say your teacher held the baby
rabbit?
CHILD: yes. she holded the baby rabbit and we
patted them
MOTHER: Did you say she held them tightly?
CHILD: no, she holded them loosely
Developing Morphology

 By 2-and-a-half years old- use of some

inflectional morphemes to indicate the
grammatical function of nouns and verbs.

 The first inflection to appear is –ing after it comes

the –s for plural.

 Overgeneralization: the child applies –s to words

like ‘foots’ ‘mans’ and later ‘feets’ ‘mens’
 Developing
morphology
 The use of possessive ‘s’ appears ‘mommy’s bag’

 Forms of verb to be appear ‘is’ and ‘are’

 The –ed for past tense appears and it is also

overgeneralized as in ‘goed’ or holded’

 Finally –s marker for 3rd person singular preset

tense appears with full verbs first then with
auxiliaries (does-has)
 Developing syntax

 The development of two syntactic structures- three stages

 Forming questions
 Forming negatives
 Forming questions
 1st stage:
 Insert where and who to the beginning of an
expression with rising intonation
E.g. sit chair? Where horse go?
 2nd stage:
 More complex expression
E.g. why you smiling? You want eat?
 3rd stage:
 Inversion of subject and verb
E.g. will you help me? What did I do?
 Forming negatives

 Stage 1:
 Putting not and no at the beginning
e.g. not teddy bear, no sit here
 Stage 2:
 Don’t and can’t appear but still use no and not before
VERBS
e.g. he no bite you, I don’t want it
 Stage 3:
 didn’t and won’t appear
e.g. I didn’t caught it, she won’t go
 Developing Semantics

 During the two-word stage children use their limited

vocabulary to refer to a large number of unrelated
objects.
 Overextension: overextend the meaning of a word on the
basis of similarities of shape, sound, and size.
e.g. use ball to refer to an apple, and egg, a grape and a
ball.
 This is followed by a gradual process of narrowing down.
 Developing Semantics

 Antonymous relations are acquired late

 The distinction between more/less, before/after seem to be later

acquisition.
FLA (L1A) vs SLA (L2A)
Assignment

 What are the differences between FLA and SLA? And

what makes SLA more difficult and less successful?
Thank You!!
Second language acquisition/ learning
Muneerah Al Shuhail

1
 Introduction

• Children acquire their 1st language really fast and without any effort.

• All children develop language at roughly the same age.

• The question is: if 1st language acquisition is so straightforward, why
is learning a 2nd language so difficult?

• Think about a baby acquiring his first language.

• Think about a person acquiring a second language.

• What similarities and differences are there in the two processes?

2
 Acquisition and learning
• Acquisition: the gradual development of ability in a
language by using it naturally in communicative situations
with others who know the language.

• Learning: a more conscious process of accumulating

knowledge of the features of a language (e.g. vocabulary
& grammar) in institutional setting.

4
 Acquisition and learning
• Activities associated with learning:
used in schools
result in more knowledge “about” the language (as
demonstrated in tests) than fluency in using the language (as
demonstrated in social interaction).
• Activities associated with acquisition:
experienced by young children
experienced by those who “pick upfrom L2 from long periods
of interaction with native speakers.
• Those individuals whose L2 exposure is primarily a learning type
of experience tend not to develop the same kind of general
proficiency as those who have had more of an acquisition type of 5
experience.
 Acquisition barriers
• Why is learning an L2 different from acquiring an L1?

Factor L1 L2

Age childhood teenage or adult years

Interaction time constant a few hours each week of school

interaction time

Responsibilities Little to do a lot of other things going on

6
Another No Yes
language?
 Acquisition barriers

⚫ Why learning L2 is fundamentally different from L1?

⚫Age – encounter the 2l during their teenage or adult
years.
⚫Interaction is not constant – few hours each week of
school
 time rather than via constant interaction experience as
a child.
⚫Another language – with an already known language
available for most of their daily communications.
 Acquisition barriers

• Many adults manage to overcome the difficulties and develop an

ability to use the L2 effectively- though not usually sounding like
native speakers.

• e.g Arnold Schwarzenegger, actor/ Governor of California, whose

accent is clearly noticeable yet who is as linguistically proficient as
any native speaker of American English.
7
• This provides evidence for the Critical Period Hypothesis
 Acquisition barriers

• However, even in ideal acquisition situations, very few adults seem to

reach native-like proficiency in using an L2.
• There are individuals who can achieve great expertise in the written
language, but not the spoken language.

