A. D.

M College for Women (Autonomous)

Nagapattinam

Study Material

Differential Calculus and

Trigonometry

I B. Sc Mathematics

Semester: I Code: BMA

Dr.P.Jamuna Devi, M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D.,

Assistant Professor of Mathematics

PG and Research Department of Mathematics

A.D.M College for Women (Autonomous), Nagapattinam
(Re-Accredited With ‘A’ Grade By Naac)
Affiliated To Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli.

December 2020
1 Unit I

SUCCESSIVE DEFFERENTIATION

The 𝒏𝒕𝒉 derivative.

For certain functions a general expression involving 𝑛 may found for the 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative. The
usual plan is to find a number of successive derivatives, as many as may be necessary to
discover their law of formation and then by induction write down 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑛 𝑦
Examples: If 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ;then = 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑎2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 … 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥

Standard results:

(1) If 𝑦 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑚 , then 𝐷𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑚 = (−1)𝑛 𝑛! 𝑎𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)−𝑛−1 .

(2) If 𝑦 = log(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏), then 𝑦𝑛 = (−1)𝑛−1 (𝑛 − 1)! 𝑎𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)−𝑛 .

Solved Problems:
3
(1) Find 𝑦𝑛 where 𝑦 = (𝑥+1)(2𝑥−1).
Solution:
2 1
Resolving into partial fractions, we obtain 𝑦 = 2𝑥−1 − 𝑥+1.

2𝑛+1 1
Thus 𝑦𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 𝑛! {(2𝑥−1)𝑛+1 − }.
(𝑥+1)𝑛+1

𝑥2
(2) Find 𝑦𝑛 where 𝑦 = (𝑥−1)2 (𝑥+2).
Solution:
𝑥2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Let (𝑥−1)2 (𝑥+2) = 𝑥−1 + (𝑥−1)2 + 𝑥+2.

5 1 4
Then we can easily find that 𝐴 = 9 ; 𝐵 = 3 ; 𝐶 = 9.

5 𝑛!(−1)𝑛 1 (𝑛+1)!(−1)𝑛 4 𝐶
Hence 𝑦𝑛 = 9 (𝑥−1)𝑛+1 + 3 (𝑥−1)𝑛+2
+ 9 (𝑥+2)𝑛+1 .

1
(3) Find 𝑦𝑛 where 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +𝑎2 .

1 1 1 1
Solution: Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +𝑎2 = 2𝑎𝑖 [𝑥−𝑎𝑖 − 𝑥+𝑎𝑖]

(−1)𝑛 𝑛! 1 1
Then 𝑦𝑛 = [(𝑥−𝑎𝑖)𝑛+1 − (𝑥+𝑎𝑖)𝑛+1 ].
2𝑎𝑖
2 Unit I

Trignometrical Transformation.

Solved Problems:

(1) Find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ differential coefficient of cos 𝑥 . cos 2𝑥 . cos 3𝑥.

Solution:
1
Cos 𝑥 . cos 2𝑥 . cos 3𝑥 = 2 cos 2𝑥 [cos 4𝑥 + cos 2𝑥]

1
= 1 + [cos 2𝑥 + cos 4𝑥 + cos 6𝑥]
4 4

Hence 𝐷𝑛 (cos 𝑥 . cos 2𝑥 . cos 3𝑥) =

1 𝑛 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
{2 cos ( + 2𝑥) + 4𝑛 cos ( + 4𝑥) + 6𝑛 cos ( + 6𝑥)}.
4 2 2 2

(2) Find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ differential coefficient of cos5 𝜃 . sin7 𝜃.

Solution:
1
Let 𝑥 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃. then 𝑥 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃.
1 1
Therefore 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝜃 and 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 2𝑖 sin 𝜃.

Hence by De Moivre’s Theorem, we have,

1
𝑥 𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 & 𝑥𝑛
= cos 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃
1
so that 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥 𝑛 = 2 cos 𝑛𝜃 and

1
𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑥 𝑛 = 2𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃.

Thus cos5 𝜃 . sin7 𝜃 = −211 cos5 𝜃 . sin7 𝜃 = sin 12𝜃 − 2 sin 10𝜃 − 4 sin 8𝜃 +
10 sin 6𝜃 + 5 sin 4𝜃 − 20 sin 2𝜃.

