UNIT 1:

History of linux:
At the time, most operating systems were proprietary and expensive. Torvalds
wanted to create an operating system that was freely available to anyone who
wanted to use the operating system; He originally released Linux as free software
under the GNU General Public License. This meant that anyone could use, modify,
and redistribute his source code.The operating system is built upon the Linux
kernel, which was first released in 1991 by Linus Torvalds

A popular open-source operating system is Linux. It was initially created by Linus

Torvalds in 1991. At the time, Torvalds was a computer science student at the
University of Helsinki, and began working on the Linux project as a personal
endeavour(effort). The name Linux is a combination of his first name, Linus, and
MINIX inspired by the Unix and Multics(MINIX) projects, which shared the goal
of developing a robust multi-user operating system.

Torvalds started working on the Linux kernel in April 1991, and he announced his
project on the Internet in August 1991. The first version of the Linux kernel,
version 0.01, was released on September 17, 1991.

In the early days, Linux was not a full-fledged operating system, but rather a kernel
that required other software to make it functional. However, the kernel quickly
gained popularity, and developers from around the world began to contribute to the
project.

In 1992, the Linux kernel was licensed under the GNU General Public License
(GPL), which allowed developers to modify and distribute the kernel freely. This
move helped to establish Linux as a community-driven project, and it paved the
way for the development of a wide range of Linux distributions.

Over the years, Linux has evolved into a powerful and versatile operating system
that is used in a wide range of applications, from desktop computers to servers,
mobile devices, and embedded systems. Today, Linux is one of the most popular
operating systems in the world, with a huge community of users and developers
who continue to shape its future.
Here's a brief timeline of the major milestones in the history of Linux:

1991: Linus Torvalds starts working on the Linux kernel in April and announces
the project on the Internet in August.

1991: The first version of the Linux kernel, version 0.01, is released on September
17.

1992: The Linux kernel is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL).

1993: The first Linux distribution, Slackware, is released.

1994: The Linux kernel version 1.0 is released.

1996: The Linux kernel version 2.0 is released.

1998: The Linux kernel version 2.2 is released.

2001: The Linux kernel version 2.4 is released.

2003: The Linux kernel version 2.6 is released.

2011: The Linux kernel version 3.0 is released.

2015: The Linux kernel version 4.0 is released.

Today, Linux continues to evolve, with new versions of the kernel and
distributions being released regularly. Its community-driven development model
has made it one of the most popular and versatile operating systems in the world.
Here are some of the key features of Linux:

1. Multi-User Capability: Linux is a multi-user operating system, which means that

multiple users can use the system simultaneously.

2. Multi-Tasking Capability: Linux is a multi-tasking operating system, which means

that multiple tasks can be executed simultaneously.

3. Portable: Linux is a portable operating system, which means that it can be installed
on any hardware platform.

4. Open-Source: Linux is an open-source operating system, which means that its

source code is freely available for modification and distribution.

5. Secure: Linux is a secure operating system, which means that it has built-in security
features to prevent unauthorized access.

6. Customizable: Linux is a customizable operating system, which means that users

can customize the system to meet their specific needs.

7. Scalable: Linux is a scalable operating system, which means that it can be used on
small embedded devices as well as large servers and supercomputers.

8. Fast Performance: Linux is known for its fast performance, which makes it a popular
choice for applications that require high-speed processing.

9. Extensive Software Availability: Linux has a vast repository of free and open-
source software available, including office suites, media players, and more.

10. Graphical User Interface (GUI): Linux has a graphical user interface (GUI) that
provides a user-friendly interface for interacting with the system.

11. Command-Line Interface (CLI): Linux also has a command-line interface (CLI) that
provides a powerful interface for interacting with the system.

12. Networking: Linux has built-in networking capabilities, which make it easy to
connect to the internet and other networks.

13. Device Support: Linux has extensive device support, which means that it can
support a wide range of hardware devices.

