UNIT - Il STABILITY ANALYSIS Introduction to stability A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, itis said to be unstable. A stable system produces a bounded output for a given bounded input. The following figure shows the response of a stable system. <(t) o t This isthe response of first order control system for unit step input. This response has the values between 0 and 1. So, it is bounded output. We know that the unit step signal has the value of ‘one for all positive values of t including zero. So, it is bounded input. Therefore, the first order control system is stable since both the input and the output are bounded. ‘Types of Systems based on Stability We can classify the systems based on stability as follows, + Absolutely stables + System + Conditionally stable system + Marginally stable system Absolutely Stable System If the system is stable for all the range of system component values, then it is known as the absolutely stable system. The open loop control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the open loop transfer function present in left half of ‘s’ plane. similarly, the closed loop control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer function present in the left half of the ‘s’ plane. CONTROL SYSTEMS. 91Conditionally Stable System If the system is stable for a certain range of system component values, then it is known as Marginally Stable System If the system is stable by producing an output signal with constant amplitude and constant frequency of oscillations for bounded input, then it is known as marginally stable system. The ‘open loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the open loop transfer function is present on the imaginary axis. Similarly, the closed loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the closed loop transfer function is present on the imaginary axis. n this chapter, let us discuss the stability analysis in the ‘s’ domain using the Routh Hurwitz stability criterion. In this criterion, we require the characteristic equation to find the stability of the closed loop control systems. Stability in terms of location of roots The closed loop transfer function M(s) can be expressed as the ratio of polynomials, The roots of characteristic equation are the poles of closed loop transfer function. ‘Transfer function, Mis) and location of roots on s-plane Impatse response, m(t) Og (tye oA} a Ae Fs live t Impulse response is exponentially decaying Stable system. fA Tease my, Mis) £4) ae os | A ‘ Impulse response is exponentialty increasing. Unstable system. | | | | _ — | Root on posttive real axis | CONTROL SYSTEMS. 92A a eas sea m= of ade neon Ae conte = Ae sabe +97) ‘Complex conjugate roots LP" impulse response is damped simsoidal onlet half of plane (le, Damped oellator). Stable rate w-2f 4 teteae Ae coo Ph eae meee aif ne BI ay © cia eeecaar neon | M(s)= p}—* Complex conjugate roots on right half of s-plane Impulse response is exponentially increasing sinusoidal (Le, Amplinae of oscillations exponentially increases with time). Unstable system. mop mene s}en CONTROL SYSTEMS. 93In summary 1) fall the roots of the characteristic equation has negative real parts, Then the system is stable. 2) If any root of the characteristic equation has positive real part or if there is a repeated root on imaginary axis then the system is unstable. 3) If the condition (1) is satisfied except for the presence of one or more non repeated roots on the imaginary axis, then the system is limitedly or marginally stable. Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion is having one necessary condition and one sufficient condition for stability. if any control system doesn’t satisfy the necessary condition, then we can say that the control system is unstable. But, if the control system satisfies the necessary condition, then it may or may not be stable. So, the sufficient condition is helpful for knowing whether the control system is stable or not. Necessary Cont jon for Routh-Hurwitz Stabi The necessary condition Is that the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial should be positive. This implies that all the roots of the characteristic equation should have negative real parts. Consider the characteristic equation of the order ‘n’ is - aps" +a18""! +a98""*+...+an18' tans" Note that, there should not be any term missing in the n™® order characteristic equation. This means that the n** order characteristic equation should not have any coefficient that is of zero value, Sufficient Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability The sufficient condition is that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array should have the same sign. This means that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array should be either positive or negative, Routh Array Method Ifall the roots of the characteristic equation exist to the left half of the ‘s’ plane, then the control systemis stable, ifat least one root of the characteristic equation exists to the right half of the’s’ plane, then the control system is unstable. So, we have to find the roots of the characteristic ‘equation to know