QR CODE III.

UNIT III, LESSON 2

Social Relationships in Middle and Late Adolescence

ELICIT
What do you understand about social relationships?

ENGAGE
In what way do you think social relationship is different from personal relationship?

EXPLORE
WHAT IS SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP?
In the previous lesson, we discussed personal relationship among adolescents and identified this type
of relationship as unique to the individual where privacy, intimacy, loyalty, disclosure, and trust are very
important. We discussed how personal relationships can also be very exclusive and emotionally intense, such
as in romantic relationships. Personal relationships are usually present among family members, close friends,
and lovers whom one shares intimate information with.
In this lesson, we will expand the relationships of adolescents to a wider group of people, such as
schoolmates, school authorities, neighbors, community acquaintances, fellow members of social organizations,
strangers they often meet casually in social gatherings, and even the small groupings of friends in school
usually referred to as cliques.
Social relationships tend to be less
intimate, with lesser self-disclosure involved,
but may still be exclusive, and may demand
certain levels of loyalty as in fraternities or
religious organizations, and to a lesser extent,
loosely knitted social clubs like practitioners of
certain specialized professions.
Middle and late adolescents usually find
themselves in the company of their peers,
usually from the school or the neighborhood. As they gravitate more toward these groups, the attachment
to family as their primary source of personal development now shifts toward these peer groups. Being able
to create friendships and new attachments is critical in the development of adolescents as they transition to
young adulthood. From high school to college, adolescents mature faster socially and new lessons are learned,
especially on how their social interactions affirm their self-identity, increase their self-esteem, and develop
their capacity to nurture relationships.

LESSON 2 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS IN MIDDLE AND LATE ADOLESCENCE 1

GOLEMAN’S SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE THEORY
Emotional Intelligence author, Daniel Goleman, explained in his book, Social Intelligence: The New Science
of Human Relationships (2006), how our brains are wired to connect with other people, and how part of the
human brain located just above the eyes called orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is connected directly to the three
major regions of the brain: the cortex, the amygdala, and the brain stem. In the previous lessons, we showed
how neuroscience plays a key role in the way we experience and handle emotions, stress, and even the way
we are attracted to other people. Likewise, social intelligence is rooted in this same neurological connection
as emotional intelligence.
Goleman pointed out that OFC provides an immediate connection between thought, emotions, and
behavior. It immediately calculates our feelings and thoughts about a person and how that other person
feels and thinks about us, and what actions we take after this quick assessment. This instantaneous analysis
determines how we will deal with and how we will handle the person, and how our actions and behavior stem
from this brain activity. After the initial assessment that our brain undertakes, the final action that we take
is a deliberate and conscious choice we make. As such, we are always responsible for what we do and think,
especially about other people.

SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Our social relationships, although dictated to a certain extent by our neural reflexes, are also affected by
other factors such as social influence. What is social influence and how does this work in our lives?
An article, Social Influence, written by Lisa Rashotte (2007), accessed at http://www.
sociologyencyclopedia.com/fragr_image/media/social, discusses a study conducted by renowned social
psychologists John R. P. French and Bertram Raven in 1959 on the concept of power and how this is used
in social influence. According to Rashotte, the authors defined social influence as things such as behavior,
actions, attitude, concepts, ideas, communications, wealth, and other resources that bring about changes
in the beliefs, attitudes, and/or behavior of persons as a result of the action/s of another person.
Rashotte further explored how social influence is usually conducted through the use of power, whether
this was done authoritatively, coercively, suggestively, or by giving rewards. In some other instances, Rashotte
pointed out how social influence happens as a result of interacting with other people who are perceived to
be subject matter experts or of having similar persuasions as the ones being influenced. She concluded that
French and Raven were able to conclude in that study how leadership and power are closely interlinked.

Varieties or Types of Social Influence

Herbert Kelman (1958), a Harvard psychologist, suggested that there are three varieties of social
influence, namely:
• Compliance – is when a person seems to agree, and follows what is requested or required of him or her
to do or believe in, but does not necessarily have to really believe or agree to it;
• Identification – is when a person is influenced by someone he or she likes or looks up to, like a movie
star, a social celebrity, or a superhero; and
• Internalization – is when a person is able to own a certain belief or act, and is willing to make it known
publicly and privately.