• e.g. Joseph Conrad:

wrote novels in English that became classics of English literature
his English speech retained the strong Polish accent of his L1
• This suggests that some features of an L2 (e.g. vocabulary and
grammar) are easier to learn than others (e.g. pronunciation) 7
 Acquisition barriers
• Against this view, it has been demonstrated that students in
their early teens are quicker and more effective L2 learners in
the classroom than seven-year-olds.
• The optimum age for learning may be during the years from
about 10 to16 when:
• the flexibility of our inherent capacity for language has not
been completely lost

• the maturation of cognitive skills allows a more effective

7
analysis of the regular features of the L2 being learned
 Acquisition barriers

• Affective (not effective) = Affections/ feelings

• There are other types of acquisition barriers that might inhibit the
learning process

• Self-consciousness
• Unwillingness
• Embarrassment
• Lack of empathy with the other culture.
• Dull textbooks, unpleasant classrooms, an exhausting schedule
of study or work, etc.
• Basically, if we are stressed, uncomfortable, self-conscious or 7
unmotivated, we are unlikely to learn very much.
 Acquisition barriers
• Children may overcome such factors quickly.
• Studies have shown that children quickly overcome their inhibitions
as they try to use new words and phrases.

• Adults can sometimes overcome their inhibitions too.

Experiment:
• In one interesting study, a group of adult L2 learners volunteered to
have their self-consciousness levels reduced by having their alcohol
levels gradually increased

• Up to a certain point, the pronunciation of the L2 noticeably

improved 7
• After a certain number of drinks, pronunciations deteriorated rapidly
Thank you

26
Second Language
Acquisition
Dr. Muneerah Al Shuhail
 The monitor model

The acquisition-learning hypothesis

The natural order hypothesis

Content
The monitor hypothesis

The input hypothesis

The affective filter hypothesis

The monitor model

 In the 1970s, an important theory of L2 learning was put forward. It

was known as the Monitor Model and consisted of five parts. It was
developed in reaction to earlier behaviorist theories of SLA. Even
though most of its parts have been discredited for lack of empirical
evidence, it did represent an important change in thinking and, as
such, represents an important milestone in the history of SLA.
 The Krashen Monitor Model, developed by Stephen Krashen in the
1970s and 1980s, is a theory of second language acquisition (SLA)
that proposes several key hypotheses regarding how individuals
acquire a second language. The model consists of five main
hypotheses:
  Krashen (1982) assumed that L2 learners have two independent
means of developing knowledge of an L2: one way is through what
he called acquisition, and the other is through learning.
 acquisition [is] a process similar, if not identical to the way children
develop ability in their first language. Language acquisition is a
subconscious process; language acquirers are not usually aware of
the fact that they are acquiring language, but are only aware of
the fact that they are using the language for communication. The
result of language acquisition, acquired competence, is also
subconscious. We are generally not consciously aware of the rules
The of the languages we have acquired. Instead, we have a “feel” for
correctness. Grammatical sentences “sound” right, or “feel” right,
and errors feel wrong, even if we do not consciously know what rule
acquisition- was violated. . . . In nontechnical terms, acquisition is “picking up” a
language.
learning  Learning refers to conscious knowledge of a second language,
knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able to talk
hypothesis about them. In nontechnical terms, learning is “knowing about” a
language, known to most people as “grammar”, or “rules”. Some
synonyms include formal knowledge of a language or explicit
learning.

 How are these two knowledge types used differently?