whether the control system is stable or unstable. But, itis difficult to find the roots of the characteristic equation as order increases. CONTROL SYSTEMS 94So, to overcome this problem there we have the Routh array method. In this method, there is no need to calculate the roots of the characteristic equation. First formulate the Routh table and find the number of the sign changes in the first column of the Routh table, The number of sign changes in the first column of the Routh table gives the number of roots of characteristic ‘equation that exist in the right half of thes’ plane and the control system is unstable, Follow this procedure for forming the Routh table. ll the first two rows of the Routh array with the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial as mentioned in the table below. Start with the coefficient of sn and continue up to the coefficient ofs0. + Fill the remaining rows of the Routh array with the elements as mentioned in the table below. Continue this process till you get the first column element of row s0s0 is an. Here, anis the coefficient of s0 in the characteristic polynomial. Note - If any row elements of the Routh table have some common factor, then you can divide the row elements with that factor for the simplification be easy. The following table shows the Routh array of the n® order characteristic polynomial. Bh tag ist tans” gs” +ay8"* + age” a a a ay * a a3 a; ay by by cn asst % CONTROL SYSTEMS. 95Example Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation, st 4389 +387 +28+1=0 Step 1 - Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability. Allthe coefficients of the characteristic polynomial, are positive, So, the si 43s) 43s" 4.25841 control system satisfies the necessary condition. Step 2 sf 1 3 1 s 3 2 @xa)-Gxa) _ (Bxt)-(oxt) _ 3 =3 3 =1 (42) -axa) 7 s' 1 First Element of any row of the Routh’s array is zero If any row of the Routh’s array contains only the first element as zero and at least one of the remaining elements have non-zero value, then replace the first element with a small positive integer, €. And then continue the process of completing the Routh’s table. Now, find the number of sign changes in the first column of the Routh’s table by substituting ce tends to zero. Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial Example Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation, si +288 +5? 4+28+1=0 CONTROL SYSTEMS 96Step 1 - Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability. Allthe co efficients of the characteristic polynomial, are positive. So, si 42945742541 the control System Satisfied the necessary condition. Step 2 ~ Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial. a 1 it 1 ’ at at (1x)-(0%1) wu ? The row s? elements have 2 as the commen factor. So, all these elements are divided by 2, Special case (i) - Only the first element of row sis zero. So, replace it by € and continue the process of completing the Routh table st 1 1 1 & 1 1 € 1 (et) (xt) et Step 3 - Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability. As € tends to zero, the Routh table becomes like this. CONTROL SYSTEMS. 71 1 0 1 st = s° 1 There are two sign changes in the first column of Routh table. Hence, the control system is unstable. All the Elements of any row of the Routh’s array are zero In this case, follow these two steps ~ ‘+ Write the auxiliary equation, A(s) of the row, which is just above the row of zeros, ‘+ Differentiate the auxiliary equation, A(s) with respect to s. Fill the row of zeros with these co efficient. Example Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation, 05 4304 454438? +54+3=0 Step 1 - Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability. Allthe coefficients of the given characteristic polynomial are positive. So, the control system satisfied the necessary condition. Step 2 Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial. CONTROL SYSTEMS. 98sf 31 31 31 3 (1xa)-(x1) T (1xt)=(1x1) T 0 4 The row s* elements have the common factor of 3. So, all these elements are divided by 3. Special case (ii) — All the elements of row 5 4 are zero, So, write the auxiliary equation, A(s) of the row # A(s)=s'+s? +1 dA(s) a= 4s° +28 Place these coefficients in row s* sf x 1 1 1 1 1 42 a1 (ax1)-(@x1) z (2x1)—(ox1) (0.5%1)—(1x2) os 8 i CONTROL SYSTEMS. 99Step 3 - Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability. There are two sign changes in the first column of Routh table. Hence, the control system is unstable. In the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, we can know whether the closed loop poles are in on left half of the ‘s’ plane or on the right half of the ‘s’ plane or on an imaginary axis. So, we can’t find the nature of the control system. To overcome this limitation, there is @ technique known as the root locus. Root locus Technique In the root locus diagram, we can observe the path of the closed loop poles. Hence, we can lentify the nature of the control system. In this technique, we will use an open loop transfer function to know the stability of the closed loop control system. Rules to construct Root Locus The Root locus is the locus of the