2 PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
 Social scientists and psychologists identified other types of social influence as:
• Conformity is a type of social influence that involves a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to be like
others. It is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. Social psychology research in
conformity tends to distinguish between two varieties: informational conformity (“internalization” in
Kelman’s terms) and normative conformity (“compliance” in Kelman’s terms).
Conformity is very strong, particularly among middle
and late adolescents. This is supported by the fact that an
adolescent in this age group is most susceptible to a compelling
need to seek approval from others and be accepted by them in
order to become a friend and to belong to a social group. This
tendency toward conformity among adolescents may lead to
either positive or negative results, depending on the beliefs,
intentions, and attitudes of the members of a group and the
extent of their influence on an individual.
Conformity is brought about by peer pressure, often
imposed on members of a group to demonstrate some
semblance of loyalty, which is often deemed as necessary to maintain one’s relationship with the group.
Conformity is one reason why group members look and behave very similarly with one another, such
as wearing similar-looking clothes or enjoying the same movies and music genre, and adoring the same
celebrities.
• Conversion occurs when an individual whole-heartedly changes his or her original thinking and beliefs,
actions, and attitudes to align with those of the other members of a group. This also happens in a group
when the original beliefs, attitudes, and behavior of the different members may have influenced each
other to evolve into a new set of beliefs, attitudes, and behavior. Religious conversions are typical of
this type of social influence where internalization happens to make the new set of beliefs, attitudes, and
actions become one’s own.
• Minority influence happens when a bigger number of people are influenced by a much smaller number
of people and when the minority’s way of looking at and doing things are accepted. This may happen
when the minority owns and wields power economically, politically, and socially, or if the majority are
uninvolved and detached from issues.

Give an example where a minority group rules over a majority group.

• Reactance is when there is a willing rejection of a social influence being exerted on an individual or
a group. This is also known as anti- or nonconformity. Reactance is a reverse reaction to some social
influence that is being imposed by a person or a group on another. For example, an adolescent who is
being prevailed upon by the parents to stay at home during weekends and help in the house chores may
react and develop a nonconforming behavior of not following his parents. Whether the influence is right
or not, nonconformity is the rejection of such influence.

LESSON 2 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS IN MIDDLE AND LATE ADOLESCENCE 3

• Obedience is another form of social influence wherein a person follows what someone tells him or her
to do, although it may not necessarily reflect the person’s set of beliefs or values. Similar to compliance,
obedience usually stems from either respect or fear of the authority figure.
• Persuasion is used by one person or group to influence another to change their beliefs, actions, or
attitudes by appealing to reason or emotion.
Sources: World Heritage Encyclopedia on Social Influence accessed online
on January 17, 2021 at http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/eng/social_influence
Social Psychology, David G. Myers,
11th Edition, International Edition 2013, McGraw-Hill Education

What kind of influence would you like to have on others?

How do you use social media to influence other people?

LEADERSHIP AND FOLLOWERSHIP THEORIES

Much has been written and discussed about leadership and
how it impacts organizations and small groups alike. Even the
definition of leadership has evolved over the years. A leader was
often typecast as someone who is the head of a group of people by
virtue of having great strength and wisdom, or may have inherited a
position of power even if strength and wisdom were not part of this
person’s virtues.
Influence plays a major role in leadership. Leadership, as
inferred from the writing of Chester Barnard, is the ability of a person
in position of authority to influence others to behave in such a manner that goals are achieved (Novicevic,
Harvey, Buckley, Brown, and Evans 2006). Power is also annexed to leadership, and that a leader may obtain
power through various means and sources, such as position, giving rewards, expertise, respect, or coercion
(French and Raven 2008).
There are several existing theories of leadership:
• Trait theory. This theory defines leadership based on certain personality traits which are generally suited
for all leaders, such as decisiveness, persistence, and high level of self-confidence and assertiveness
among others.
• Behavioral theory. This theory presupposes that leadership is a learned behavior, and that leaders are
defined according to certain types of behavior that they exhibit.
• Participative theory. The opposite of an autocratic leader, the participative leader involves other people
to make common decisions.
• Situational theory. This theory assumes that there is no one style of leadership and that leadership
behavior is based on the factors present in a situation, and usually takes into consideration how followers
behave.
• Transactional theory. This theory states that leadership involves a transaction or negotiation of resources
or position, and usually employs reward and punishment.

4 PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
• Transformational Theory. This theory involves a vision, which a leader uses to rally support from
followers, and the role of the leader is in motivating others to support the vision and make it happen.
Other leadership theories currently being explored and researched on are combinations of the different
theories mentioned.