1 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
Dn (cos5 𝜃 . sin7 𝜃) = − 211 {12𝑛 sin ( 2 + 12𝜃) − 10𝑛 . 2 sin ( 2 + 10𝜃) −
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
8𝑛 . 4 sin ( 2 + 8𝜃) + 6𝑛 . 10 sin ( 2 + 6𝜃) + 4𝑛 5 sin ( 2 + 4𝜃) − 2𝑛 . 20 sin ( 2 + 2𝜃)}
3 Unit I

Leibnitz formula for the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 derivative of a product:

Solved Problems:

(1) Find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ differential coefficients of 𝑥 2 log 𝑥.

Solution:
Taking 𝑣 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑢 = log 𝑥,
𝑑𝑛 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑑 𝑑 𝑛−2 𝑑2
𝑥 2 log 𝑥 = 𝑛 (log 𝑥)𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑐1 𝑛−1 (log 𝑥) 𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑐2 𝑛−2 (log 𝑥) 2 𝑥 2 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

All the other terms will be zero and since the successive derivatives after the second
derivative vanish.

(1)𝑛−1 (𝑛 − 1)! 2 (−1)𝑛−2 (𝑛 − 2)! 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(−1)𝑛−3 (𝑛 − 3)!

𝐷𝑛 (𝑥 2 log 𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑛 2𝑥 +
𝑥𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−2
(−1)𝑛−2 (𝑛 − 3)!
= 2.
𝑥 𝑛−2

(2) If 𝑦 = sin( 𝑚 sin−1 𝑥), prove that (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦2 − 𝑥𝑦1 + 𝑚2 𝑦 = 0 and (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦𝑛+2 −
(2𝑛 + 1)𝑥𝑦𝑛+1 + (𝑚2 − 𝑛2 )𝑦 = 0.

Solution:
Taking the 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative of each term by Leibnitz theorem,

(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦𝑛+2 − 𝑛𝑐1 𝑦𝑛+1 (−2𝑥) + 𝑛𝑐2 𝑦𝑛 (−2) = 𝑦𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑐1 𝑦𝑛 − 𝑚2 𝑦𝑛 .

⇒ (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦𝑛+2 − 2𝑛𝑥𝑦𝑛+1 + 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥𝑦𝑛+1 + 𝑛𝑦𝑛 − 𝑚2 𝑦𝑛 .

⇒ (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦𝑛+2 − (2𝑛 + 1)𝑥𝑦𝑛+1 + (𝑚2 − 𝑛2 )𝑦 = 0.

1 Unit II

I. Curvature and Radius of Curvature:

(1) If a curve is defined by the parametric equation 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝜃) & 𝑦 = 𝜑(𝜃), then the curvature
1 𝑥 ′𝑦 ′′ −𝑦 ′ 𝑥 ′′
is 𝜌 = 3 .
(𝑥 ′2 +𝑦 ′2 ) ⁄2
3⁄
𝑑𝑦 2 2
{1+( ) }
𝑑𝑥
(2) The cartesian formula for the radius of curvature is given by 𝜌 = 2
𝑑 𝑦
.
𝑑𝑥2
(3) The radius of curvature when the curve is given in polar co-ordinates is given by
3⁄
𝑑𝑟 2 2
{𝑟 2+( ) }
𝑑𝜃
𝜌= 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑2 𝑟
.
𝑟 2+( ) −𝑟 2
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

Solved Problems:

(1) What is the radius of curvature for the curve 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2 at the point (1,1)?

Solution:
Given: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2.
𝑑𝑦
Differentiating the above equation, we get 4𝑥 3 + 4𝑦 3 𝑑𝑥 = 0.
𝑑𝑦 𝑥3
Therefore 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑦 3 .
𝑑𝑦
𝑑2 𝑦 3(𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥
Differentiating this once again, = .
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑦4
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
At the point (1,1), 𝑑𝑥 = −1 and 𝑑𝑥 2 = −6.
3⁄
{1+(−1)2 } 2 √2
Hence 𝜌 = =− .
−6 3

𝑥
(2) Show that the radius of curvature at any point of the catenary 𝑦 = cosh 𝑐 is equal to the
length of the portion of the normal intercepted between the curve and the axis of 𝑥.