roots of the characteristic equation by varying system gain K from zero to infinity. ‘We know that, the characteristic equation of the closed loop control system is 1+G(s)H(s) =0 We can represent G(s)H(s) as Ns) G(s) H(s) = KD Where, = K represents the multiplying factor N(s) represents the numerator term having (factored) nt order polynomial of 's’ D(s) represents the denominator term having (factored) m'" order polynomial of 's’ Substitute, G(s) H(s) value in the characteristic equation N(s) +e) => D(s) +KN(s) =0 CONTROL SYSTEMS 100Case 1-K=0 If K =0, then D(s) = 0. That means, the closed loop poles are equal to open loop poles when K is zero Case 2-K= 0 Re-write the above characteristic equation as 1, Ne) 1, No) K(%+Pe)-02 xt Dis) =0 Substitute, K = oo in the above equation. 1. Ns) N(s) ~* De ~°* De 0> N(s)=0 If K = 00, then N(s) = 0. It means the closed loop poles are equal to the open loop zeros when K is infinity. From above two cases, we can conclude that the root locus branches start at open loop poles and end at open loop zeros. ‘Angle Condition and Magnitude Condition The points on the root locus branches satisfy the angle condition. So, the angle condition is used to know whether the point exist on root locus branch or not. We can find the value of K for the points on the root locus branches by using magnitude condition. So, we can use the magnitude condition for the points, and this satisfies the angle condition. Characteristic equation of closed loop control system is 1+ 6) Hix) = 0 > lH) = 1 + 50 The phase angle of G(#)H(«) is LG #) H (a) = tan *( S-) =(@n+ yx The angle condition is the point at which the angle of the open loop transfer function is an odd multiple of180°, Magnitude of G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) is — IG@)H(o)| = (Ca? +0? ‘The magnitude condition is that the point (which satisfied the angle condition) at which the CONTROL SYSTEMS. 101magnitude of the open loop transfer function is one. The root locus is a graphical representation in s-domain and it is symmetrical about the real axis. Because the open loop poles and zeros exist in the s-domain having the values either as real or as complex conjugate pairs. In this chapter, let us discuss how to construct (draw) the root locus. Rules for Construction of Root Locus Follow these rules for constructing a root locus. Rule 1 - Locate the open loop poles and zeros in the’s’ plane. Rule 2 - Find the number of root locus branches. ‘We know that the root locus branches start at the open loop poles and end at open loop zeros. So, the number of root locus branches Nis equal to the number of finite open loop poles P or the number of finite open loop zeros Z, whichever is greater. Mathematically, we can write the number of root locus branches Nas NéP if PBZ, NeZ if cz Rule 3 - Identify and draw the real axis root locus branches. If the angle of the open loop transfer function at a point is an odd multiple of 180°, then that Point is on the root locus. If odd number of the open loop poles and zeros exist to the left side ofa point on the real axis, then that point is on the root locus branch. Therefore, the branch of points which satisfies this condition is the real axis of the root lacus branch. Rule 4 - Find the centroid and the angle of asymptotes. + If P=Z, then all the root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite ‘open loop zeros. «If P>Z, then Znumber of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite open loop zeros and P-Z number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at infinite open loop zeros. «If PZ, then P number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite open loop zeros and Z-P number of root locus branches start at infinite open loop poles and end at finite open loop zeros. So, some of the root locus branches approach infinity, when PZ. Asymptotes give the direction of these root locus branches. The intersection point of asymptotes on the real axis is known as centroid. CONTROL SYSTEMS. 102We can calculate the cent abyu: ig this formula, gq — Leal part of fe open loop poles ~¥> Real part of finite cpen loop zeros The formula for the angle of asymptotes @ is 0 (2q + 1)180° P-Z Where, q=0,1,2,....,(P—Z)-1 Rule 5 - Find the intersection points of root locus branches with an imaginary axis. ‘We can calculate the point at which the root locus branch intersects the imaginary axis and the value of K at that point by using the Routh array method and special case (ii). If all elements of any row of the Routh array are zero, then the root locus branch intersects the imaginary axis an device-versa. «Identify the row in such a way that if we make the first element as zero, then the elements of the entire row are zero. Find the value of K for this combination. Substitute this K value in the auxiliary equation. You will get the intersection point of the root locus branch with an imaginary ax Rule 6 - Find Break-away and Break-in points. If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop poles, then there will be a break-away point in between these two open loop poles If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop zeros, then