Authentic Leadership
In the book Why Should Anyone Be Led by You?: What It Takes to Be an Authentic Leader by Rob Goffee
and Gareth Jones (2006), the authors lined up three basic axioms of leadership, and these are:
• Leadership is situational. This means that a leader’s behavior and what is required of him or her will
always be influenced by the situation. It means that a leader is able to assess a situation quickly, adjust to
it, and provide the appropriate and necessary action to address it for the benefit of his or her followers.
• Leadership is nonhierarchical. The exercise of leadership is not based on one’s position in an organizational
chart alone, but also dependent on other factors, such as characteristics, skills, and even connections.
• Leadership is relational. Leaders and followers establish a relationship where their interests are mutually
met. The role of a leader in this relationship can vary from being a visionary to a cheerleader. Followers
in a relationship with their leaders often desire to belong to a bigger entity like a community, and their
expectation of their leader is one who is genuine or authentic. This authenticity is expressed in behavioral
terms that are communicated effectively and consistently to the followers.

An authentic leader, according to Goffee and Jones (2006), has the following critical elements present:
• They walk their talk. They are consistent in what they say and what they do, practicing what they are
preaching.
• They adjust to situations and display adaptability and flexibility, but are consistent with their values and
real selves even when they take on different roles during different situations.
• They have a high level of comfort being themselves, even if they come from backgrounds that are
different from the people or situations they deal with. An example of this is Gat Andres Bonifacio, who
found himself dealing with people from all classes, rich or poor, the uneducated or the intelligentsia
(intellectuals or highly educated people), and felt comfortable being with them.
Authentic leadership, therefore, is primarily determined by how followers view the leader; thus,
attributing a leader’s authenticity through the eyes of his or her followers.

LESSON 2 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS IN MIDDLE AND LATE ADOLESCENCE 5

 Identify someone who you think have the three elements of an authentic leader.

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

So far, various theories have been presented to define leadership, its role and its qualities. It was also
mentioned that there is no leader without a follower. Another perspective of leadership casts followership as
a defining factor for leadership. St-Hilare (2008), in her paper discussing the various theories of leadership,
mentions a theory involving the dynamics between a leader and his followers. This was first developed
from the perspective of an original leader-member theory called the vertical dyad linkage (VDL) theory. The
VDL theory was first discussed in the works of Dansereau, Graen, and Haga (1975). Eventually, VDL further
progressed into two more theories, and one of which is the leader-member exchange (LMX) theory.
LMX theory states that a leader’s effectiveness is measured by the quality of his or her relationship
with his or her followers, and different types of relationships can evolve between leader and follower in a
certain work situation. Results of these types of relationships can vary. Another tenet of the theory is that
there should be an exchange of resources between leader and follower that is meaningful and viewed by both
parties as fair.

Can there be a leader without a follower? Can there be a follower without a leader?

Heroic Leadership
Another example of a popular description of leadership was expounded in a book titled Heroic Leadership:
Best Practices From a 450-Year Old Company That Changed the World by Chris Lowney, (2003). He referred to
the type of leadership that the members of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) live by. To this religious congregation
of men, everyone is a leader and everyone gets a chance to lead and be leaders in everything they do.
This type of leadership follows four principles that are integrated with one another and synergistically
interacting to reinforce each principle:
1. Self-awareness. We have emphasized the importance of self-awareness, knowing and understanding
fully our strengths and challenges, our way of looking at things, and even our emotions and the set of
values that we live by. This type of leadership considers self-awareness as very important to being a
leader.
2. Ingenuity. A leader of this type is not stuck in his or her comfort zone because the world is constantly
changing. Flexibility and openness to new ideas are the hallmarks of this kind of leadership. In the same
manner, detachment from sources of pride and pleasure is also emphasized.

6 PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
 The Jesuit Approach to Leadership

3. Love. A healthy self-concept generates a healthy and positive attitude when dealing with other people.
After all, you cannot love or respect another person unless you love and respect yourself first. What you
do not have, you cannot share with others. Effective leaders show their respect for their followers. They
are not merely people who follow them, but are partners in achieving the results they all desire. People
who are respected, treated well, valued, and trusted by another always show their best as a response to
the genuine caring being received.
4. Heroism. This type of leadership is about motivating and inspiring other people to reach for higher goals,
for bigger and greater things.

Read the story of Brother Richie R. Fernando, SJ, a 26-year-old Jesuit seminarian who, in 1996,
died protecting his Cambodian students from a hand grenade explosion. You can access his story at
https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/the-story-of-the-26-year-old-filipino-jesuit-on-the-road-
to-sainthood-67172 (Accessed on September 30, 2020). What type of leadership did Bro. Richie show?
What do you think of his action?