  The Monitor is a construct central to Krashen’s Monitor Model. The
Monitor is related to the distinction between acquisition and
learning. Recall that only the acquired system is responsible for
initiating speech. The learned system has a special function—to
serve as a monitor and, hence, to alter the output of the acquired
system.
 The acquired system is used to produce language. The acquired
system generates utterances because, in producing language,
learners focus on meaning, not on form. The learned system serves
as an “inspector” of the acquired system. It checks to ensure the
The correctness of the utterance against the knowledge in the learned
system.
monitor  The Monitor is intended to link the acquired and learned systems in
a situation of language use. The Monitor consists of learned
hypothesis knowledge, and the only function of learned knowledge is to edit
utterances. Following from this is the idea that the Monitor can only
be used in production; it is useless in comprehension. How, then, do
learners in a classroom setting ever comprehend the L2, as, for all
intents and purposes, they have no acquired system?
  According to this part of the Monitor Model, elements of
language (or language rules) are acquired in a
predictable order. The order is the same, regardless of
The natural whether or not instruction is involved. The “natural order”
was determined by a synthesis of the results of the
order morpheme order studies and is a result of the acquired
hypothesis system, without interference from the learned system.
  In Krashen’s view, the Input Hypothesis answers the basic question
of how learning takes place. L2s are acquired “by understanding
messages, or by receiving ‘comprehensible input’”.
 Krashen defined comprehensible input as the bit of language that is
heard/read and that is slightly ahead of a learner’s current state of
grammatical knowledge.
 Language containing structures a learner already knows essentially
serves no purpose in acquisition. Similarly, language containing
structures way ahead of a learner’s current knowledge is not useful.
 Krashen defined a learner’s current state of knowledge as i and the
The input next stage as i + 1. Thus the input a learner is exposed to must be at
the i + 1 level in order for it to be of use in terms of acquisition. “We
hypothesis move from i, our current level to i + 1, the next level along the
natural order, by understanding input containing i + 1” (1985, p. 2).
 Krashen assumed a Language Acquisition Device (LAD), that is, an
innate mental structure capable of handling both first and second
language acquisition. The input activates this innate structure, but
only input of a very specific kind (i + 1) will be useful in altering a
learner’s grammar.
 The teacher’s main role, then, is to ensure that students receive
comprehensible input.
 There are difficulties with this idea in the following: defining the
levels of knowledge – determining the sufficient quantity.
  The affective Filter was intended to account in large
part for why some people were able to learn L2s while
others were not.
 Affect, from Krashen’s perspective, is intended to
include factors such as motivation, attitude, self-
confidence, and anxiety.
 If the filter is up, input is prevented from passing through;
if input is prevented from passing through, there can be
The no acquisition. If, on the other hand, the filter is down, or
low, and if the input is comprehensible, the input will
affective reach the acquisition device, and acquisition will take
filter place.
 According to Krashen, the Affective Filter is responsible
hypothesis for individual variation in SLA and differentiates child
language acquisition from SLA, because the Affective
Filter is not something children have/use.
 The monitor model
 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: Krashen distinguishes between two ways of gaining language competence -
acquisition and learning. Acquisition is the subconscious, intuitive process where language is picked up through exposure
and interaction, similar to how children acquire their native language. Learning, on the other hand, involves conscious
knowledge of grammar rules and is the result of formal instruction. Krashen argues that acquisition is more important for
becoming fluent in a second language.
 The Natural Order Hypothesis: Krashen suggests that there is a natural order in which individuals acquire grammatical
structures in a second language. This order is believed to be universal and not significantly influenced by instruction.
Learners tend to acquire certain grammar points in a predictable sequence.
 The Monitor Hypothesis: This hypothesis states that the "monitor" is a conscious mechanism that learners use to edit and
correct their language output. It's seen as a tool that can be used to check and adjust language produced through the
process of learning, but it has limited utility in spontaneous communication, where acquisition plays a more significant
role.
 The Input Hypothesis: Krashen emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input - language that is slightly beyond the
learner's current level but still understandable. He argues that language is acquired most effectively when learners are
exposed to input that is just above their current level of proficiency.
 The Affective Filter Hypothesis: According to this hypothesis, emotional factors, such as motivation, self-confidence, and
anxiety, can act as a "filter" that influences language acquisition. When learners are motivated, relaxed, and have low
anxiety, they are more likely to acquire language successfully. Conversely, a high affective filter can hinder language
acquisition.
  The Krashen Monitor Model has had a significant impact on
the field of second language acquisition and has
influenced language teaching methods. It underscores the
importance of providing learners with meaningful and
comprehensible input while minimizing the focus on explicit
grammar instruction.
 The monitor model improves on what has been proposed
by early SLA research such as the behaviorist approaches.
As it takes into consideration various factors involved in the
SLA process e.g., input and motivation, and also attempts
The to account for the different conscious and subconscious
cognitive processes involved in SLA.
monitor  However, it's worth noting that the model has also been a
subject of debate and criticism within the field, with some
model researchers arguing for a more balanced approach that
incorporates elements of both acquisition and learning.
 Putting the parts of Krashen’s monitor model together, we
can find difficulty in relating one part to another in a
meaningful way. As well as finding tangible ways to apply
to real-life everyday L2 learning and teaching.
Discussion

 What are the areas of weakness and

strength in the monitor model?
  In the input hypothesis, Krashen argued that input much
higher than the learners’ current level of knowledge will
not be beneficial for their learning. Do you agree and
why? Can you think of examples?

Class  The affective filter hypothesis included motivation,

anxiety and other social and psychological factors in
activity the same category, do you agree with that? Why?
Any questions

Reading for the next lecture: chapter 7

Second Language
Acquisition
Dr. Muneerah Al Shuhail
Content

Universal grammar

Innate knowledge

Principles and parameters

Language acquisition device

The critical period hypothesis

Implication for SLA

Debate and criticism

 Universal Grammar (UG) is a theoretical concept in
linguistics that was developed by Noam Chomsky, a
prominent linguist and cognitive scientist.