there will be a break-in p in between these two open loop zeros. Note ~ Break-away and break-in points exist only on the real axis root locus branches. Follow these steps to find break-away and break-in points. Write K in terms of s from the characteristic equation1+G(s)H(s) Differentiate K with respect to s and make it equal to zero. Substitute these values ofss in the above equation. ‘The values of ss for which the K value is positive are the breakpoints. Rule 7 ~ Find the angle of departure and the angle of arrival CONTROL SYSTEMS 103The Angle of departure and the angle of arrival can be calculated at complex conjugate open loop poles and complex conjugate open loop zeros respectively. The formula for the angle of departure «gis oa = 180° ¢ The formule for the angle of arrival ¢q Is da = 180° +9 Where, o=Yiop-YVez Example Let us now draw the roct locus of the control system having open loop transfer function, G(s)H(s) = —* = Wer) Step 1 - The given open loop transfer function has three poles at s= 0, $=-1,=-5, It doesn’t have any zero, Therefore, the number of root locus branches is equal to the number of poles of the open loop transfer function. N=P=: Root Locus Branch | Root Locus Branch kK Not a Root Locus Branch The three poles are located are shown in the above figure. The line segment between s=- , and =0 is one branch of roct locus on real axis. And the other branch of the root locus on the real CONTROL SYSTEMS. 104axis is the line segment to the left ofs=-5. Step 2 - We will get the values of the centroid and the angle of asymptotes by using the given formulae, Centroid The angle of asymptotes are 9 = 60", 180" and 300" The centroid and three asymptotes are shown in the following figure. Step 3 — Since two asymptotes have the angles of 600600 and 30003000, two root locus branches intersect the imaginary axis. By using the Routh array method and special case(i), the root locus branches intersects the imaginary axis at V5 ang ?Y® ‘There will be one break-away point on the real axis root locus branch between the poles s -1 and s=0. By following the procedure given for the calculation of break-away point, we will getitas 473. The root locus diagram for the given control system is shown in the following figure. Break away pomnt=-O.973 In this way, you can draw the root locus diagram of any control system and observe the movement of poles of the closed loop transfer function. [meee ease JAsymptote with 180°%angie s Centroid=-2 Asymptote with 300°%angle From the root locus diagrams, we can know the range of K values for different types of damping, CONTROL SYSTEMS 105Effects of Adding Open Loop Poles and Zeros on Root Locus The root locus can be shifted in ‘s’ plane by adding the open loop poles and the open loop zeros. ‘+ If we include a pole in the open loop transfer function, then some of root locus branches will move towards right half of ‘s' plane. Because of this, the damping ratio & decreases. Which implies, damped frequency wd increases and the time domain specifications like delay time td, rise time tr and peak time tp decrease. But, it effects the system stability ‘+ If we include @ zero in the open loop transfer function, then some of root locus branches will move towards left half of ‘s’ plane. So, it \crease the control system stability. In this case, the damping ratio 6 increases. Which implies, damped frequency wd decreases and the time domain specifications like delay time td, rise time tr and peak time tp increase. So, based on the requirement, we can include (add) the open loop poles orzeros to the transfer function. Example = Jo — jo’ —3a@7 +2 CONTROL SYSTEMS. 106Example Two poles at —1 GH) = K(s +2) One zero at —2 - (s+)? One asymptote at 180° Break-in point at -3 21 B+l Bp+2 2p+4=P+1 Example Why a circle ? Characteristic equation 5? +s(2+K)+2K+1=0 rae For K>4 +) +i /EG-E) B+ ROA) Change oforigin s,, +2 = — FW *iWEG"®) WKG= 5) 4m = (K — 2)? + K(4—K) = K? —4K 4+ 444K —K? m=1 CONTROL SYSTEMS. 107Effects of adding a pole or zero to the root locus of a second-order system We discussed how we could change the value of gain K to change the position of the closed-loop poles. This corresponds to placing a proportional gain, Kk, in cascade with the system G(s) and finding the closed-loop poles for different values of gain, K. However, proportional control is a simple form of control; it does not provide us with zero steady example, in some control design problems, to produce the performance required in the design specifications we need to move the poles to some positions on the s-plane, which may not Leona root locus defined by the simple proportional gain K. To be able to move the poles to any position on the s-plane, we need to use a more complicated controller. For example, we may need to add a zero or a pole to the controller and see how this will affect the root locus and hence the position of the closed-loop poles. Examples of controllers with poles or zeros are: Rys+Ki Pl control: K(s) = Kp +—+=—2>—— s 5 ac). sttl Lag controller: K(s)= > _(t, «are controller parameters) Thus, we need to know how the root locus will change if we add a pole or a zero. To investigate this, we will use a simple example. Effects of adding a zero on the root locus for a second-order system Consider these cond-order system given by : e-————_- py, > 0, >0 ‘= piste Pa The poles are given by s = -p1 and s = -p2 and the simple root locus plot for this system is shown in Figure 13.13(a). When we add a zero at s = -z1 to the controller, the open-loop transfer function will change to: K(s+zy) (s+pills+ pa)’ 21>0 CONTROL SYSTEMS. 