Going back to Goffee’s and Jones’ authentic leadership theory, they discussed the aspects of authentic
leadership and emphasized the role of the follower as a vital ingredient in the success of a leader. According
to Goffee and Jones, there are four elements followers want from a leader:
• Authenticity. The leader is not afraid to show his or her weakness, reveals his or her human side without
fear, and uses these together with his strengths to lead others;
• Significance. A leader provides the reason or meaning for followers to believe in;

LESSON 2 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS IN MIDDLE AND LATE ADOLESCENCE 7

• Excitement. A leader provides motivation and inspiration to his or her followers and excites them to
pursue their vision; and
• Community. A leader builds a community of followers with whom they can associate and forge
relationships.
Unlike some theories that claim everyone can be a leader, Goffee and Jones reason that leadership is not
for everyone. They theorized that leadership are for those who want to become leaders and are ready to take
on the responsibilities of being one. They concluded that leadership is measured not merely by its results, but
most importantly on the way it provides meaning to the leadership cause.

The Why-How-What Types of Leadership

The last theory of leadership and followership that we will discuss is about giving meaning to why
followers follow a leader. According to Simon Sinek (2009), a leader inspires people and gives them something
to believe in. Examples of these types of leaders are Moses, who brought the people of his tribe out of
Egyptian slavery; Martin Luther King, who inspired people with his speech I Have A Dream (he did not say, “I
Have A Plan”); and of course our own national heroes, Jose Rizal and Andres Bonifacio, who inspired our early
ancestors to dream of freedom from Spanish colonialism.
Sinek explains further that the most important question to ask first when leading others is the reason or
purpose why followers are asked to act and behave in a certain way (the “why” of every leadership). Once the
“why” is clearly established, the “how” (which is the action that will make a vision a reality), and the “what”
(the outcomes or results of the actions) will follow.
To Sinek, the “Why” type of leader is usually the visionary, the one who believes results can be achieved;
the “How” type of leader is the realist who is able to see how to work out a vision; and the “What” type of
leader is the builder who provides the details on how to get things done.

Are you a “Why,” “How,” or “What” type of leader? What makes you think so?

The Fourth Industrial Revolution, the era in which we live today and is now being referred to, is creating
many hybrid types of leadership to respond to the ever-changing scenarios in business organizations and
governments. Here is a list of reading materials that are exploring new types of leadership in the midst of
technological boom. Read on and learn these new trends.

Why the World Needs Systems Leadership, Not Selfish Leadership by W. Lee Howell, posted on
November 2, 2019 accessed on September 30, 2020 at the World Economic Forum website https://www.
weforum.org/agenda/2019/11/why-the-world-needs-systems-leadership-not-selfish-leadership

8 PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
 System Leadership Can Change the World – But What Exactly Is It? by Lisa Dreier posted on
September 24, 2019 accessed on September 30, 2020 at the World Economic Forum website https://
www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/09/systems-leadership-can-change-the-world-but-what-does-it-
mean?
5 Ways to Step Up and Become a Moral Leader by Avery Blank posted on August 27, 2019
accessed on September 30, 2020 at the World Economic Forum website https://www.weforum.org/
agenda/2019/08/5-ways-moral-leader?
The Four Types of Leader Who Will Thrive in the Fourth Industrial Revolution by Punit Renjen,
article published on January 23, 2019 accessed on September 30, 2020 at the World Economic Forum
website https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/these-four-leadership-styles-are-key-to-success-
in-the-fourth-industrial-revolution
Humane Leadership Must be the Fourth Industrial Revolution’s Real Innovation by Paolo Gallo and
Vlatka Hlupic published on May 15, 2019 accessed on September 30, 2020 at the World Economic Forum
website https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/05/humane-leadership-is-the-4irs-big-management-
innovation

While these new leadership types are being proposed, there are the leadership skills that management
gurus and organizational development experts are recommending. Below are more readings on this topic.

