1.

a) Indirect Communication in Distributed Systems

Indirect communication in distributed systems refers to a method of interaction where the
sender and receiver do not communicate directly or need to be connected at the same time. This
approach enhances flexibility, scalability, and reliability. Is a way for entities to communicate
through an intermediary, without a direct connection between the sender and the receiver. This is
often used when change is expected, such as in mobile environments where users may connect
and disconnect from the network frequently.

Here are some characteristics of indirect communication:

 Space uncoupling: The sender and receiver do not need to know each other's identities.
 Time uncoupling: The sender and receiver can have independent lifetimes.
 One-to-many communication: Many indirect communication paradigms support this.

The most common methods of indirect communication are:

- Message Queues: Messages are placed in a queue, which acts as an intermediary. The sender
posts a message to the queue, and the receiver retrieves it from the queue.
- Publish/Subscribe Systems: The sender (publisher) sends messages to a topic, and receivers
(subscribers) interested in that topic receive the messages.
- Shared Memory: Processes communicate by reading and writing to a shared memory space.
Example: In a distributed e-commerce application, an order processing service can send order
confirmation messages to a message queue. The inventory service and the billing service can
then retrieve and process these messages at their own pace.

1. b) Parallel Programming
Parallel programming involves dividing a task into subtasks that can be processed concurrently,
utilizing multiple processors or cores. This approach is aimed at reducing the overall
computation time and improving performance. a programming technique that breaks down code
into smaller tasks that can be run at the same time on a computer with multiple processors. This
process is also known as parallel computing.
Parallel programming is faster than serial computing, which uses a single processor to solve
problems in sequence. It's often used for large-scale projects that need to be completed quickly
and accurately. Some common uses include: Advanced graphics in entertainment, Climate
research, Electrical engineering, Financial and economic modeling, and Molecular modeling.
There are several types of parallelism, including:
 Shared memory: A common form of interaction between parallel processes
 Message passing: Another common form of interaction between parallel processes
 Distributed-memory parallelism: Tasks are run as separate processes that don't share
memory
 Accelerator parallelism: Uses different types of hardware, like GPUs and FPGAs, to
speed up computations
Some common solutions for creating parallel code are OpenMP and MPI. OpenMP is a compiler-
side API that's often considered more user friendly. MPI is a library standard that's more flexible,
but can be more difficult to learn.

Key concepts in parallel programming include:

- Concurrency: Performing multiple tasks simultaneously.
- Threading: Creating multiple threads within a process that can run concurrently.
- Synchronization: Managing access to shared resources to prevent conflicts.
- Parallel Algorithms: Algorithms designed to be executed in parallel.
Example: A parallel sorting algorithm like Merge Sort can divide the array into subarrays, sort
each subarray concurrently, and then merge the sorted subarrays.

1. c) Steps in Designing Indirect Communication Using Parallel Programming

Principles

1. Define Requirements: Identify the need for indirect communication and the tasks that can be
parallelized.
2. Choose Communication Method: Select an appropriate method (e.g., message queues,
publish/subscribe).
3. Design Architecture: Create a system architecture that supports parallel processing and
indirect communication.
4. Implement Parallel Tasks: Write parallel code to perform the tasks concurrently.
5. Manage Synchronization: Ensure proper synchronization mechanisms to avoid conflicts.
6. Test and Optimize: Test the system for performance and optimize as needed.

Example: In a distributed data processing system, you might design an architecture where data
is processed in parallel by multiple worker nodes. Each node retrieves data from a message
queue, processes it, and posts results to another queue.

1. d) Design Indirect Communication Using Parallel Programming

Let's design an indirect communication system for processing large datasets in parallel:
1. Setup Message Queues: Create input and output message queues.
2. Parallel Task Implementation: Implement parallel workers that fetch data from the input
queue, process it, and send results to the output queue.
3. Synchronization Mechanism: Use synchronization techniques (e.g., locks, semaphores) to
ensure safe access to shared resources.
4. Load Balancing: Implement a load balancing strategy to evenly distribute tasks among
workers.
5. Fault Tolerance: Design mechanisms to handle worker failures and ensure data is not lost.
Example: In a distributed image processing system, images are placed in an input queue.
Parallel worker nodes fetch images, apply filters, and post processed images to the output queue.