Solution:
𝑥
Given 𝑦 = cosh 𝑐
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
Differentiating the above equation, we get = sinh 𝑐 .
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦 1 𝑥
Differentiating this once again, we get = 𝑐 cosh 𝑐 .
𝑑𝑥 2
3⁄
𝑑𝑦 2 2
{1+( ) }
𝑑𝑥
Hence 𝜌 = 2
𝑑 𝑦
𝑑𝑥2
3⁄
𝑥 2 2
{1 + (sinh ) }
𝑐
=
1 𝑥
𝑐 cosh 𝑐
2 Unit II

3⁄
𝑥 2
{1 + sinh2 }
= 𝑐
1 𝑥
𝑐 cosh 𝑐
𝑥
cosh3 𝑐
=
1 𝑥
𝑐 cosh 𝑐
𝑦2
= .
𝑐
At any point (𝑥, 𝑦),
1⁄
𝑑𝑦 2 2 𝑥 𝑦2
the normal = 𝑦 {1 + (𝑑𝑥 ) } = 𝑦 cosh 𝑐 = .
𝑐

Therefore, Radius of curvature=Length of the normal.

(3) Prove that the radius of curvature at any point of the cycloid 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝜃 + sin 𝜃 ) and 𝑦 =
𝜃
𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃 ) is 4𝑎 cos 2 .
Solution:
Given 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝜃 + sin 𝜃) and 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃)

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
⇒ = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃) & = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑2𝑦
⇒ = −𝑎 sin 𝜃 & = 𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 2
Substituting in the formula (1), we get,

1 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑦 ′ 𝑥 ′′
=
𝜌 (𝑥 ′2 + 𝑦 ′2 )3⁄2

𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃 )𝑎 cos 𝜃 − 𝑎 sin 𝜃 (−𝑎 sin 𝜃)

= 3⁄ .
{𝑎2 (1 + cos 𝜃 )2 + 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 } 2

𝑎2 (1 + cos 𝜃 )
= 3⁄
𝑎3 {2(1 + cos 𝜃 )2 } 2

2 cos2 𝜃⁄2
= 3⁄
2
𝑎(4 cos2 𝜃⁄2)

1 1 𝜃
⇒ = ⇒ 𝜌 = 4𝑎 cos .
𝜌 4𝑎 cos 𝜃 2
2
(4) Find 𝜌 at the point "𝑡" of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑎(cos 𝑡 + 𝑡 sin 𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑎(sin 𝑡 + 𝑡 cos 𝑡).
3 Unit II

Solution:
Given: 𝑥 = 𝑎(cos 𝑡 + 𝑡 sin 𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑎(sin 𝑡 + 𝑡 cos 𝑡).

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
⇒ = 𝑎𝑡 cos 𝑡 & = 𝑎𝑡 sin 𝑡 ⇒
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡 & 2
= .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑎 cos 3 𝑡
Thus
3⁄
𝑑𝑦 2 2
{1 + (𝑑𝑥 ) }
𝜌=
𝑑2𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑡)
= = 𝑎𝑡.
1
𝑎 cos 3 𝑡

(5) Find the radius of curvature of the cardioid 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃 ).

Solution:
Given 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃 ).

𝑑𝑟 𝑑2 𝑟
Then 𝑑𝜃 = a sin 𝜃 & = 𝑎 cos 𝜃.
𝑑𝜃2

3⁄
2
𝑑𝑟 2
{𝑟 2 + (𝑑𝜃 ) }
𝜌=
𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑2𝑟
𝑟2 + ( ) −𝑟 2
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

8𝑎3 sin3 𝜃⁄2

=
6𝑎2 sin2 𝜃⁄2

4
= 𝑎 sin 𝜃⁄2
3
2
= √2𝑎𝑟.
3
1 Unit III

I. Centre of Curvature and Evolute:

Let the centre of curvature of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) corresponding to the point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be
𝑋 & 𝑌. Then
𝑦1 (1 + 𝑦1 2 )
𝑋=𝑥− &
𝑦2
1 + 𝑦1 2
𝑌=𝑦+ .
𝑦2
The locus of the centre of curvature for a curve is called the evolute of the curve.

Solved Problems:

(1) Find the co-ordinates of the centre of curvature of the curve 𝑥𝑦 = 2 at the point (2,1).

