Chapter 1

Euclidean Vector Spaces

4
1.1 Vectors in R2 and R3
1.1.1 Introduction to Vectors
Definition: Points in Space

The collection of all points of two components (x, y) is called the Real 2-Space and is denoted R2 . The
collection of all points of three components (x, y, z) is called the Real 3-Space and is denoted R3 .

Definition: Vectors

An abstraction of a point is a vector. Consider a point P = (x1 , x2 ), then an analog to this P⃗ is called a
vector and is given by
 
⃗ x1
P = (x1 , x2 ) ⇐⇒ P =
x2
They are graphically given by arrows where the base is located at some point (x, y) and the tip of the arrow
is located at (x + p1 , y + p2 ) in R2 . Vectors and how you graph them naturally extends in the same notation
and graphical means in R3 .

Notation: Vectors as Bold or With an Arrow

Textbooks often use the notation P instead of P⃗ . Either is acceptable but bold face is impossible to write
by hand, so when writing by hand we always use P⃗ .
 
  −1
1
Example 1: Graph the vectors in R2 and  1  in R3 .
−2
2

Note: Notational Issues When Writing

To address the
 notational
 issue of wanting to write inline, but vectors being written vertically, we will adopt
a  T
the notation  b  = a b c .
c

5
1.1.2 Vector Operations
Definition: Vector Addition and Subtraction
Let ⃗u and ⃗v be vectors with the same number of components. Vector addition ⃗u +⃗v and subtraction ⃗u −⃗v are
defined by adding and subtracting the same positioned components, respectively. Visually, vector addition
follows the parallelogram law and subtraction follows the tip-to-tip law.
   
2 1
Example 2: Let ⃗v = and w
⃗= ⃗ and ⃗v − w.
. Compute and graph ⃗v + w ⃗
−1 2

Definition: Scalars
In the context of vectors we call (real) numbers scalars.

Definition: Scalar Multiplication

If ⃗v is a vector and t is a scalar then multiplication of the two t⃗v is done by distributing the scalar into each
component.
 
2 1
Example 3: Let ⃗v = . Compute and graph 2⃗v and − ⃗v .
4 2

6
1.1.3 Standard Basis and Linear Combinations
Definition: Linear Combination
Let v⃗1 , ..., v⃗n be vectors. We say that the expression a1 v⃗1 + · · · + an v⃗n where a1 , ..., an are scalars is called
a linear combination of v⃗1 , ..., v⃗n .
     
5 1 2
Example 4: Express ⃗v = as a linear combination of ⃗s = and ⃗t = .
1 1 0

Definition: Standard Basis Vectors

The vectors ⃗e1 , ⃗e2 , ... are called the standard basis vectors. Each vector ⃗ei is defined as having 1 in the
i’th component and zero everywhere else. Alternate notation used is ⃗i, ⃗j, ....

Theorem: Linear Combination of Standard Basis Vectors

Every vector can be uniquely written as a linear combination of the standard basis vectors.

T
in terms of the standard basis of R3 .

Example 5: Express w
⃗= 3 2 −4

1.1.4 Zero Vector

Definition: The Zero (Null) Vector

The zero vector ⃗0 is the vector with all zero components.

Theorem: Properties of the Zero Vector

Let ⃗v be any vector. Then we have

1. ⃗0 + ⃗v = ⃗v

2. ⃗v − ⃗v = ⃗0

3. 0 ⃗v = ⃗0 (notice here 0 is a scalar and ⃗0 is the zero vector)

7
1.1.5 The Vector Equation of a Line
Definition: Parametric Curves in Rn

Let C be a curve in Rn . A vector valued function that

represents C is a function f (t), whose input is a real number
and output a vector with range given by C. Explicitly, the com-
ponents x1 = f1 (t), ..., xn = fn (t) are called the parametric
equations.

We interpret these functions as giving all points by the tip of the

representing arrow in standard position. That is, (f1 (t), ..., fn (t))
represents a point on the curve.

