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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Neuralink Corp.

Company type Private

Industry Neurotechnology

Founded June 21, 2016; 8 years ago

Founder Elon Musk

Headquarters Fremont, California, United States[1]

Key people Jared Birchall (CEO)[2]

 Telepathy
Products
 Blindsight

Owner Elon Musk

Number of employees c. 300[3] (2022)

Website neuralink.com

This article is part of

a series about
Elon Musk
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Neuralink Corp.[4] is an American neurotechnology company that has developed, as of

2024, implantable brain–computer interfaces (BCIs). It was founded by Elon Musk and a
team of eight scientists and engineers.[4][5][6][7] Neuralink was launched in 2016 and was
first publicly reported in March 2017.[8][9][10][11]

In January 2017, Musk approached Pedram Mohseni and Randolph Nudo, who owned
the rights to the name "NeuraLink". These two neuroscientists strove to create an
electronic brain chip to treat traumatic brain injury. They made significant progress and
completed preliminary testing but did not receive enough funding or support from
investors to continue. Musk approached them and offered tens of thousands of dollars
for the company’s name.[12]

The company is based in Fremont, California, with plans to build a three-story building
with office and manufacturing space near Austin, Texas, in Del Valle, about 10 miles
east of Gigafactory Texas, Tesla's headquarters and manufacturing plant that opened in
2022.[5]

Since its founding, the company has hired several high-profile neuroscientists from
various universities.[13] By 2019, it had received $158 million in funding (of which $100
million was from Musk) and had 90 employees.[14] At that time, Neuralink announced that
it was working on a "sewing machine-like" device capable of implanting very thin (4 to
6 μm in width)[15] threads into the brain, and demonstrated a system that reads
information from a lab rat via 1,500 electrodes. It anticipated starting experiments with
humans in 2020,[14] but since moved that projection to 2023. As of May 2023, it has been
approved for human trials in the United States.[6] On January 29, 2024, Musk announced
that Neuralink had successfully implanted a Neuralink device in a human and that the
patient was recovering.[16]

The company has faced criticism for a large amount of euthanization of primates that
underwent medical trials. Veterinary records of the monkeys showed a number of
complications with electrodes being surgically implanted.[17]

In September 2024, the company announced that its latest development

effort, Blindsight, will allow those who would otherwise be blind to regain some level of
vision, provided the visual cortex is undamaged. The development received
"breakthrough" status from the federal government, which will accelerate development.
[18]

Company
[edit]
History
[edit]

The Pioneer Building in San Francisco, formerly

housing the offices of Neuralink and OpenAI
Neuralink was founded in 2016 by Elon Musk and a founding team of eight scientists
and engineers: Max Hodak, Benjamin Rapoport, Dongjin Seo, Paul Merolla, Philip
Sabes, Tim Gardner, Tim Hanson, and Vanessa Tolosa.[4][5][6][9][7][19][20] The group of initial
hires consisted of experts in areas such as neuroscience, biochemistry, and robotics.
[10]
The trademark "Neuralink" was purchased from its previous owners in January 2017.
[9][21]

In April 2017, Neuralink announced that it was aiming to make devices to treat
serious brain diseases in the short term, with the eventual goal of human enhancement,
sometimes called transhumanism.[22][10][23] Musk said his interest in the idea partly
stemmed from the concept of "neural lace" in the fictional universe in The Culture, a
series of 10 novels by Iain M. Banks.[23][24]

Musk defined the neural lace as a "digital layer above the cortex" that would not
necessarily require extensive surgical insertion but could be implanted through a vein or
artery.[25] He said the long-term goal is to achieve "symbiosis with artificial intelligence",
[26]
which he perceives as an existential threat to humanity if it goes unchecked.[26][27] He
believes the device will be "something analogous to a video game, like a saved game
situation, where you are able to resume and upload your last state" and "address brain
injuries or spinal injuries and make up for whatever lost capacity somebody has with a
chip."[28]

Jared Birchall, the head of Musk's family office, was listed as Neuralink's CEO, CFO,
and president in 2018.[29][30] As of September 2018, Musk was its majority owner but did
not hold an executive position.[31] By August 2020, only three of the eight founding
scientists remained at the company, according to an article by Stat News that reported
that Neuralink had seen "years of internal conflict in which rushed timelines have
clashed with the slow and incremental pace of science."[32] As of 2020, Neuralink was
headquartered in San Francisco's Mission District, sharing the Pioneer
building with OpenAI, another company Musk co-founded.[30][33] As of 2022, Neuralink's
headquarters were in Fremont, California.[1]