Solution:
Given: 𝑥𝑦 = 2

Now
𝑑𝑦 2
= − 𝑥2 &
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2𝑦 2
2
= 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑2 𝑦 1
At (2,1), 𝑑𝑥 = − 2 & 𝑑𝑥 2 = 2

1 1
(1+ )× 1
4 2
Thus 𝑋 = 2 + 1 = 34 &
2
1
(1 + 4) 1
𝑌 =1+ =3 .
1 2
2

(2) Show that the evolute of the cycloid 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝜃 − sin 𝜃 ) and 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃 ) is another
cycloid.

Solution:
Given 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝜃 + sin 𝜃) and 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃)

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
⇒ = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃) & = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑦 𝜃 𝑑2 𝑦 1
= cot & = − .
4𝑎 sin4 𝜃⁄2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2

Thus
2 Unit III

𝜃
(1 + cos 2 𝜃⁄2) cot
𝑋=𝑥+ 2
1
4𝑎 sin4 𝜃⁄2

⇒ 𝑋 = 𝑎(𝜃 − sin 𝜃).

𝜃
1 + cot 2 2
& 𝑌=𝑦+
1
−
4𝑎 sin4 𝜃⁄2

⇒ 𝑌 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃).

II. Maxima and Minima:

Definition:
If a continuous function increases upto a certain and then decreases, that value is
called a maximum value of the function. Similarly, If a continuous function decreases
upto a certain and then increases, that value is called a minimum value of the function.

Solved Problems:

1) Find the maxima and minima of the function 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 36𝑥 + 10.

Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 36𝑥 + 10
At the maximum or minimum, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0.
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 6(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 3, −2
To distinguish between maximum or minimum, 𝑓 " (𝑥 ) = 6(2𝑥 − 1)
When 𝑥 = 3, 𝑓 " (𝑥 ) = 6(6 − 1) = 30 ⇒ 𝑓 " is positive.
When 𝑥 = −2, 𝑓 " (𝑥 ) = 6(−4 − 1) = −30 ⇒ 𝑓 " is negative.
Thus 𝑥 = 3 gives minimum and 𝑥 = −2 gives maximum.
Maximum value 𝑓 (−2) = 54.
Minimum value 𝑓(3) = −71.

2) Show that the least value of 𝑎2 sec 2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 cosec 2 𝑥 is (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 .

Solution:
Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎2 sec 2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 cosec 2 𝑥
𝑎2 sin4 𝑥 − 𝑏2 cos 4 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 2
cos 3 𝑥 sin3 𝑥
3 Unit III

At the maximum or minimum, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0.

8 sin4 𝑥 cos 4 𝑥 (𝑎2 sin4 𝑥 + 𝑏2 cos 4 𝑥)

& 𝑓 " (𝑥 ) = = +𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛.
cos 6 𝑥 sin6 𝑥
⇒ 𝑎2 sin4 𝑥 + 𝑏2 cos 4 𝑥 = 0 gives a minimum.
𝑏
⇒ tan2 𝑥 = .
𝑎
𝑏
The least value of 𝑓(𝑥) is given when tan2 𝑥 = 𝑎.

𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑎2 sin2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 cos 2 𝑥

𝑏 𝑎
= 𝑎2 (1 + ) + 𝑏2 (1 + ) = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 .
𝑎 𝑏

3) The greatest value of 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 where 𝑥 & 𝑦 are positive and 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 3𝑘 2 is

2𝑘√𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 .
Solution:
Let 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦.
𝑑𝑢 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑢 attains a maximum or a minimum when 𝑑𝑥 = 0 & is –ve or +ve.
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦
Now 𝑎 + 𝑏 =0 -----(1)
𝑑𝑥

𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 3𝑘 2 .
𝑑𝑦
Differentiating the above equation, (2𝑥 + 𝑦) + (𝑥 + 2𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 = 0 -----(2)
𝑑𝑦 𝑎 2𝑥+𝑦
Equating the two values of , we get − 𝑏 = − 𝑥+2𝑦 .
𝑑𝑥

𝑎−2𝑏
Solving for 𝑦, 𝑦 = 𝑏−2𝑎 𝑥

Differentiating equation (2) once again, we get

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑2𝑦
2+2 + 2 ( ) + (𝑥 + 2𝑦) 2 = 0.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Substituting the values of 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑦 from (1) and (3), we get,

𝑑 2 𝑦 2 𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 𝑏 − 2𝑎
= .
𝑑𝑥 2 3 𝑏2 𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
is negative for a maximum.
4 Unit III

𝑏−2𝑎 𝑎 2 −𝑎𝑏+𝑏2
is –ve since is +ve.
𝑥 𝑏2

𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 3𝑘 2 .
Substituting the value for 𝑦 from (3), we get,
2
𝑥 √𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 = −𝑘(𝑏 − 2𝑎).