14. File System: Linux has a robust file system that provides a hierarchical structure for
storing files and directories.
 15. Process Management: Linux has a process management system that provides a
way to manage and control processes running on the system.

16. Memory Management: Linux has a memory management system that provides a
way to manage and control memory allocation.

17. Security Features: Linux has a range of security features, including access control
lists (ACLs), file permissions, and encryption.

18. Virtualization: Linux has built-in virtualization capabilities, which make it easy to
create and manage virtual machines.

19. Cloud Computing: Linux is widely used in cloud computing, which provides a way
to access computing resources over the internet.

20. Embedded Systems: Linux is widely used in embedded systems, which are
specialized computing systems that are designed to perform a specific task.

 Some of the other features of Linux include:

 Package Management: Linux has a package management system that provides a way
to easily install, update, and remove software packages.
 System Services: Linux has a range of system services, including cron, syslog, and
init, which provide a way to manage and control system resources.
 Networking Protocols: Linux supports a range of networking protocols,
including TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
 File Systems: Linux supports a range of file systems, including ext2, ext3, and ext4.
 Device Drivers: Linux has a range of device drivers that provide a way to interact with
hardware devices.

******************************************************************

GUI vs. CLI: Understanding the Difference

The main difference between GUI (Graphical User Interface) and CLI (Command-
Line Interface) lies in how users interact with a computer or a software application.

GUI (Graphical User Interface)

A GUI is a visual interface that uses graphical icons, menus, and windows to
interact with a computer or device. It allows users to interact with the system using
visual elements such as:

 Icons

 Buttons

 Menus

 Windows

 Mouse clicks

In a GUI, users can navigate through the system using a mouse or touchpad, and
perform actions by clicking on icons or buttons. GUIs are commonly used in:

 Operating systems like Windows, macOS, and Linux

 Web browsers like Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox

 Mobile devices like smart phones and tablets

CLI (Command-Line Interface)

A CLI, on the other hand, is a text-based interface that uses commands and syntax
to interact with a computer or device. It allows users to interact with the system by
typing commands using a keyboard. CLIs are commonly used in:

 Terminal or command prompt in operating systems

 SSH (Secure Shell) connections to remote servers

 Scripting and automation tasks

In a CLI, users need to have knowledge of specific commands and syntax to

perform actions. CLIs are often preferred by power users and developers due to
their flexibility and customizability.

Key differences:
 Interaction style: GUI uses visual elements, while CLI uses text-based
commands.
  User expertise: GUI is generally easier to use for beginners, while CLI
requires more technical knowledge.
 Flexibility: CLI provides more flexibility and customizability, while GUI is
often limited to pre-defined options.
Linux Distributions

Linux distributions, also known as Linux distros, are operating systems that are
based on the Linux kernel. They are packaged with various software components,
such as libraries, utilities, and applications, to create a complete operating system.
Here are some popular Linux distributions:

Major Distributions

 Ubuntu: One of the most popular Linux distributions, known for its user-
friendly interface and large community of users and developers.

 Debian: A stable and reliable distribution that is known for its strict
adherence to the principles of free and open-source software.

 Fedora: A community-driven distribution that is always on the bleeding

edge of new technology and features.

 CentOS: A distribution that is based on Red Hat Enterprise Linux, known

for its stability and reliability in enterprise environments.

 openSUSE: A distribution that is known for its easy-to-use installer and its
unique package management system.

Specialized Distributions

 Lubuntu: A lightweight distribution that is designed for older hardware and

is known for its speed and efficiency.

 Kali Linux: A distribution that is designed for penetration testing and digital
forensics.

 Raspbian: A distribution that is designed for the Raspberry Pi single-board

computer.
  SteamOS: A distribution that is designed for gaming and is based on
Debian.

Other Notable Distributions

 Arch Linux: A distribution that is known for its simplicity and

customizability.

 Gentoo Linux: A distribution that is known for its flexibility and

customizability.

 Linux Mint: A distribution that is known for its user-friendly interface and
simplicity.