In April 2021, Neuralink demonstrated a monkey playing the game "Pong" using the
Neuralink implant.[34] While similar technology has existed since 2002, when a research
group first demonstrated a monkey moving a computer cursor with neural signals,
scientists acknowledged the engineering progress in making the implant wireless and
increasing the number of implanted electrodes.[35][36][37]

In May 2021, co-founder and president Max Hodak announced that he no longer
worked with the company.[7] Co-founder Benjamin Rapoport cited safety concerns as a
major influence on his decision to leave Neuralink in 2018. [38] Rapoport subsequently
founded Precision Neuroscience, emphasizing the use of surface electrodes as
opposed to the penetrating electrodes of Neuralink, in order to address brain damage
and other safety concerns caused by Neuralink's devices.[39] Only two of the eight co-
founders remained at the company by January 2022.[40]

On February 8, 2024, Musk changed the location of Neuralink's business incorporation

from Delaware to Nevada[41] after Delaware Chancery Court Chief Judge Kathaleen St.
J. McCormick voided Musk’s $55 billion pay package at Tesla.[42]

Technology
[edit]
In 2018, Gizmodo reported that Neuralink "remained highly secretive about its work",
although public records showed that it had sought to open an animal testing facility in
San Francisco; it subsequently began doing research at the University of California,
Davis.[30] In 2019, during a live presentation at the California Academy of Sciences, the
Neuralink team revealed to the public the technology of the first prototype it had been
working on. It is a system that involves ultra-thin probes inserted into the brain, a
neurosurgical robot to perform the operations, and a high-density electronic system
capable of processing information from neurons. It is based on technology developed
at University of California, San Francisco and University of California, Berkeley.[43]
Probes
[edit]
The probes, made mostly of polyimide, a biocompatible material, with a thin gold or
platinum conductor, are inserted into the brain through an automated process
performed by a surgical robot. Each probe consists of an area of wires that contains
electrodes capable of locating electrical signals in the brain and a sensory area where
the wire interacts with an electronic system that allows amplification and acquisition of
the brain signal. Each probe contains 48 or 96 wires, each of which contains 32
independent electrodes, making a system of up to 3,072 electrodes per formation.[15][44]

Robot
[edit]
Neuralink says it has engineered a surgical robot capable of rapidly inserting many
flexible probes into the brain, which may avoid the tissue damage and longevity
problems associated with larger, more rigid probes.[45][46][47] This surgical robot has an
insertion head with a 25 μm diameter needle made of tungsten-rhenium designed to
attach to the insertion loops, inject individual probes, and penetrate the meninges and
cerebral tissue; it can insert up to six wires (192 electrodes) per minute.[45] A linear motor
powers the needle, enabling fast retraction acceleration and varying insertion speeds. A
50-μm tungsten wire that has been bent at the tip and is driven both axially and
rotationally makes up the pincher. An imaging stack is also included in the inserter head
for needle guidance, real-time insertion viewing, and verification.[45][48][49]

Electronics
[edit]

Elon Musk discussing the Neuralink

Neuralink has developed an application-specific integrated circuit to create a 1,536-
channel recording system. This system consists of 256 amplifiers that can be
individually programmed, analog-to-digital converters within the chip, and peripheral
circuit control to serialize the digitized information obtained.[45][50] It aims to convert
information obtained from neurons into an understandable binary code in order to
achieve greater understanding of brain function and the ability to stimulate these
neurons back. So far, Neuralink's electrodes are too big to record the firing of individual
neurons, so they can record only the firing of a group of neurons; Neuralink
representatives believe this issue may be mitigated algorithmically, but it is
computationally expensive and does not produce exact results.[51]
In July 2020, according to Musk, Neuralink obtained a FDA breakthrough
device designation which allows limited human testing under the FDA guidelines for
medical devices.[52][53]

Public compression challenge

[edit]
On May 29, 2024, Musk issued a request for public input on a challenge facing
Neuralink. He suggested that due to the size of the data in need of transmission, a
compression rate of more than 200x was needed for proper function. The challenge
also specified that compression needed to be lossless, work under low power, and
compress data in real time. Software consultant Roy van Rijn called the prospect of
200x lossless compression "just outlandish."[54][55]

Animal testing and alleged harm

[edit]
Neuralink tests its devices by surgically implanting them in the brains of live monkeys,
pigs, and other animals.[56] This has been criticized by groups such as PETA.[57]