𝑏−2𝑎
We take the negative sign, since is –ve.
𝑥

𝑏(𝑎 − 2𝑏)
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥
(𝑏 − 2𝑎)

𝑥
= −2(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 )
𝑏 − 2𝑎

= 2𝑘√𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 .
1 Unit IV

I. Hyperbolic Functions:
If 𝜃 is expressed is radians, cos 𝜃 and sin 𝜃 can be expanded in powers of 𝜃, the
results being
𝜃2 𝜃4 𝜃6
cos 𝜃 = 1 − + − +⋯∞
2! 4! 6!
𝜃3 𝜃5 𝜃7
sin 𝜃 = 𝜃 − + − + ⋯∞
3! 5! 7!
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥𝑛
If 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 1! + + ⋯+ + ⋯∞ -----(1)
2! 𝑛!

Put 𝑥 = 𝑖𝜃 in the (1). Then

𝑖𝜃 (𝑖𝜃) 2 (𝑖𝜃)𝑛 𝑖𝜃 𝜃2
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 1 + 1! + +⋯+ + ⋯ ∞ = 1 + 1! − + ⋯∞
2! 𝑛! 2!

𝜃2 𝜃4 𝜃6 𝜃3 𝜃5 𝜃7
= (1 − + − + ⋯ ∞) + 𝑖 (𝜃 − + − + ⋯ ∞) = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃.
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!
⇒ 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃.
This is known as Euler’s formula.
Similarly, put 𝑥 = −𝑖𝜃 in the (1). Then 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃.

Note:
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
(1) cos 𝜃 = .
2

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 −𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
(2) sin 𝜃 = .
2𝑖
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
(3) cosh 𝑥 = .
2
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
(4) sinh 𝑥 = .
2
sinh 𝑥
(5) tanh 𝑥 = cosh 𝑥.
1
(6) sech 𝑥 = cosh 𝑥.
1
(7) cosech 𝑥 = sinh 𝑥.
1
(8) coth 𝑥 = tanh 𝑥.

II. Relations between Hyperbolic functions:

1
(1) cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 4 {(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2 − (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )2 } = 1.
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
(2) 2 sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥 = 2. ( ).( ) = sinh 𝑥.
2 2
2 Unit IV

(3) cosh2 𝑥 + sinh2 𝑥 = cosh 2𝑥.

(4) cosh 2𝑥 = 2 cosh2 𝑥 − 1.
(5) cosh 2𝑥 = 1 + sinh2 𝑥.
1
(6) cosh2 𝑥 = 2 (cosh 2𝑥 + 1).
1
(7) sinh2 𝑥 = 2 (cosh 2𝑥 − 1).

(8) The series for sinh 𝑥 and cosh 𝑥 are derived below:
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥𝑛
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + + +⋯+ + ⋯∞
1! 2! 𝑛!
𝑥 𝑥2
𝑒 −𝑥 = 1 − + + ⋯∞
1! 2!
𝑥3 𝑥5
Subtracting 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 = 2 (𝑥 + + + ⋯ ∞)
3! 5!

𝑥3 𝑥5
⇒ sinh 𝑥 = 𝑥 + + + ⋯∞
3! 5!
𝑥2 𝑥4
Adding 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 == 2 (1 + + + ⋯ ∞)
2! 4!

𝑥2 𝑥4
⇒ cosh 𝑥 = 1 + + + ⋯∞
2! 4!