This is not an exhaustive list, as there are many other Linux distributions available.
Each distribution has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of
distribution often depends on the specific needs and preferences of the user

******************************************************************
Components of linux:

Linux is a modular operating system, and it consists of several components that

work together to provide a fully functional operating system. Here are the main
components of a Linux system:

1. Kernel: The kernel is the core of the Linux operating system. It is

responsible for managing the system's hardware resources and providing
 services to applications. The kernel is the lowest level of the operating
system and interacts directly with the hardware.

2. Device Drivers: Device drivers are programs that manage the interaction
between the kernel and hardware devices such as printers, disk drives,
and network cards.

3. System Libraries: System libraries are collections of pre-written code that

provide common functions and services to applications. They are used by
the kernel and device drivers to perform tasks such as input/output
operations and memory management.

4. System Utilities: System utilities are programs that perform specific tasks
such as file management, process management, and system
configuration.

5. Shell: The shell is a program that provides a command-line interface to the

operating system. It allows users to interact with the system by entering
commands and receiving output.

6. File System: The file system is a hierarchical structure that stores files and
directories on a storage device. Linux supports several file systems,
including ext2, ext3, and ext4.

7. User Space: User space refers to the area of memory where user
applications run. It is separate from the kernel space, which is reserved for
the kernel and device drivers.

8. System Services: System services are programs that provide services to

applications and users. Examples include the cron daemon, which
schedules tasks to run at specific times, and the syslog daemon, which
logs system messages.

9. Network Stack: The network stack is a collection of protocols and services

that enable communication between the system and other devices on a
network.

10. X Window System: The X Window System is a graphical user

interface (GUI) that provides a windowing system and graphics capabilities
to Linux systems.
Benefits of Linux:

1. Free and Open-Source: Linux is free to download and use, and its source code
is openly available for modification and distribution.

2. Security: Linux is considered a secure operating system due to its open-source

nature, which allows for rapid identification and fixing of security vulnerabilities.

3. Customizable: Linux can be customized to meet specific needs and

requirements, making it a popular choice for developers and power users.

4. Stability: Linux is known for its stability and reliability, with many systems
running for years without needing to be rebooted.

5. Flexibility: Linux can run on a wide range of hardware platforms, from small
embedded devices to large servers and supercomputers.

6. Community Support: Linux has a large and active community of users and
developers, which provides extensive support and resources.

7. Compatibility: Linux can run many Windows applications using compatibility

layers such as Wine, and can also run many macOS applications using emulation.
8. Server Capabilities: Linux is a popular choice for servers due to its stability,
security, and scalability.

9. Low System Requirements: Linux can run on older hardware, making it a great
option for reviving older machines.

10. No Vendor Lock-in: Linux is not controlled by a single vendor, which means
that users are not locked into a specific ecosystem or forced to upgrade to new
versions.

11. Fast Performance: Linux is known for its fast performance and
responsiveness, making it a popular choice for developers and power users.

12. Extensive Software Availability: Linux has a vast repository of free and open-
source software available, including office suites, media players, and more.

13. Easy to Learn: Linux has a relatively low barrier to entry, with many user-
friendly distributions and graphical interfaces available.

14. Environmentally Friendly: Linux can help reduce electronic waste by

breathing new life into older hardware.

15. Cost-Effective: Linux is free to download and use, which can help reduce costs
for individuals and organizations.

16. High-Quality Documentation: Linux has extensive documentation available,

making it easier for users to learn and troubleshoot.

17. Support for Older Hardware: Linux can run on older hardware, making it a
great option for those who want to extend the life of their machines.

18. No Bloat ware (unwanted or hidden software installed by the manufacturer or

vendor on a new computer, device, or application): Linux does not come with pre-
installed bloatware, which can slow down systems and compromise security.

19. Improved Productivity: Linux can help improve productivity due to its fast
performance, customizable interface, and extensive software availability.