Definition: The Parametric Representation of a Line

The standard (vector) representation of a line in Rn that

contains a point P and moves in a direction v is described
by the vector valued function L(t) = P + tv. Eliminating
t from the equation and a system of equations dependent
only on the components x1 , ..., xn is called the scalar form
of the line.

Consequently, if someone wants to construct any line they

need to only acquire two ingredients: a point on a line and
the direction of the line.

   
1 2
Example 6: Consider the line through P (3, 1, −2) that is parallel to the line ⃗y (t) =  −2  + t  2 .
1 −3
Form the (a) Vector equation; (b) Parametric equations; and (c) Scalar form of this line.

8
1.1.6 Directed Line Segments
Definition: Directed Line Segments

The directed line segment from the point P to the point Q is the vector denoted by P⃗Q. Suppose O is
⃗ as simply P⃗ to be consistent with previous results.
the origin, then we just denote OP

Theorem: The Vector Between Two Points

For any two points P and Q we have P⃗Q = Q

⃗ − P⃗ .

Example 7: Find the vector equation of the line that passes through the points P (1, 5, −2) and Q(4, −1, 3).
Demonstrate that the vector equation for a line isn’t necessarily unique by finding three different vector equations.

9
1.2 Vectors in Rn
1.2.1 Rn and Algebraic Operations
Definition: Points in Space

Rn is the set of all points (x1 , ..., xn ) with n components.

Definition: Vector Algebraic Operations

Vector addition, subtraction, and scalar multiplication is defined the same in Rn (component-wise).

 T  T
Example 1: Let ⃗v = 2 −1 3 4 and w
⃗= 3 2 −2 1 . Compute 3⃗v − 2w.
⃗

Theorem: Properties Vectors in Rn

⃗ ⃗x and ⃗y in Rn and s, t ∈ R we have...

For all w,

Property Name

⃗x + ⃗y ∈ Rn Closure under addition

⃗x + ⃗y = ⃗y + ⃗x Commutativity of vector addition

(⃗x + ⃗y ) + w
⃗ = ⃗x + (⃗y + w)
⃗ Associativity of vector addition

There exists vector ⃗0 ∈ Rn such that ⃗0 + ⃗z = ⃗z for all ⃗z ∈ Rn Existence of zero vector

For each ⃗z ∈ Rn there exists −⃗z ∈ Rn such that ⃗z + (−⃗z) = ⃗0 Existence of additive inverse

t⃗x ∈ Rn Closure under scalar multiplication

s(t⃗x) = (st)⃗x Associativity of scalar multiplication

(s + t)⃗x = s⃗x + t⃗x Distributivity of scalar addition

t(⃗x + ⃗y ) = t⃗x + t⃗y Distributivity of vector addition

1 ⃗z = ⃗z for all ⃗z ∈ Rn 1 is the scalar identity

10
1.2.2 Subspaces
Definition: Subspaces

A non-empty subset S of Rn is called a subspace of Rn if for all vectors ⃗x, ⃗y ∈ S and t ∈ R...

1. ⃗0 ∈ S (Non-Empty)

2. ⃗x + ⃗y ∈ S (Closure under addition)

3. t ⃗x ∈ S (Closure under scalar multiplication)

(  )
x1
Example 2: Show that the set T = x1 x2 = 0 is not a subspace of R2 .
x2

(  )
x1
Example 3: Prove that the set S = 2x1 − 3x2 = 0 is a subspace of R2 .
x2

11
1.2.3 Spanning Sets and Linear Independence
Definition: Spanning Sets

Let R = {v⃗1 , ..., v⃗k } be a collection of vectors. We 

define Span(R) to be the collection of all possible linear
combinations of vectors in R. That is, Span(R) = t1 v⃗1 + t2 v⃗2 + · · · + tk v⃗k t1 , ..., tk ∈ R .

n T  T o  T
Example 4: Let R = −3 0 2 , −5 0 1 . Demonstrate that ⃗v = −4 2 5 is not in
Span(R).