In August 2020, Neuralink conducted a live demo in which the brain activity of a pig,
Gertrude, was displayed in real time.[58][59] A removable[60][61] device the size of a coin (23
millimeters)[62][63] implanted in Gertrude's brain recorded signals from the neurons
connected to her snout as it interacted with its environment, such as when it sniffed or
touched things.[64][65] The data showed that the technology could read and interpret brain
signals, which is key to developing applications that could treat neurological conditions,
enable brain-to-machine communication, or enhance human cognition.[66][67][68][69][70]

The demonstration also had two other pigs. One had had a Neuralink chip implanted in
its brain and subsequently removed to demonstrate that the chip can be safely removed
without damaging the pigs' health.[71][72] The third pig had never had a chip implanted in
its brain.[73][74] It was for comparison to show the similarity in health and behavior of
implanted and non-implanted pigs.[75][76]

From 2017 to 2020, Neuralink's experiments on monkeys were conducted in partnership

with University of California, Davis. At the end of the partnership, UC Davis transferred
seven monkeys to Neuralink. In 2022, the Physicians Committee for Responsible
Medicine (PCRM), an animal welfare advocacy group, alleged that Neuralink and UC
Davis had mistreated several monkeys, subjecting them to psychological distress,
extreme suffering, and chronic infections due to surgeries.[77] Experiments conducted by
Neuralink and UC Davis have involved at least 23 monkeys, and the PCRM believes
that 15 of those died or were euthanized as a result of the experiments. The PCRM also
alleged that UC Davis withheld photographic and video evidence of the mistreatment.[78]

In February 2022, Neuralink said that macaque monkeys died and were euthanized
after experimentation, denying that any animal abuse had occurred.[79][80] In December
2022, it was reported that Neuralink was under federal investigation by the United
States Department of Agriculture (USDA) for animal welfare violations. Additionally,
a Reuters report cited claims by several Neuralink employees that testing was being
rushed due to Musk's demands for fast results, which was leading to needless suffering
and deaths among the animals.[80][81] A September 2023 exposé by Wired provided
additional details on the primate deaths based on public records and confidential
interviews with a former Neuralink employee and a researcher at the California National
Primate Research Center.[17][82] Those records showed complications with the installation
of electrodes, including partial paralysis, bloody diarrhea, and brain swelling.[17]

In 2022,[further explanation needed] after being rejected for human clinical trials by the FDA, Neuralink
performed more tests on pigs to address safety concerns. Some of these pigs were
observed to have developed granulomas, or inflammatory tissues, in their brains.
Neuralink could not determine the cause of the granulomas, but made official
statements declaring that the Neuralink implant and its associated threads were not the
cause. [83]

In July 2023, an investigation by the United States Department of Agriculture found no

evidence of animal welfare breaches in the trials other than a self-reported incident from
2019.[84] The PCRM disputed the investigation's result.[85]

In October 2023, Wired reported that Neuralink worked to keep details of animal
suffering and death hidden from the public.[86] In November 2023, U.S. lawmakers asked
the Securities and Exchange Commission to investigate whether Neuralink deceived
investors by omitting details about possible animal deaths.[87][88]

On March 21, 2024, Musk said that Neuralink's second product would be
called Blindsight and was already working in trials with monkeys. He said it operates at
low resolution that is expected to improve and that no monkey had died due to or been
seriously injured by a Neuralink device, contradicting earlier reports.[89]

Human testing
[edit]
Neuralink received FDA approval for human clinical trials in May 2023.[90] The FDA had
rejected a 2022 application to pursue human clinical trials, citing "major safety concerns
involving the device's lithium battery; the potential for the implant's tiny wires to migrate
to other areas of the brain; and questions over whether and how the device can be
removed without damaging brain tissue."[91]

In September 2023, Neuralink began its first human trials. It recruited people
with quadriplegia due to cervical spinal cord injury or amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis[92] under an investigational device exemption by the FDA.[93][94]

On January 29, 2024, Musk said that Neuralink had successfully implanted a brain
computer interface (BCI) device the company named Telepathy in a human on the
previous day and that the patient was recovering from the surgery.[16] As it was a "first in
human" and "early feasibility" trial to develop a concept, the company was not obligated
to disclose details about the procedure or to prove safety or efficacy.[95] Neuralink
provided a few details in February on the implant in a recruitment brochure for the
Precise Robotically Implanted Brain-Computer Interface (PRIME) study.[96] On February
20, Musk said that Neuralink's first human trial participant had been able to control a
computer mouse by thought.[97][98]