20. Fun to Use: Linux can be a fun and rewarding operating system to use, with a
strong sense of community and a wide range of customization options.
Overall, Linux offers a unique combination of freedom, flexibility, and
functionality that makes it a popular choice for many users.

******************************************************************

The Linux Kernel

The Linux kernel is the core component of a Linux operating system. It is the
lowest-level system software that interacts directly with the computer hardware
and provides services to the applications and users. The kernel is responsible for
managing the system's resources, such as memory, CPU time, and storage, and
provides a platform for running applications and services.

Key Components of the Linux Kernel

 Process Management: The kernel manages the creation, execution, and

termination of processes (programs) running on the system.

 Memory Management: The kernel manages the system's memory,

allocating it to running programs and deallocating it when no longer needed.

 File System Management: The kernel provides a file system hierarchy,

allowing programs to read and write files to storage devices.

 Input/Output (I/O) Management: The kernel manages input/output

operations between devices and programs.

 Networking: The kernel provides network protocols and interfaces,

allowing programs to communicate with other systems over a network.

 Security: The kernel provides mechanisms for securing the system, such as
access control, encryption, and authentication.

Linux Kernel Architecture

The Linux kernel is a monolithic kernel, meaning that it is a single, self-contained

piece of code that runs in kernel mode. The kernel is divided into several layers,
including:

 Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL): Provides a interface between the

kernel and the hardware.
  Device Drivers: Manage specific hardware devices, such as network cards,
hard drives, and graphics cards.

 System Calls: Provide a interface between the kernel and user-space

applications.

 Kernel Modules: Loadable modules that provide additional functionality to

the kernel.

Linux Kernel Development

The Linux kernel is open-source software, maintained by a community of

developers around the world. The kernel is developed using a collaborative
approach, with contributions from individuals, companies, and organizations. The
kernel is released under the GNU General Public License (GPL), ensuring that it
remains free and open-source.

Interesting Facts about the Linux Kernel

 The Linux kernel was first released in 1991 by Linus Torvalds.

 The kernel is written in C and assembly language.

 The kernel is highly customizable, with thousands of configuration options.

 The kernel is used in a wide range of devices, from supercomputers to

embedded systems.

Types of Linux Kernels

The Linux kernel is a highly customizable and modular piece of software, and as
such, there are several types of Linux kernels that cater to specific use cases and
requirements. Here are some of the most common types of Linux kernels:

1. Monolithic Kernel

A monolithic kernel is a single, self-contained piece of code that runs in kernel

mode. This is the traditional and most common type of Linux kernel. The
monolithic kernel provides a high level of performance and efficiency, but it can
be complex and difficult to maintain.

2. Microkernel

A microkernel is a small, lightweight kernel that provides only the most basic
services, such as process scheduling and memory management. The microkernel is
designed to be highly modular and flexible, allowing for easier maintenance and
customization.

3. Hybrid Kernel

A hybrid kernel combines the benefits of monolithic and microkernel architectures.

It provides a small, efficient core kernel that is surrounded by a set of modules that
provide additional functionality.

4. Real-Time Kernel
A real-time kernel is designed for systems that require predictable and fast
responses to events. Real-time kernels are typically used in embedded systems,
such as robotics, automotive, and aerospace applications.

5. Embedded Kernel
An embedded kernel is designed for use in embedded systems, such as routers, set-
top boxes, and other specialized devices. Embedded kernels are typically
optimized for small size, low power consumption, and high performance.

6. Mainline Kernel

The mainline kernel is the standard, upstream Linux kernel maintained by Linus
Torvalds and the Linux kernel community. The mainline kernel is the basis for
most Linux distributions and is considered the most stable and widely supported
kernel.

7. Longterm Kernel

A longterm kernel is a stable kernel that is maintained for an extended period,

typically 2-5 years. Longterm kernels are designed for use in production
environments where stability and reliability are critical.
8. Custom Kernel

A custom kernel is a kernel that is tailored to meet the specific needs of a particular
organization or application. Custom kernels are often used in specialized
industries, such as finance, healthcare, and government.