What is Noam Chomsky first introduced the concept of

universal Universal Grammar in the mid-20th century as part of
his efforts to understand the structure and nature of
grammar human language. His groundbreaking book "Syntactic
Structures" (1957) challenged prevailing behaviorist
(UG)? theories of language acquisition and proposed that
language acquisition couldn't be explained solely
through imitation and reinforcement.
  Universal Grammar, as proposed by Noam
Chomsky, suggests that humans are born with an
innate linguistic knowledge that underlies the
What is structure of all languages.
universal
grammar?
  According to UG theory, humans are born with an innate
linguistic knowledge or a "language faculty" that
predisposes them to acquire language. This innate
knowledge provides the foundation for understanding the
structure and rules of any language.
 Universal Grammar is closely tied to Chomsky's innateness
hypothesis, which posits that humans are born with an
innate capacity for language. Chomsky argued that
children can rapidly acquire complex grammatical
structures from limited exposure, suggesting the existence of
a universal grammar shared across all languages.
 The innate knowledge, in the context of language
Innate acquisition, refers to the idea that humans are born with a
certain level of built-in linguistic knowledge or predisposition
for language. This innate knowledge includes universal
knowledge grammar principles, which are thought to be shared by all
languages. Innate knowledge encompasses the capacity
to recognize and internalize the underlying structure and
rules of language.
 According to UG theory, humans are born with an innate
capacity for language. This means that when people
embark on the process of learning a new language, they
bring with them a foundational understanding of language
structure and principles. This innate knowledge influences
the way they approach and internalize the grammar and
structure of the new language.
 Principles and parameters

Universal Principles: UG theory suggests that there are universal linguistic

principles and structures common to all human languages. These principles
include rules for word order, sentence structure, and grammatical categories,
among others.

Language-Specific parameters: While UG theory proposes the existence of

universal principles, it also acknowledges that languages exhibit variations in how
these principles are applied. Each language has its own set of specific rules and
features, but these are built upon the universal foundation.
Universal principles

Universal Grammar Principles: These are

the innate linguistic principles or rules that
are thought to be shared by all human
languages. They form the basis of our
understanding of language structure.

Here are some examples of principles:

nouns and verbs – subject object
distinction - tense and aspect –
negation – questions – agreement –
syntax and word order – recursion –
sound-meaning arbitrariness
Language-specific parameters

These are language-specific settings that

allow languages to vary in their
grammatical structures. Think of them as
switches that can be set differently in
different languages.

Here are examples of parameters:

word order parameter – noun-
adjective agreement parameter –
verb agreement parameter
  Language learners, particularly children acquiring their first
language, are believed to be born with an initial set of UG
principles but with parameters not yet fixed. Exposure to their
native language helps them set these parameters correctly.
 Example in Language Acquisition: Imagine a child born to
English-speaking parents. They are exposed to English
sentences and hear statements like "She eats apples," which
follow the SVO word order. Over time, through exposure and
input, the child sets the parameter for word order to "SVO" in
their developing grammar.
 Now, consider a child born to Japanese-speaking parents. They
hear sentences with SOV word order, like "She apples eats."
Principles Through exposure to Japanese, this child sets the parameter for
word order to "SOV" in their grammar.
and  In both cases, children are using their innate UG principles to
adapt to the specific parameters of their native language. UG
parameters principles allow them to learn the underlying structure and rules
of their language, while parameters determine the language-
specific variations.
 Language learners continue to use this process when acquiring
additional languages. The UG principles they've internalized
from their first language(s) influence their understanding and
production of subsequent languages. However, the parameters
may be reset to match the specific grammatical features of the
new language.
  Chomsky proposed the existence of a hypothetical
cognitive mechanism called the "Language Acquisition
Device" (LAD), which is responsible for language
acquisition. The LAD allows children to rapidly and
unconsciously acquire the grammar of their native
language(s).
 The Language Acquisition Device is a theoretical
Language concept proposed by Chomsky. It is often used
interchangeably with the notion of innate linguistic
acquisition knowledge. The LAD is a hypothetical cognitive
mechanism or mental structure that Chomsky suggests is
device responsible for language acquisition. It's the part of the
mind that allows infants and children to rapidly and
(LAD) unconsciously acquire the grammar of their native
language(s).
  In essence, the key distinction is that "innate knowledge"
refers to the inherent linguistic principles and rules that
humans are born with, while the "Language Acquisition
Device" is the theoretical construct that represents the
cognitive machinery or mechanism through which this
innate knowledge is put into practice during the
language acquisition process.