1. e) Linking Distributed Objects and Components Using Remote Invocation

Remote invocation allows objects or components in different systems to interact as if they are
local. This is achieved using:

- Remote Procedure Call (RPC): Enables a program to execute a procedure on a remote system.
- Remote Method Invocation (RMI): Allows Java objects to invoke methods on remote objects.
- CORBA: A language-independent standard for remote communication between objects.

Example: In a microservices architecture, a service can invoke methods on a remote service

using RPC. For instance, a payment service might invoke a remote inventory service to check
product availability before processing a payment.
2. a) Peer-to-Peer Systems: Components and Characteristics

Peer-to-peer (P2P) systems are decentralized networks where each participant (peer) acts as both
a client and a server, sharing resources directly with other peers. This eliminates the need for a
central server and enhances scalability and fault tolerance.

Components:
- Peers: Independent nodes that share and consume resources.
- Overlay Network: A logical network built on top of the physical network, connecting peers.
- Resource Sharing: Mechanism for distributing and accessing files, data, or services among
peers.
- Discovery Protocol: Mechanism for locating peers and resources within the network.
- Communication Protocol: Defines how peers communicate and exchange data.

Characteristics:
- Decentralization: No central authority; peers are autonomous.
- Scalability: Easy to add more peers without significant infrastructure changes.
- Robustness: Resilient to failures as there is no single point of failure.
- Resource Distribution: Resources are distributed across multiple peers.
- Dynamic Topology: Peers can join and leave the network freely.

Example: BitTorrent is a popular P2P file-sharing protocol. Users can share pieces of a file with
others, allowing for efficient and distributed downloading.

2. b) Network Programming

Network programming involves writing software that enables communication between devices
over a network. It includes creating applications that can send and receive data across network
boundaries.
Key Concepts:
- Sockets: Endpoints for sending and receiving data.
- Protocols: Rules for data exchange (e.g., TCP/IP, UDP).
- Client-Server Model: A server provides resources or services, and clients request them.
- Data Serialization: Converting data into a format suitable for transmission.
- Concurrency: Handling multiple connections simultaneously.

Steps in Network Programming:

1. Create a Socket: Instantiate a socket to enable communication.
2. Bind: Associate the socket with a specific IP address and port.
3. Listen: Put the socket in listening mode to accept connections (server-side).
4. Connect: Establish a connection to the server (client-side).
5. Send/Receive Data: Exchange data using the socket.
6. Close Socket: Properly close the socket when done.

Example: A simple chat application where clients connect to a server to exchange messages. The
server listens for incoming connections, and clients send and receive messages through the
server.

2. c) Steps in Designing Peer-to-Peer Systems Using Network Programming

1. Define Requirements: Identify the goals and functionalities of the P2P system.
2. Choose Communication Protocol: Select an appropriate protocol (e.g., TCP, UDP).
3. Design Overlay Network: Plan the logical network topology for peer connections.
4. Implement Peer Discovery: Develop mechanisms for locating and connecting peers.
5. Resource Sharing: Implement methods for sharing and accessing resources.
6. Develop Communication Protocols: Define how peers will communicate and exchange data.
7. Implement Concurrency Handling: Ensure the system can handle multiple simultaneous
connections.
8. Security Measures: Add security features to protect data and communication.

Example: For a P2P file-sharing application, you would design a system where peers can
discover each other, share file metadata, and exchange file chunks directly.

2. d) Designing a Peer-to-Peer System Using Network Programming

Let's design a basic P2P file-sharing application:

1. Create Sockets: Each peer creates a socket for communication.

2. Peer Discovery: Implement a simple protocol where peers broadcast their presence and listen
for other peers.
3. Resource Indexing: Develop a mechanism for peers to announce and request available files.
4. File Sharing: Implement methods for peers to split files into chunks, share, and request chunks
from other peers.
5. Data Transfer: Use TCP for reliable data transfer between peers.
6. Concurrency Handling: Use threading or asynchronous programming to manage multiple
connections.
7. Security: Add encryption to secure file transfers and peer communication.
8. User Interface: Design a user-friendly interface for peers to share and download files.

Example: A peer, upon startup, broadcasts its presence to the network. Other peers respond, and
they exchange file metadata. When a peer requests a file, it is split into chunks and distributed
among multiple peers for efficient downloading. Each peer handles multiple connections
simultaneously to share and download file chunks.

I hope these detailed explanations and examples help you understand the concepts! If you need
further clarification or additional details, feel free to ask.