9. Binary Kernel
A binary kernel is a kernel that is distributed in binary form, rather than source
code. Binary kernels are often used in proprietary systems, such as Android
devices.

10. Source Kernel

A source kernel is a kernel that is distributed in source code form, allowing users
to modify and customize the kernel to meet their specific needs.

****************************************************************

The Linux File System

The Linux file system is a hierarchical structure that organizes files and directories
on a Linux system. It is a critical component of the operating system, providing a
way to store, retrieve, and manage files and data.

Types of paths:

In Linux, there are two types of paths: Absolute Paths and Relative Paths.

Absolute Paths
An absolute path is a path that starts from the root directory (/) and specifies the
exact location of a file or directory. It is a complete path that includes all the
directories that lead to the file or directory. Absolute paths are always preceded by
a forward slash (/).

Example: /home/user/documents/file.txt

Relative Paths

A relative path is a path that is relative to the current working directory (cwd). It
does not start with a forward slash (/) and is used to navigate to a file or directory
from the current directory. Relative paths can be used to navigate to a file or
directory that is located in the current directory or in a subdirectory.

Example: documents/file.txt (assuming the current working directory is

/home/user)

Key Components of the Linux File System

 Root Directory (/): The top-most directory in the file system hierarchy,
which contains all other files and directories.

 Directories: Folders that contain files and subdirectories.

 Files: Collections of data stored on disk, such as documents, images, and

programs.

 File Systems: The underlying storage systems that manage files and
directories, such as ext4, XFS, and NFS.

Linux File System Hierarchy

The Linux file system hierarchy is organized in a tree-like structure, with the root
directory (/) at the top. The hierarchy is divided into several main directories,
including:

 /bin: Essential system binaries and executables.

 /boot: Boot loader files and kernel images.

 /dev: Device files, such as hard drives, keyboards, and mice.

 /etc: System configuration files and settings.

 /home: User home directories and personal files.

 /lib: Shared libraries and modules.

 /media: Mount points for removable media, such as USB drives and CDs.

 /mnt: Temporary mount points for file systems.

  /opt: Optional packages and software.

 /proc: Virtual file system providing information about system processes and
resources.

 /root: The root user's home directory.

 /sbin: System binaries and executables.

 /sys: Virtual file system providing information about system hardware and
resources.

 /tmp: Temporary files and data.

 /usr: User programs and data, including executables, libraries, and

documentation.

 /var: Variable data, such as logs, spool files, and temporary data.

File System Types

Linux supports a variety of file system types, including:

 ext2: An older file system type, still supported for compatibility.

 ext3: A journaling file system, providing improved reliability and

performance.

 ext4: The default file system type in many Linux distributions, offering
improved performance and features.

 XFS: A high-performance file system, optimized for large files and high-
throughput applications.

 NFS: A network file system, allowing remote access to files and directories.

 FAT: A file system type used by Windows, supported by Linux for

compatibility.
File System Management

Linux provides several tools and commands for managing the file system,
including:

 mkdir: Create a new directory.

 rm: Delete a file or directory.

 cp: Copy a file or directory.

 mv: Move or rename a file or directory.

 chmod: Change file permissions and access control.

 chown: Change file ownership and group membership.

*************************************************************

(Note this is detail description of directory you can

refer this also )
Linux File System Hierarchy in Detail

The Linux file system hierarchy is a critical component of the operating system,
providing a way to organize and manage files and directories. The hierarchy is
divided into several main directories, each with its own specific purpose and
contents.

1. / (Root Directory)

The root directory is the top-most directory in the file system hierarchy, containing
all other files and directories. It is denoted by a forward slash (/) and is the starting
point for all file system paths.