On March 20, 2024, Neuralink introduced the person who had received the first
Neuralink implant in the clinical trial as 29-year-old Noland Arbaugh through a
livestream on X. Arbaugh had become a quadriplegic after experiencing a diving
accident dislocated his C4 and C5 spinal vertebrae. Later in the livestream, Noland
demonstrated his ability to move a cursor on a computer screen to allow him to control
music and play games such as chess. He expressed support for the implant in
dramatically improving his quality of life.[99] He acknowledged that the device was not
perfect but said he was excited about the future.[100] Arbaugh later said in an interview
that 85% of the device's implant threads had completely detached while his brain had
shifted approximately three times as much as Neuralink expected.[101] Since then,
Arbaugh's threads have reportedly stabilized and he has regained performance with his
link.[102]

The Wall Street Journal reported that Neuralink would proceed with a second trial
participant,[101] with the FDA signing off on the company's proposed fixes for a problem
that occurred with Arbaugh.[103] In August 2024, the second trial participant was
reportedly successfully implanted.[104]

The second trial participant, pseudonym "Alex", was reportedly able to create 3D
designs by using the CAD software Fusion 360. Alex has been said to have created a
custom mount for his Neuralink charger through this process. Additional accounts of
Alex's Link show that he has been able to play first-person shooter games at a higher
level than he could previously. Unlike Arbaugh, Alex's implantation procedure reduced
brain motion during the surgery and placed the implant closer to the brain's surface in
an attempt to mitigate thread retraction. Since the initial operation, Alex has been
reported to not have experienced any thread retraction.[105] Alex said, "The Link is a big
step on the path of regaining freedom and independence for myself."

In November 2024, Neuralink received approval from Health Canada for its first clinical
trial in the country.[106] The name of the trial is CAN-PRIME.[107]

Reception
[edit]
Scientists have cited technical challenges for Neuralink. In 2017, a journalist at the IEEE
Spectrum magazine asked for comments from five researchers who had worked on BCI
implants, including Thomas Oxley. Oxley called the Neuralink developments "exciting"
but expected no real results in the foreseeable future.[further explanation needed][108] At a live
demonstration in August 2020, Musk described the device as "a Fitbit in your skull".
Several neuroscientists and publications criticized these claims.[109][110][111] MIT Technology
Review accused the demonstration of having the main objective to "stir excitement",
adding, "Neuralink has provided no evidence that it can (or has even tried to) treat
depression, insomnia, or a dozen other diseases that Musk mentioned in a slide". [109] In
response to Musk's description of Neuralink's advancements as "profound", Andrew
Jackson, a professor of neural interfaces at Newcastle University, said, "I don't think
there was anything revolutionary in the presentation."[112]

Thiago Arzua of the Medical College of Wisconsin argued that Neuralink's functions are
not novel and that ideas for a brain–machine interface (BMI) are at least 50 years old.
[113]
He cited successful control of a robotic prosthetic arm by a man that gave him haptic
feedback, which he used in 2016 to give President Obama a fist bump.[114] Arzua said
that the 2020 Neuralink presentation "showed little more than a flashy new design for a
BMI with more electrodes".[113] Duke University researcher Miguel Nicolelis made similar
criticism, saying that most of what Neuralink claims as "novelty" was already performed
by his lab in the early 2000s; that there are ethical concerns about how the company
markets and uses this technology; and that most patients don't want to undergo surgery
to recover their movements, and so his team developed non-invasive techniques for
BMI, as demonstrated in the opening ceremony of the 2014 FIFA World Cup, in the
context of the Walk Again Project.[115][116][117][118]

See also
[edit]

 Brain Computer Interface

 Brain implant
 Cortical implant
 Electrocorticography
 Experience machine
 Extended reality
 Virtual reality
 Mixed reality
 Augmented reality
 Kernel (neurotechnology company)
 Mind uploading
 Motor function
 Neurorobotics
 Paradromics
 Precision Neuroscience
 Spatial computing
 Surface chemistry of neural implants
 Stentrode
 The Entire History of You
 White Christmas (Black Mirror)
 Wirehead (science fiction)
 Transhumanism
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[edit]

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Further reading
[edit]

 Neuralink; Musk, Elon (August 2, 2019). "An integrated brain-machine interface

platform with thousands of channels". bioRxiv 10.1101/703801. (whitepaper)
External links
[edit]

 Official website
 Video on YouTube of Neuralink's presentation on July 16, 2019
 Video on YouTube of Neuralink's presentation on December 1, 2022
 Andrew Huberman: "Dr. Matthew MacDougall: Neuralink & Technologies to
Enhance Human Brains" (interview with Neuralink's head neurosurgeon, April 2023)
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Categories:
 Elon Musk
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 Health care companies based in California
 Brain–computer interface
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 American companies established in 2016
 Companies based in Fremont, California
 This page was last edited on 15 January 2025, at 21:15 (UTC).