Theorem: Spanning Sets are Subspaces

Let R be a non-empty collection of vectors in Rn , then Span(R) is a subspace of Rn .

(  )
x1
Example 5: Use the above theorem to prove indirectly that S = 2x1 − 3x2 = 0 is a subspace.
x2

Definition: Spanning Sets

Let R be a non-empty collection of vectors in Rn . If S = Span(R) then we say that S is the subspace
spanned by the vectors in R and in return we say that R spans S. The set R is called a spanning set
for the subspace S.
         
 1 1 0   1 0 
Example 6: Show that Span  0  ,  1  ,  1  = Span  0  ,  1  .
−1 −1 0 −1 0
   

12
Theorem: Linear Dependence Within Spanning Sets

Let v⃗1 , ..., v⃗k be vectors in Rn . If v⃗k can be written as a linear combination of v⃗1 , ..., v⃗k then

Span {v⃗1 , ..., v⃗k } = Span {v⃗1 , ..., ⃗vk−1 }

Definition: Linear Dependence and Independence

A collection of vectors {v⃗1 , ..., v⃗k } is said to be linearly dependent if there exist coefficients t1 , ..., tk not
all zero such that

⃗0 = t1 v⃗1 + · · · + tk v⃗k

Alternatively, if the only solution is t1 = t2 = · · · = tk = 0 (called the trivial solution) then we say the
collection is linearly dependent.
     
 4 9 1 
Example 7: Show that the collection  −1 , 0 , 2  is linearly dependent.
   
0 1 1
 

Theorem: Linear Dependence With The Zero Vector

If a set of vector contains the zero vector, then it is linearly dependent.

Definition: Basis of a Vector Space

Let R be a collection of vectors in Rn such that S = Span(R). Provided R is linearly independent we say
that R is a basis for S.

13
      
 1 −1 1 
Example 8: Let T =  −2  ,  1  ,  −4  . Take the linear combination 3v⃗1 +2v⃗2 − v⃗3 and comment
0 1 2
 
as to whether this set can be a basis for Span(T ). If not, find a basis for Span(T ).

1.2.4 Surfaces in Higher Dimensions

Definition: Planes in Higher Dimensions

(1) Let p⃗, d⃗ ∈ Rn with d⃗ =

̸ ⃗0. Then we call the set with vector equation ⃗x(t) = p⃗ + td⃗ a line in Rn that
passes through p⃗.

(2) Let p⃗, d⃗1 , d⃗2 ∈ Rn with {d⃗1 , d⃗2 } being a linearly independent set. Then the set with vector equation
⃗x(t1 , t2 ) = p⃗ + t1 d⃗1 + t2 d⃗2 is called a plane in Rn that passes through p⃗.

(3) Let p⃗, v⃗1 , ..., ⃗vn−1 ∈ Rn with {v⃗1 , ..., ⃗vn−1 } being linearly independent. Then the set with vector
equations ⃗x(t1 , ..., tn−1 ) = p⃗ + t1⃗v1 + · · · + tn−1⃗vn−1 is called a hyperplane in Rn that passes through
p⃗.
     
 1 −1 0 
Example 9: Show that the set Span   2  ,  1  ,  3   is not a hyperplane. Determine what
1 2 3
 
type of surface this space describes.

14
1.3 Length and Dot Products
1.3.1 Length
Definition
n
The length/norm q of a vector ⃗x ∈ R is denoted and de-
fined as ∥⃗x∥ = x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n . Quite literally, it is
the length of the arrow.

 T
1 2 2
Example 1: Let ⃗x = − − . Compute ∥⃗x∥.
3 3 3

Definition: Unit Vectors

A vector ⃗x ∈ Rn such that ∥⃗x∥ = 1 is called a unit vector.