2. /bin (Essential System Binaries)

The /bin directory contains essential system binaries and executables, such as:

 bash: The default shell interpreter

 cp: Copy files and directories

  mv: Move or rename files and directories

 rm: Delete files and directories

 mkdir: Create new directories

These binaries are essential for the system to function properly and are typically
statically linked to reduce dependencies.

3. /boot (Boot Loader Files and Kernel Images)

The /boot directory contains files and directories related to the boot process,
including:

 vmlinuz: The Linux kernel image

 initrd: The initial ramdisk image

 grub: The GRUB boot loader configuration files

These files are critical for the system to boot properly and are typically stored on a
separate partition to ensure accessibility.

4. /dev (Device Files)

The /dev directory contains device files, which are special files that provide access
to hardware devices, such as:

 /dev/sda: The first hard drive

 /dev/sr0: The CD/DVD drive

 /dev/tty1: The first virtual terminal

Device files are used by the system to interact with hardware devices and are
typically created dynamically by the udev system.

5. /etc (System Configuration Files and Settings)

The /etc directory contains system configuration files and settings, including:

 /etc/passwd: User account information

  /etc/group: Group membership information

 /etc/hosts: Hostname resolution configuration

 /etc/resolv.conf: DNS resolution configuration

These files are critical for the system to function properly and are typically edited
by system administrators to customize system behavior.

6. /home (User Home Directories and Personal Files)

The /home directory contains user home directories and personal files, including:

 /home/user: The user's home directory

 /home/user/Documents: The user's document files

 /home/user/Pictures: The user's picture files

User home directories are typically stored on a separate partition to ensure data
integrity and accessibility.

7. /lib (Shared Libraries and Modules)

The /lib directory contains shared libraries and modules, including:

 libc.so.6: The GNU C library

 libm.so.6: The GNU math library

 kernel modules: Loadable kernel modules

Shared libraries are used by multiple programs to reduce memory usage and
improve performance.

8. /media (Mount Points for Removable Media)

The /media directory contains mount points for removable media, such as:

 /media/usb: The USB drive mount point

 /media/cdrom: The CD/DVD drive mount point

Removable media is typically mounted under this directory to provide easy access
to files and data.

9. /mnt (Temporary Mount Points for File Systems)

The /mnt directory contains temporary mount points for file systems, including:

 /mnt/temp: A temporary mount point for a file system

Temporary mount points are used to mount file systems temporarily, such as
during system maintenance or troubleshooting.

10. /opt (Optional Packages and Software)

The /opt directory contains optional packages and software, including:

 /opt/google/chrome: The Google Chrome web browser

 /opt/mysql: The MySQL database server

Optional packages and software are typically installed under this directory to keep
them separate from essential system files.

11. /proc (Virtual File System Providing Information about System Processes
and Resources)

The /proc directory contains a virtual file system that provides information about
system processes and resources, including:

 /proc/cpuinfo: CPU information

 /proc/meminfo: Memory information

 /proc/net: Network information

The /proc file system is a critical component of the Linux system, providing real-
time information about system resources and processes.

12. /root (The Root User's Home Directory)

The /root directory contains the root user's home directory and personal files,
including:
  /root/.bashrc: The root user's shell configuration file

 /root/.profile: The root user's profile file

The root user's home directory is typically stored on the root partition to ensure
accessibility.

13. /sbin (System Binaries and Executables)

The /sbin directory contains system binaries and executables, including:

 /sbin/init: The system initialization program

 /sbin/halt: The system shutdown program

 /sbin/reboot: The system reboot program

System binaries and executables are typically statically linked to reduce

dependencies and are used by the system to perform critical functions.

14. /sys (Virtual File System Providing Information about System Hardware
and Resources)

The /sys directory contains a virtual file system that provides information about
system hardware and resources, including:

 /sys/devices: Hardware device information

 /sys/bus: Bus information

 /sys/class: Device class information

The /sys file system is a critical component of the Linux system, providing real-
time information about system hardware and resources.