The Dalai Lama on Why Leaders Should be Mindful, Selfless and Compassionate by the Dalai
Lama with Rasmus Hougaard published in the Harvard Business Review on February 20, 2019 accessed
on September 30, 2020 https://www.dalailama.com/messages/compassion-and-human-values/why-
leaders-should-be-mindful-selfless-and-compassionate
These Four Leadership Mindsets Are Driving the New Economy by Douglas A. Ready, Senior
lecturer, MIT Sloan School of Management posted on November 14, 2019 accessed on September 30,
2020 at the World Economic Forum website https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/11/leadership-
mindsets-for-the-new-economy?
Five Reasons Why Empathy Is the Most Important Leadership Skill by Harvey Deutschendorf
posted on December 6, 2018 accessed on September 30, 2020 at the Fast Company website https://
www.fastcompany.com/90272895/5-reasons-empathy-is-the-most-important-leadership-skill
American billionaire, Warren Buffet, chooses his people with these three traits, but one is most
important:
Warren Buffet Says Only One Trait Actually Points to a Great Leader by Marcel Schwantes posted
on February 6, 2020 accessed on September 30, 2020 at the Inc. website https://www.inc.com/marcel-
schwantes/warren-buffett-says-only-1-trait-actually-points-to-a-great-leader.html

LESSON 2 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS IN MIDDLE AND LATE ADOLESCENCE 9

 And definitely, emotional intelligence is linked to quality leadership as explained in these articles:
4 Steps to Become A More Emotionally Intelligent Leader by Christine Comaford, posted
on November 13, 2016 accessed on September 30, 2020 at the Forbes website https://www.forbes.
com/sites/christinecomaford/2016/11/13/how-to-be-a-more-emotionally-intelligent-leader-
infographic/#127eeaab462a
The Use of Emotional Intelligence for Effective Leadership by Brent Gleeson posted on December
29, 2014 accessed on September 30, 2020 at the Forbes website https://www.forbes.com/sites/
brentgleeson/2014/12/29/the-use-of-emotional-intelligence-for-effective-leadership/#66630b556d1e
Why Emotional Intelligence is Indispensable for Leaders by Brian Tracy posted on
October 30, 2017 accessed on September 30, 2020 at the Forbes website https://www.forbes.
com/sites/forbescoachescouncil/2017/10/30/why-emotional-intelligence-is-indispensable-for-
leaders/#4aa49293275b
5 Signs of High Emotional Intelligence by Mark Murphy posted on March 8, 2016 accessed on
September 30, 2020 at the Forbes website https://www.forbes.com/sites/markmurphy/2016/05/08/5-
signs-of-high-emotional-intelligence/#7ac698677e48
3 Steps to Develop Your Emotional Intelligence by Rebecca T. Dixon posted on March
20, 2019 at the Forbes website accessed on September 30, 2020 https://www.forbes.
com/si tes/forb es coac hes counc il/2019/03/20/three - s teps-to - develop - your- emotional -
intelligence/#2699b3436900
I Wrote a Book on Emotional Intelligence. Here’s the Most Valuable Lesson I’ve Learned by Justin
Bariso posted on November 30, 2019 accessed on September 30, 2020 at the Inc. website https://www.
inc.com/justin-bariso/i-wrote-a-book-on-emotional-intelligence-heres-most-valuable-lesson-i-learned.
html

And finally, here is a video worth watching:

Why Good Leaders Make You Feel Safe presented by Simon Sinek at TED2014 posted at TED.com
on March 2014 and accessed on September 30, 2020 https://www.ted.com/talks/simon_sinek_why_
good_leaders_make_you_feel_safe#t-3436

EXPLAIN
• Explain why social relationships are necessary for the survival of human beings.
• How important are social relationships to adolescents?
• Give an example of how social influence works in your classroom.
• Give an example of each type of social influence in your personal life.

10 PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
ELABORATE
Think of the five closest friends you have in your life and do the following:
• Describe how each one of them influences your decisions. Compare this to how your parents influence
your decisions.
• Describe each of their types of leadership and the personal qualities that make them such.
• Describe your own type of leadership or the type of leadership you would like to possess and practice.
What made you decide on this type of leadership?

EVALUATE
• As an adolescent who can be both a leader and a follower, what type of leadership are you attracted to
and you think would work best for you? (Refer to Activity 3 of the Exercises.)
• List down the various roles of different individuals in our society (for example, barangay captain,
kasambahay, garbage collector, jeepney driver, radio or TV newscaster, blogger, teacher, cultural worker,
doctor) and describe how they can influence other people through their leadership or followership.
(Refer to Activity 4 of the Exercises.)
• Compare your perception of yourself and how others see you both as a leader and a follower.

