LOGO
HOCHIMINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPT. OF HEAT & REFRIGERATION ENGINEERING
THERMODYNAMICS & HEAT TRANSFER
THE FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. NGUYỄN THẾ BẢO
Content
1 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a closed
system
2 Energy – a property of the system
3 Different forms of stored energy
4 The First Law of Thermodynamics for flow
processes
5 Some examples of steady flow processes
2
Introduction
The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law
of conservation of energy:
The total energy of an isolated system is constant;
energy can be transformed from one form to another,
but cannot be created or destroyed.
3
The Law for a Closed System
If Q is the amount of heat transferred to the system and W is the
amount of work transferred from the system during the process, the
net energy transfer (Q-W) will be stored in the system.
Energy in the storage is neither heat nor work, and is given the
internal energy, or simply the energy of the system
Q – W = E or Q = W + E (1)
E is the increase in the energy of the system
4
The Law for a Closed System
If there are more energy transfer quantities involved in the process,
the First Law of Thermodynamics gives
(Q1+Q2+Q3) = (W1+W2+W3+W4) + E (2)
In Equ. (1) & (2), It does not give the absolute value of energy E, but
only the change of energy E. Therefore, energy is a property of the
system (not of the state, like T, p, v, u, h, s)
5
Energy - Property of a System
Consider a system which changes its state from 1 to 2 by
following the path A, and returns from 2 to 1 by path B. So the
system undergoes a cycle. Writing the First Law for path A
and path B: QA = WA + EA (3)
QB = WB + EB (4)
The processes A and B together
constitute a cycle, for which:
( W)cycle = ( Q)cycle
WA + WB = QA + QB
or QA - WA = QB - WB (5)
From (3), (4) & (5), it yields:
EA = - EB (6)
6
Energy - Property of System
Similarly, had the system returned from 2 to 1 by following the
path C instead of B: EA = - E c (7)
From (6) & (7): EB = Ec
Therefore, the change in energy
between two states of a system is
the same, whatever path the
system is assigned to state 2, the
value of energy at state 1 is fixed
independent of the path the system
follows.
Therefore, energy has a definite
value for every state of the system.
Hence energy is a property of the
system
7
Different forms of stored energy
There are 2 modes Mechanical
in which energy may be stored in a system:
• Macroscopic energy mode
Equivalent
• Microscopic energy mode
Macroscopic energy ofmode:
Heat includes the macroscopic kinetic energy
and potential energy of a system.
Consider a fluid element of mass m having the center of mass velocity
ഥ . the macroscopic kinetic energy EK of the fluid element by virtue of
𝑽
𝒎𝑽𝟐
its motion is given: 𝐸𝐾 =
𝟐
If the evaluation of the fluid element from
an arbitrary datum is z, macroscopic
potential energy Ep by virtue of its
position:
𝑬𝒑 = 𝒎𝒈𝒛
8
Different forms of stored energy
Microscopic energy Mechanical
mode: refers to energy stored in the molecular
Equivalent
and atomic structure of the system, which is called molecular
internal energy or internal energy, denoted by U.
ofareHeat
In an ideal gas, there no intermolecular forces of attraction and
repulsion, then the internal energy depends only on temperature:
𝑈 = 𝑓(𝑇)
Therefore, the energy E of a system:
E = 𝐸𝐾 + 𝐸𝑝 + U
macro micro
In the absence of motion and gravity: 𝐸𝐾 = 0; 𝐸𝑝 = 0
E = U
Equation (1) becomes: Q = W + U (8)
9
Different forms of stored energy
Mechanical
In the differential forms, Equations (1) & (8) become:
Q = W + dE
Equivalent (9)
Q = W + dU (10)
Where: W=of WHeat
pdV+ Wshaft+ Welectrical+…..
When only pdV work (work changing volume) is present, equations
become: Q = pdV + dE (11)
Q = pdV + dU (12)
In the integral form:
Q = 𝑉𝑑𝑝 + E (13)
Q = 𝑉𝑑𝑝 + U (14)
For a pure substance:
Q = 𝐸𝐾 + 𝐸𝑝 + U + W (15) 10
Control volume
When there is mass transfer across the system boundary, the system
Mechanical
called an open system.