(9) Consider sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1. Put 𝜃 = 𝑖𝑥.

sin2 𝑖𝑥 + cos 2 𝑖𝑥 = 1
⇒ (𝑖 sinh 𝑥 )2 + (cosh 𝑥 )2 = 1 ⇒ cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 1.
(10) Consider cos 2𝜃 = cos 2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃
Put 𝜃 = 𝑖𝑥. Then
cos 2𝑖𝑥 = cos 2 𝑖𝑥 − sin2 𝑖𝑥 = (cosh 𝑥 )2 − (𝑖 sinh 𝑥 )2 = cosh2 𝑥 + sinh2 𝑥.
(11) Consider sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 . cos 𝜃
Put 𝜃 = 𝑖𝑥. Then
sin 2𝑖𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑖𝑥 . cos 𝑖𝑥 ⇒ 𝑖 sinh 2𝑥 = 2𝑖 sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥
⇒ sinh 2𝑥 = 2 sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥.
(12) Consider 1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃
Put 𝜃 = 𝑖𝑥. Then
1 + tan2 𝑖𝑥 = sec 2 𝑖𝑥 ⇒ 1 + (𝑖 tanh2 𝑥 ) = sech2 𝑥

III. Inverse Hyperbolic Functions:

We can express sinh−1 𝑥 , cosh−1 𝑥 , tanh−1 𝑥 in terms of the logarithmic functions:
3 Unit IV

(1) 𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥. Then 𝑥 = sinh 𝑦

𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦
= 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑒 2𝑦 − 1 = 2𝑥𝑒 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑒 2𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑦 − 1 = 0.
2
2𝑥 ± √4𝑥 2 + 4
⇒ 𝑒𝑦 = = 𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 + 1.
2
Since 𝑒 𝑦 is positive 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 + 1.
Taking logarithms to the base “e” on both sides, we have,

𝑦 = log e (𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 + 1)

sinh−1 𝑥 = loge (𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 + 1).

(2) 𝑦 = cosh−1 𝑥. Then 𝑥 = cosh 𝑦

𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑦
= 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑒 2𝑦 − 1 = 2𝑥𝑒 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑒 2𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑦 − 1 = 0.
2
⇒ 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 − 1 = 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − √𝑥 2 − 1
Thus 𝑦 = log e (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1) or 𝑦 = log e (𝑥 − √𝑥 2 − 1).
The positive sign is usually taken.
Hence 𝑦 cosh−1 𝑥. = log e (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1).

(3) 𝑦 = tanh−1 𝑥. Then 𝑥 = tanh 𝑦.

𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦
= 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑦 ) ⇒ 𝑒 𝑦 (1 − 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −𝑦 (1 + 𝑥 )
𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑦
1+𝑥 1+𝑥 1 1+𝑥
⇒ 𝑒 2𝑦 = ⇒ 2𝑦 = log e ( ) ⇒ 𝑦 = loge ( )
1−𝑥 1−𝑥 2 1−𝑥
1 1+𝑥
⇒ tanh−1 𝑥 = log e ( ).
2 1−𝑥

Solved Problems:
(1) If tan 𝐴 = tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽 , tan 𝐵 = cot 𝛼 tanh 𝛽, then prove that
tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sinh 2𝛽 cos 2𝛼.
Solution:
Given: tan 𝐴 = tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽 , tan 𝐵 = cot 𝛼 tanh 𝛽
tan 𝐴+tan 𝐵 tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽+cot 𝛼 tanh 𝛽 tanh 𝛽(tan 𝛼+cot 𝛼)
Now tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 1−tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵 = 1−tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽.cot 𝛼 tanh 𝛽 = 1−tanh2 𝛽

sinh 𝛽 cosh 𝛽 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼 sinh 𝛽 . cosh 𝛽

= 2 2
( + )= = sinh 2𝛽 . cosec 2𝛼.
cosh 𝛽 − sinh 𝑥 cos 𝛼 sin 𝛼 sin 𝛼 . cos 𝛼
4 Unit IV

(2) If cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃, then prove that cos 2𝑥 + cosh 2𝑦 = 2.
Solution:
Given: cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos(𝑖𝑦) − sin 𝑥 sin(𝑖𝑦)
= 𝑖 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we have,
cos 𝜃 = cos 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 & sin 𝜃 = − sin 𝑥 sinh 𝑦.
Squaring and adding,
cos 2 𝑥 cosh2 𝑦 + sin2 𝑥 sinh2 𝑦 = 1 ⇒ cos 2 𝑥 cosh2 𝑦 + (1 − cos 2 𝑥) sinh2 𝑦 = 1
⇒ cos 2 𝑥 (cosh2 𝑦 − sinh2 𝑥 ) sinh2 𝑦 = 1 ⇒ cos 2 𝑥 + sinh2 𝑦 = 1
1 + cos 2𝑥 cosh 2𝑦 − 1
⇒ + = 1 ⇒ cos 2𝑥 + cosh 2𝑦 = 2.
2 2

(3) Separate into real and imaginary parts tanh(1 + 𝑖).