Innate  So, in summary, innate knowledge encompasses the

linguistic principles that humans are believed to be born
knowledge with, and the Language Acquisition Device represents
the cognitive mechanism that facilitates the actual
vs. process of language acquisition based on that innate
Language knowledge. They are closely related concepts within the
context of Chomskyan linguistics, but one (innate
acquisition knowledge) refers to the content, while the other (LAD)
refers to the mechanism or process.
device
  UG theory suggests that there is a critical period
(typically ending in adolescence) during which
language acquisition occurs most easily and effectively.
After this period, it becomes increasingly challenging to
acquire native-like proficiency in a new language.
 The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) is a concept in the
field of second language acquisition (SLA) that suggests
that there is a biologically determined period during
which a human being is most adept at acquiring a
language. Beyond this critical period, language
The critical acquisition is believed to become significantly more
challenging.
period  The CPH was initially proposed by Eric Lenneberg in his
hypothesis 1967 book "Biological Foundations of Language."
Lenneberg argued that there is a biologically
determined window of opportunity for language
acquisition based on evidence from cases of brain
damage, neurological development, and studies of
second language learners.
  Timing of the Critical Period: The critical period is often
thought to end during adolescence, typically around
the age of 7 to puberty, although the exact timing may
vary depending on individual factors.
 Linguistic Outcomes: According to the CPH, individuals
The critical who begin learning a language after the critical period
may struggle to achieve native-like proficiency in
period pronunciation and grammatical structure. They may
exhibit accent and grammatical errors that are less
hypothesis prevalent in individuals who learned the language
during the critical period.
  Individual Variation: It's important to note that the CPH does not
imply that individuals who miss the critical period cannot learn
additional languages; rather, it suggests that they may face
additional challenges in achieving native-like pronunciation and
some grammatical aspects.
 Practical Implications: The CPH has practical implications for
language education, as it suggests that early exposure to a second
language may be advantageous for achieving native-like
proficiency. However, it's important to recognize that there are
successful adult language learners, and motivation, context, and
individual factors can play significant roles in language acquisition.

The critical  Debate and Criticism: The CPH has been a subject of debate and
scrutiny in the field of SLA. Some researchers argue that while there
period may be a sensitive period for certain aspects of language
acquisition, the idea of a strict critical period has been overstated
and that adult learners can still attain high levels of proficiency.
hypothesis  In summary, the Critical Period Hypothesis is a theory that suggests
there is a biologically determined window of opportunity during
which language acquisition is most effective. While the idea has
been influential, it remains a topic of debate in the field of second
language acquisition, and many factors contribute to individual
language learning outcomes.
  In the context of SLA, UG theory suggests that the innate
linguistic knowledge can influence the process of acquiring
a second language. Learners may draw on their UG-based
knowledge of language when acquiring a new language,
Implications but they may also face challenges related to the influence
of their native language.
of the  UG theory highlights the existence of universal features
shared among all languages. Educators can leverage this
universal knowledge to identify common challenges faced by
learners from different linguistic backgrounds and develop
grammar teaching strategies that address these challenges.

theory on
SLA
  UG theory has been a subject of debate within the field
of SLA. Some researchers argue that the role of UG in
SLA may be more limited than initially proposed and
that other factors, such as input and social interaction,
play significant roles in language acquisition.
 Some linguists and researchers argue against the notion
of a biologically innate Universal Grammar and
Debate emphasize the importance of cultural and
environmental factors in language variation and
and acquisition.
criticism  Critics argue that UG theory has not provided concrete
and testable empirical evidence to support its claims.
The theory often relies on abstract and hypothetical
constructs, such as the Language Acquisition Device
(LAD), which are difficult to validate through empirical
research.
  Lack of Universality: Some linguists challenge the
universality of Universal Grammar itself. They argue that
languages are too diverse in terms of their structures,
and the shared principles proposed by UG do not
adequately account for this diversity.
 Variation and Parameter Setting: UG theory posits that
languages differ primarily in the setting of parameters,
Debate but critics argue that this approach can be overly
and simplistic. Language variation is often more complex
than the theory suggests, and languages may exhibit
criticism idiosyncratic features that are not easily explained by
parameter settings.
Discussion

 What are your thoughts on the universal

grammar theory in general and in
relation to SLA?
  Can you think of examples of how the language-
specific parameters discussed apply to your experience
Class as an Arabic native speaker learning English?

activity
Assignment

Find an academic article discussing or utilizing the universal

grammar theory and summarize it. Submit your summaries
on blackboard and be ready to talk about it in class.