15. /tmp (Temporary Files and Data)

The /tmp directory contains temporary files and data, including:

 /tmp/tempfile: A temporary file

 /tmp/session: A temporary session file

Temporary files and data are typically stored under this directory to provide a
convenient location for programs to store temporary data.

16. /usr (User Programs and Data, including Executables, Libraries, and
Documentation)

The /usr directory contains user programs and data, including:

 /usr/bin: User executables

 /usr/lib: User libraries

 /usr/share: Shared data and documentation

User programs and data are typically stored under this directory to provide a
convenient location for users to access and manage their files and data.

17. /var (Variable Data, such as Logs, Spool Files, and Temporary Data)

The /var directory contains variable data, including:

 /var/log: System log files

 /var/spool: Spool files

 /var/tmp: Temporary files and data

Variable data is typically stored under this directory to provide a convenient

location for programs to store temporary and variable data.
UNIT 2:

Types of user in Linux

1. Root User (Super user) the root user, also known as the super user, is the most
powerful user in Linux. They have unrestricted access to all files, directories, and
system resources. The root user can perform any action on the system, including
creating and deleting users, modifying system files, and installing software.

2. Regular Users Regular users are the typical users who interact with the system
on a daily basis. They have limited access to system resources and can only
perform actions within their own user space. Regular users can create files,
directories, and run applications, but they cannot modify system files or perform
administrative tasks.

Login and Logout Process in Linux: GUI and CLI Steps

In Linux, the login and logout processes are critical components of the operating
system, providing secure access to the system and its resources. Here, we'll explore
the step-by-step process of logging in and out of a Linux system using both the
Graphical User Interface (GUI) and Command-Line Interface (CLI).

GUI Login Process:

1. Power On: Turn on your Linux machine, and the system will boot up.

2. Boot Loader: The boot loader (e.g., GRUB) will display a menu, allowing
you to select the operating system to boot.

3. Login Screen: Once the system boots, you'll see a login screen, which may
display a list of available users or a simple login prompt.

4. Username and Password: Enter your username and password in the

respective fields. You can also select a user from the list, if available.

5. Authentication: The system will authenticate your credentials, checking

against the stored username and password in
the /etc/passwd and /etc/shadow files.
 6. Login Successful: If the authentication is successful, you'll be logged in,
and the system will display your desktop environment.

GUI Logout Process:

1. Logout Option: Click on the logout option, usually found in the system
menu or the desktop environment's menu (e.g., GNOME, KDE).

2. Logout Confirmation: A confirmation dialog will appear, asking if you're

sure you want to log out.

3. Logout: Click on the "Log Out" or "Logout" button to confirm.

4. Session Closure: The system will close your session, terminating all
running applications and processes.

5. Login Screen: You'll be returned to the login screen, where you can log in
again or shut down the system.

CLI Login Process:

1. TTY: Access a Terminal (TTY) by pressing Ctrl + Alt + F1 (or F2-F6) or

by using a terminal emulator like gnome-terminal or konsole.

2. Login Prompt: You'll see a login prompt, usually displaying the hostname
and a login prompt (e.g., login:).

3. Username: Enter your username, followed by the Enter key.

4. Password: Enter your password, followed by the Enter key. Note that the
password will not be echoed on the screen.

5. Authentication: The system will authenticate your credentials, checking

against the stored username and password in
the /etc/passwd and /etc/shadow files.

6. Login Successful: If the authentication is successful, you'll be logged in,

and the system will display a command prompt (e.g., $ or #).

CLI Logout Process:

1. Exit Command: Type the exit command and press Enter to log out.
 2. Session Closure: The system will close your session, terminating all
running applications and processes.

3. Login Prompt: You'll be returned to the login prompt, where you can log in
again or shut down the system.

Additional CLI Commands:

 logout: Similar to exit, logs out of the current session.

 shutdown: Shuts down the system, requiring root privileges.

 reboot: Reboots the system, requiring root privileges.

Remember to always log out or shut down your system properly to ensure data
integrity and system security.