Solution:
tan 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑖 tanh 𝑥
Put 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑖.
tanh(1 + 𝑖 ) = tan 1(1 + 𝑖 ) = tan(𝑖 − 1).
sin(𝑖 − 1) 2 cos(𝑖 + 1) sin(𝑖 − 1) sin(2𝑖 ) − sin 2
⇒ 𝑖 tanh(1 + 𝑖 ) = = =
cos(𝑖 − 1) 2 cos(𝑖 + 1) cos(𝑖 − 1) cos(2𝑖 ) + cos 2
𝑖 sinh 2 − sin 2 sinh 2 + 𝑖 sin 2
= ⇒ tanh(1 + 𝑖 ) = .
cosh 2 + cos 2 cosh 2 + cos 2

𝑢 sin 2𝑥
(4) If tan(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, then prove that 𝑣 = sinh 2𝑦 .

Solution:
sin(𝑥+𝑖𝑦) 2 cos(𝑥−𝑖𝑦)sin(𝑥+𝑖𝑦) sin 2𝑥+𝑖 sinh 2𝑦
tan(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = cos(𝑥+𝑖𝑦) = 2 cos(𝑥−𝑖𝑦) cos(𝑥+𝑖𝑦) = cos 2𝑥+cosh 2𝑦

This expression is given as 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

sin 2𝑥 sinh 2𝑦 𝑢 sin 2𝑥
Thus 𝑢 = cos 2𝑥+cosh 2𝑦 & 𝑣 = cos 2𝑥+cosh 2𝑦 ⇒ = sinh 2𝑦 .
𝑣
1 Unit V

Summation of Trignometrical Series

I. Method of difference
When the 𝑟 𝑡ℎ term of a trignometrical series can be expressed as the difference of two
quantities, one of which is the same function of 𝑟 as the other is of 𝑟 + 1, the sum of the
series may be found as illustrated in the following examples:

Solved Problems:

(1) Find the sum of the series cosec 𝜃 + cosec 2𝜃 + cosec 22 𝜃 … + cosec 2𝑛−1 𝜃.
Solution:
1
We have the identity cosec 𝜃 = cot 2 𝜃 − cot 𝜃.

Similarly cosec 2𝜃 = cot 𝜃 − cot 2𝜃

cosec 22 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 − cot 22 𝜃
…………………
…………………
cosec 2𝑛−1 𝜃 = cot 2𝑛−2 𝜃 − cot 2𝑛−1 𝜃
1
By addition, the required sum = cot 2 𝜃 − cot 2𝑛−1 𝜃

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
(2) Find the sum of the series tan−1 1+1.2𝑥 2 + tan−1 1+2.3𝑥 2 + ⋯ + tan−1 1+𝑛(𝑛+1)𝑥 2 .

Solution:
𝑥
Here 𝑇𝑟 = tan−1 1+𝑟(𝑟+1)𝑥 2
(𝑟+1)𝑥−𝑟𝑥
= tan−1
1+𝑟(𝑟+1)𝑥 2

𝑇𝑟 = tan−1 (𝑟 + 1)𝑥 − tan−1 𝑟𝑥.

Putting 𝑟 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛, we have
𝑇1 = tan−1 2𝑥 − tan−1 𝑥.
𝑇2 = tan−1 3𝑥 − tan−1 2𝑥.
𝑇3 = tan−1 4𝑥 − tan−1 3𝑥.
…………………
…………………
𝑇𝑛 = tan−1 (𝑛 + 1)𝑥 − tan−1 𝑛𝑥.
By addition, 𝑆𝑛 = tan−1 (𝑛 + 1)𝑥 − tan−1 𝑥.
2 Unit V

II. Sum of the series of 𝒏 angles in A. P

Solved Problems:

(1) Find the sum of the series cos 2 𝑥+cos 2 (𝑥 + 𝑦) + cos 2 (𝑥 + 2𝑦) + ⋯ +up to n terms.
Solution:
1 1
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Since cos 2 𝑥 = 2 (1 + cos 2𝑥); cos 2 (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 2 (1 + cos(2𝑥 + 2𝑦)) … etc.
1 1 1
𝑆𝑛 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(1 + cos 2𝑥 ) + (1 + cos(2𝑥 + 2𝑦)) + ⋯ + (1 + cos(2𝑥 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+ (2𝑛 − 1)𝑦))
2 2 2
𝑛 1 1
= + (cos 2𝑥 + cos(2𝑥 + 2𝑦)) + ⋯ + (1 + cos(2𝑥 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+ (2𝑛 − 1)𝑦))
2 2 2
𝑛 1 sin 𝑛𝑦
= + (1 + cos(2𝑥̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+ (2𝑛 − 1)𝑦)).
2 2 sin 𝑦

(2) Find the sum of the series cosh2 𝑥+cosh2 (𝑥 + 𝑦) + cosh2 (𝑥 + 2𝑦) + ⋯ +up to n terms.
Solution:
cosh(𝑖𝜃) = cosh 𝜃.
𝑆𝑛 = cos 𝑖𝑥 + cos 𝑖(𝑥 + 𝑦) + cos 𝑖 (𝑥 + 2𝑦) + ⋯
= cos 𝛼 + cos 𝑖(𝛼 + 𝛽 ) + cos 𝑖 (𝛼 + 2) + ⋯ to n terms where
𝛼 = 𝑖𝑥 and 𝛽 = 𝑖𝑦

𝑛−1 𝑛𝛽 𝑛−1 𝑛𝑖𝑦 𝑛−1 𝑛𝑦

cos (𝑥 +
= 2 𝛽) sin 2 = cos (𝑖𝑥 + 2 𝑖𝑦) sin 2 = cos (𝑖𝑥 + 2 𝑦) sin 2 .
𝛽 𝑖𝑦 𝑦
sin 2 sin 2 sin 2

III. Gregory’s Series

𝜋 tan3 𝜃 tan5 𝜃
To prove that, if 𝜃 lies between ± 4 , 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 − + −⋯
3 5

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 (1 + 𝑖 tan 𝜃 ).

Taking log on both the sides,
𝑖 2 tan2 𝜃 𝑖 3 tan3 𝜃
𝑖𝜃 = log cos 𝜃 + log(1 + 𝑖 tan 𝜃) = log cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 tan 𝜃 − + −⋯
2 2

𝜋
As |𝑖 tan 𝜃 | = |tan 𝜃 | < 1 since 𝜃 lies between ± 4 .

tan2 𝜃 𝑖 tan3 𝜃
𝑖𝜃 = log cos 𝜃 + log(1 + 𝑖 tan 𝜃) = log cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 tan 𝜃 − − −⋯
2 2
3 Unit V

Equating the imaginary parts,

tan3 𝜃 tan5 𝜃
𝜃 = tan 𝜃 − + −⋯
3 5

Corollary:1

The above series can be transformed by putting tan 𝜃 = 𝑥 so that 𝑥 is numerically not
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝜋
greater than 1. Then tan−1 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − ⋯ where tan−1 𝑥 lies between ± 4 .
3 5

Corollary:2

𝜋 𝜋
More generally, if 𝜃 lies between 𝑛𝜋 − 4 and 𝑛𝜋 + 4 , when 𝑛 is an integer, then

tan3 𝜃 tan5 𝜃
𝜃 − 𝑛𝜋 = tan 𝜃 − 3
+ 5
− ⋯

𝜋
Put 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋 + 𝜑, then 𝜑 lies between ± 4 .

Arguing as before,
tan3 𝜑 tan5 𝜑
𝜑 = tan 𝜑 − + −⋯
3 5

tan3 𝜃 tan5 𝜃
Substituting 𝜑 = 𝑛𝜋 − 𝜃, 𝜃 − 𝑛𝜋 = tan 𝜃 − 3
+ 5
−⋯

Corollary:3 Value of 𝝅.

𝑥3 𝑥5
Putting 𝑥 = 1 in tan−1 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − ⋯,
3 5

𝜋 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=1− + − + … =1−( − )−( − )−⋯
4 3 5 7 9 3 5 7 9

assuming that the series can be arranged.

𝜋 1 1
= 1 − {2 ( ) + ( ) + ⋯ }
4 3.5 7.9

This series can be used to calculate 𝜋. But the defeat with this that successiveterms do not
decrease rapidly. Hence a large number of terms in the above expansion have to be taken
to obtain a fairly accurate value of 𝜋.