EXTEND
• Conduct a mini-survey on Filipino relationships (family, school, and community) using either the online
tool Survey Monkey or through interviews (observe health safety protocols and conduct the interview
only when face-to-face engagement is allowed). Identify how Filipinos understand leadership and
followership, social influence, and social relationship. Discuss the results in your class (online when
necessary. Refer to Activity 5 of the Exercises.)
• Watch the video on Ted.com: What Makes A Great Leader by Roselinde Torres. Create a discussion group
with your classmates (online, when necessary) on what you learned from the video. (Refer to Activity 2
of the Exercises.)

• Social relationship is a broad definition of how we interact and behave with other people, and
how they interact and behave with us. In social relationships, we learn to cooperate with others in
achieving a common objective. What differentiates personal relationship with social relationship is
the degree of intimacy and vulnerability we offer to other people. The more intimate and vulnerable
we are with another, the more personal our relationship is with this person.
• Social influences are things that change people’s behavior, belief, and attitude as a result of an
action of another person or group. There are several varieties of social influence:
o Compliance is when a person seems to agree and follows what is requested or required of him
or her to do or believe in, but does not necessarily have to really believe or agree to it.

LESSON 2 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS IN MIDDLE AND LATE ADOLESCENCE 11

 o Identification is when a person is influenced by someone he or she likes or looks up to, like a
movie star, a social celebrity, or a superhero.
o Internalization is when a person is able to own a certain belief or act, and is willing to make it
known publicly and privately.
o Conformity is a type of social influence that involves a change in behavior, belief, or thinking
to be like others to obtain their friendship and acceptance.
o Conversion occurs when an individual wholeheartedly changes his or her original thinking and
beliefs, actions, and attitudes to align with and accept those of the other members of a group.
o Minority influence happens when a bigger number of people are influenced by a much smaller
number of people to accept the minority’s way of looking at and doing things.
o Reactance is a reverse reaction to some social influence that is being imposed by a person or
a group on another to accept a certain belief, behavior, or attitude.
o Obedience is another form of social influence that involves someone in a position of authority.
o Persuasion is used by one person or group to influence others to change their beliefs, actions,
or attitudes by appealing to reason or emotion.
• There are several leadership theories:
o Trait Theory states that there are certain personality traits inherent in and suited for all
leaders, such as decisiveness, persistence, and high level of self-confidence and assertiveness
among others.
o Behavioral Theory presupposes that leadership is a learned behavior, and that leaders are
defined according to certain types of behavior they exhibit.
o Participative Theory is the opposite of an autocratic leader; a participative leader involves
other people in making common decisions.
o Situational Theory assumes that there is no one style of leadership and that leadership
behavior is based on the factors present in a situation, and usually takes into consideration
how followers behave.
o Transactional Theory states that leadership involves a transaction or negotiation of resources
or positions, and usually employs reward and punishment.
o Transformational Theory involves a vision in which a leader uses to rally support from
followers, and the role of the leader is in motivating others to support the vision and make it
happen.
o Authentic leadership has three characteristics or axioms:
• Leadership is situational. This means that a leader’s behavior is influenced by the
situation.
• Leadership is nonhierarchical. The exercise of leadership is not based on one’s position in
an organizational chart alone, but also dependent on other factors such as characteristics,
skills, and even connections.

12 PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
 • Leadership is relational. Leaders have followers, and both establish a relationship where
their interests are mutually met.
An authentic leader has the following critical elements present:
• They walk their talk. They are consistent in what they say and what they do, practicing
what they are preaching.
• They adjust to situations and display adaptability and flexibility but are consistent with
their values and real selves even when they take on different roles during different
situations.
• They have a high level of comfort being themselves, even if they come from backgrounds
that are different from the people or situations they deal with.
o Heroic leadership is based on four principles:
• Self-awareness
• Ingenuity
• Love
• Heroism
• Leader-member exchange (LMX) Theory states that the leaders’ effectiveness is measured by the
quality of their relationship with their followers, and that different types of relationships can evolve
between leader and follower in a certain work situation.
• Other types of leaders are:
o The “Why” type of leader is usually the visionary, the one who believes results can be achieved;
o The “How” type of leader is the realist who is able to see how to work out a vision; and
o The “What” type of leader is the builder who provides the details on how to get things done.
• New types of leadership are surfacing due to the presence and use of technology in people’s lives.
New trends in leadership styles are being identified as a response to the evolving dynamics of
human relationships in organizations and society in general. This is humanity’s way of adapting to
changing times.

LESSON 2 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS IN MIDDLE AND LATE ADOLESCENCE 13