108@ 2 © & a e° 2 £ 2 Real aris Real aria @ 2 @ 2 3 - 8 (_\ Be \—— go £ Po =e £ 1 “1 1 6 4 2 6 @ e 6 a 2 0 @ Real axis Real axis Figure - Effect of adding a zero to a second-order system root locus. Lag compensator R, vi(O) 0, vols) _ 14s vis) BTS A lag compensetor has zero and dominating pole. A dominating pole is the pole present nearest to the origin in comparison to all the other poles in the s-plane and the poles and zeros must be present ‘on the negative real axis. Advantages of Lag Compensator Aphase lag network offers high gain at low frequency. Thus, it performs the function of a low pass filter. 2. The introduction of this network increases the steady-state performance of the system. 3. The lag network offers a reduction in bandwidth and this provides longer rise time and settling time and so the transient response. CONTROL SYSTEMS. 109Design of lag compensator using Root-locus Com Ris) SX kK co Design Procedure 1. Draw the root locus of the uncompensated closed-loop system. Based on the transient-response specifications, locate the domi- nant closed-loop poles on the root locus 2. Determine the open-loop gain using the magnitude condition 3. Determine the desired error coefficient to satisfy the steady-state error specifications 4. Determine the pole and zero of the lag compensator that produce the necessary increase in the particular error coefficient without appreciably altering the original root locus em and locate the Draw a new root locus of the compensated sys desired dominant closed-loop poles on the root locus. 6. Adjust the gain using the magnitude condition so that the domi- nant closed-loop poles lie at the desired location. CONTROL SYSTEMS. 110The zero 2, = —} is to the left of the pole pe = — aT Example Design a lag compensator using root locus technique to improve the steady-state error by a factor of 10 if the system is operating with a damping ratio of 0.174 for the open loop transfer function SINS) “Sera eri0) ‘The uncompensated system error was 0.108 with Kp = 8.23. Compensator Plant RE) 44>) El [ceo 1 oy +8 |] eaneeaerioy The compensated system with lag compensator is ‘Compensator Plant RO) +) 80), [ mis+0.11) 1 cs) (+001) GF G+ D610) Root locus for uncompensated system is CONTROL SYSTEMS. at-I158 10 8-6 X =Closed-loop pole pen-loop pole Root locus for compensated system is Conclusion Compensator pole at -0.01 “Fourth closed-loop pole at ~0.101 Parameter Uncompensated Lag-compensated Plant and compensator K K, e(~) Dominant second-order poles Third pole Fourth pole Zero K GFE FIG FIO 164.6 8.23 0.108 0.694 + [3.926 11.61 None None K(s+0.111) FFE +26 + 1)(s+ 0.01) 158.1 87.75 oon 0.678 + j3.836 1155 =0.101 -0.111 Lead Compensator lead compensator is an electrical circuit that when provided with a sinusoidal input generates a sinusoidal signal as output with a phase lead in comparison to that of the applied sinusoidal signal. It is also known as lead network. CONTROL SYSTEMS. 112Advantages of Lead Compensator 1. As we have discussed that lead compensator introduces a dominant zero and a pole to the transfer function. Hence this improves damping of the overalll system. 2. The enhanced damping of the system supports less overshoot along with less rise time and settling time. Therefore, the transient response gets improved. 3, The addition of lead network improves phase margin. 4, Asystem with lead network provides a quick response as it increases bandwidth thereby providing a faster response. Lead networks do not disturb the steady-state error of the system, 6. It maximizes the velocity constant of the system. of lead compensator using Roottocus Keep one pole at or near s=0. Pick the zero of the lead compensator to cancel the next slowest (stable) pole. 3. Keeps Kp (or kv} large 4, Pick the pole 3 to 10 times larger than the zero Speeds up the system 5. Assume 3x to 10x faster Example Design a lead compensators for the system shown below that will reduce the settling time by a factor of 2 while maintaining 30% overshoot. 4 s(S+4) G46) First determine the characteristics of the uncompensated system operating at 30% overshoot to see what the uncompensated settling time is. Since 30% overshoot is equivalent to a damping ratio of 0.358, we search along the z = 0.358 line for the uncompensated dominant poles on the root locus, as shown in Figure 9.26, From the pole’s real part, we calculate the uncompensated settling time as Ts = 4/1.007 =3.972 seconds. G(s)HI) = CONTROL SYSTEMS. 113Root-locus for uncompensated system is ¢=0.508 ‘compensated a” ‘ Uncompensated dominant pole 1.205 + j2.064 X =Open-loop pole Root locus for compensated system is jo s-plane 29 6 54 0 Closed-loop pole X =Open-loop pole CONTROL SYSTEMS. 114