Proposition: Normalization of a Vector

1
The unit vector moving in the same direction as ⃗x is denoted and given by x̂ = ⃗x.
∥⃗x∥

1
⃗ in the same direction as ⃗x =  −2  such that ∥w∥
Example 2: Construct a vector w ⃗ = 2.
5

15
1.3.2 Angles and Dot Product
Definition: The Dot Product
The dot product between two vectors p⃗ and ⃗q in Rn is given and denoted by p⃗ · ⃗q = p1 q1 + p2 q2 + · · · + pn qn .

Definition (and Theorem): The Angle Between Vectors

The angle θ between two vectors p⃗ and ⃗q in Rn is given by the equation

p⃗ · ⃗q = ∥⃗
p∥∥⃗q∥ cos(θ) where it is always chosen to satisfy 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

Note: The Derivation Angle Formula

The prior result is a theorem in R2 and R3 derived by using the Law-Of-Cosines. Since we can’t draw such
figures in higher dimensions, we take the above to be the definition of the angle between two vectors in
higher dimensions.
   
1 1
Example 3: Find the angle in R2 between the vectors ⃗v =  2  and w
⃗ =  −1 .
−1 −1

Definition: Orthogonality of Vectors

Two vectors ⃗x and ⃗y in Rn are orthogonal to each other provided ⃗x · ⃗y = 0.

    
1 2 −1
, and ⃗z =  −1 . Which pair of vectors are orthogonal to each
 0   3   
Example 4: Let ⃗v =   3 , w
 ⃗ =
 0   1 
−2 1 2
other and which ones aren’t?

16
1.3.3 Properties of Length and Dot Product
Theorem: Dot Product and Norm Properties

Let ⃗x, ⃗y , ⃗z ∈ Rn and let t ∈ R be a scalar. Then...

Property Name Property Name

⃗x · ⃗y = ⃗y · ⃗x Symmetry ∥t⃗x∥ = |t| ∥⃗x∥ Common Factor

⃗x · (⃗y + ⃗z) = ⃗x · ⃗y + ⃗x · ⃗x Distributivity |⃗x · ⃗y | ≤ ∥⃗x∥ ∥⃗y ∥ Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality

(t⃗x) · ⃗y = t(⃗x · ⃗y ) = ⃗x · (t⃗y ) Associativity ∥⃗x + ⃗y ∥ ≤ ∥⃗x∥ + ∥⃗y ∥ Triangle Inequality

Theorem: Positive Definiteness of the Dot Product and Norm

Let ⃗x ∈ Rn . We have that ⃗x · ⃗x ≥ 0 and equality is obtained if and only if ⃗x = ⃗0. Similarly, ∥⃗x∥ ≥ 0 and
equality is obtained if and only if ⃗x = ⃗0.

Theorem: Relationship Between the Norm and Dot Product

Let ⃗x ∈ Rn , then ∥⃗x∥2 = ⃗x · ⃗x.

Example 5: Suppose that ⃗x and ⃗y are vectors in Rn satisfying ∥⃗x∥ = 3, ∥⃗y ∥ = 2 and the angle between them
is θ = π/3. Compute ⃗x · (5⃗x + ⃗y ).

17
1.3.4 The Scalar Equation of a Plane
Definition: The Scalar Equation of a Plane

If ⃗n ̸= ⃗0 is a vector orthogonal to every vector in a plane, we say that the

vector ⃗n is a normal vector to the plane.

The scalar equation of a plane (or hyperplane) with normal vector ⃗n

containing the point p⃗ is given implicitly by ⃗n · (⃗x − p⃗) = 0.

 T
Example 6: Find the equation of the plane that contains the point P (2, 3, −1) with normal ⃗n = 1 −4 1 .

Example 7: Find a normal vector to the plane with scalar equation 5x1 − 6x2 + 7x3 = 11.

Definition: Parallel Planes

Two planes are defined to be parallel if the normal vector to one plane is a non-zero scalar multiple of the
normal vector of the other plane.

Example 8: Construct the scalar equation of the plane that contains the point P (2, 4, −1) and is parallel to
the plane 2x1 + 3x2 − 5x3 = 6.

Definition: Orthogonality of Planes

Two planes are orthogonal if their normal vectors are orthogonal.

18
1.3.5 The Cross Product
Definition: The Cross Product
 
u2 v3 − u3 v2
Let ⃗u and ⃗v be vectors in R3 . The cross product is defined to be ⃗u × ⃗v =  u3 v1 − u1 v3 .
u1 v2 − u2 v1

Theorem: Orthogonality of the Cross Product

Let ⃗u and ⃗v be vectors in R3 . The cross product of them is orthogonal to both ⃗u and ⃗v .

Example 9: Find the scalar equation of the plane through three points P (1, 0, 1), Q(0, 1, −1) and R(2, 1, 0).

Theorem: Cross Product Properties

Let ⃗x, ⃗y , ⃗z ∈ R3 and t ∈ R be a scalar. Then...

Property Name

⃗x × ⃗y = −⃗y × ⃗x Anti-Commutativity

⃗x × ⃗x = ⃗0 Self-Degenerate

⃗x × (⃗y + ⃗z) = (⃗x × ⃗y ) + (⃗x × ⃗z) Distributive

(t⃗x) × ⃗y = t(⃗x × ⃗y ) = ⃗x × (t⃗y ) Scalar Associativity

⃗x × ⃗y = ⃗0 only if ⃗x = ⃗0 of ⃗y is a multiple of ⃗x Collinear-Degenerate

If ⃗n = ⃗x × ⃗y then for any w

⃗ ∈ Span{⃗x, ⃗y } we have ⃗n · w
⃗ =0 Orthogonality

19
1.4 Projections and Minimum Distance
1.4.1 Projections
Definition: Projection

Let u and v be vectors in Rn where v ̸= 0. The projection of

u onto v is defined to be
u·v
projv (u) = v
v·v

Definition: Perpendicular Projection

For any vectors ⃗u, ⃗v ∈ Rn with ⃗v ̸= ⃗0, we define the projection

of ⃗u perpendicular to ⃗v to be

perp⃗v ⃗u = ⃗u − proj⃗v ⃗u

 T  T
Example 1: Let ⃗u = 1 −2 0 and ⃗v = 3 1 2 . Determine proj⃗v ⃗u and perp⃗v ⃗u.

Theorem: Projection Properties

Theorem: Let ⃗x, ⃗y , ⃗z ∈ Rn and let t ∈ R be a scalar. Then...

Property Name

proj⃗x (⃗y + ⃗z) = proj⃗x ⃗y + proj⃗x⃗z Additive Linearity

proj⃗x (t⃗y ) = t proj⃗x ⃗y Scalar Linearity

proj⃗x (proj⃗x ⃗y ) = proj⃗x ⃗y Projection Property

20
1.4.2 Projections and Minimal Distance
Theorem: Distance from a Point to a Plane and Distance from a Point to a Plane

Distance Between a Line and a Point: Let P be a point on

the line ⃗x(t) = P⃗ + td⃗ and let Q be a point in Rn . The minimum
distance from Q to the line is given by D = ∥perpd⃗P⃗Q∥.

Distance Between a Point and a Plane: Let P be a point on

the line ⃗x(t) = P⃗ + td⃗ and let Q be a point in Rn . The minimum
distance from Q to the line is given by D = ∥perpd⃗P⃗Q∥.

Example 2: Find the distance between the point Q(4, 3) and the line that runs through the points P (1, 2)
and R(0, 3).

21
 Example 3: Find the point on the plane x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 5 that is closest to the point Q(2, 1, 1). Hint: In
⃗ =Q
the previous diagram note that R ⃗ + QR
⃗ =Q ⃗ + proj⃗n QP
⃗ .

   
1 1
Example 4: Find the point on the line ⃗x(t) =  −2  + t  0  that is closest to the point Q(1, 3, 1).
3 1

22