Equation (15) refersEquivalent
to a system having a particular mass of
of Heat
substance, which is free to move from place to place.
Consider a steam turbine. Attention is focuses on a certain fixed
region in space called a control volume through which the moving
substance flows
The broken line in this figure
represents the control surface.
This is same as the system
boundary of the open system.
Sections 1 and 2 allow mass
transfer to take place.
11
Steady flow process
If the rates of flow of energy and mass through the control surface
Mechanical
change with time, the energy and mass within the control volume also
would change withEquivalent
time
‘Steady flow’ means the rates of flow of energy and mass through the
of Heat
control surface are constant. In this case, the control volume in
course of time attains a steady state.
At the steady state of a system, any thermodynamic property will
have a fixed value at a particular location, and will not change with
time.
‘Steady state’ means the state is
steady or invariant with time
12
Steady flow process
Exclusive of work done at sections 1 & 2 in transferring the fluid the control surface
13
Steady flow process
Mass balance:
By the conservation law of mass, if there is no accumulation of mass in
the control volume, the mass flow rate entering must equal the mass
flow rate leaving:
𝐴1 𝑉1 𝐴2 𝑉2
w1 = w2 or =
𝑣1 𝑣2
This equation is known as the equation of continuity
Energy balance:
In a flow process, the work transfer may be of two types: the external
work and the flow work
The external work Wx refers to all the work transfer across the control
surface other than that due to normal fluid forces. In engineering
thermodynamics, the only kinds of external work of importance are
shear (shaft or stirring) work and electrical work.
14
Steady flow process
Energy balance (cont.):
The flow work is the displacement work done by the fluid of mass dm1
at the inlet section 1 and that of mass dm2 at the exit section, which are
(-p1v1dm1) and (+p2v2dm2), respectively.
Therefore, the total work transfer is given by:
W = Wx- p1v1dm1 + p2v2dm2
In the rate form:
𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊𝑥 𝑑𝑚1 𝑑𝑚2
= − 𝑝1 𝑣1 +𝑝2 𝑣2
𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊𝑥
= − 𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑤1 +𝑝2 𝑣2 𝑤2 (16)
𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏
Since there is no accumulation of energy, by the conservation law of
energy, the total rate of flow of all energy streams entering the control
volume must equal the total rate of flow of all energy streams leaving
the control volume. This is expressed in the following equation 15
Steady flow process
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑊
𝑒1 𝑤1 + = + 𝑒2 𝑤2
𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝜕𝑊
Substituting for from (16):
𝑑𝜏
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑊𝑥
𝑒1 𝑤1 + = 𝑒2 𝑤2 + − 𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑤1 +𝑝2 𝑣2 𝑤2
𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑊𝑥
𝑒1 𝑤1 + 𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑤1 + = 𝑒2 𝑤2 + + 𝑝2 𝑣2 𝑤2 (17)
𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏
e1 and e2 refer to energy carried into and out of the control volume with
unit mass of fluid
The specific energy e is given by
𝑉2
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑘 + 𝑒𝑝 + 𝑢 = +Zg + u
2
Substituting the expression for e in (17), we have:
𝑉1 2 𝜕𝑄
( + 𝑍1 𝑔 + 𝑢1 )𝑤1 + 𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑤1 +
2 𝑑𝜏
𝑉2 2 𝜕𝑊𝑥
=( + 𝑍2 𝑔 + 𝑢2 )𝑤2 + + 𝑝2 𝑣2 𝑤2 (18) 16
2 𝑑𝜏
Steady flow process
Since h = u + pv, Equation (18) becomes:
𝑉1 2 𝜕𝑄 𝑉2 2 𝜕𝑊𝑥
( + 𝑍1 𝑔 + ℎ1 )𝑤1 + =( + 𝑍2 𝑔 + ℎ2 )𝑤2 + (19)
2 𝑑𝜏 2 𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑚
And because w1 = w2, let w = w1 = w2 =
𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑚
Dividing (19) by
𝑑𝜏
𝑉1 2 𝜕𝑄 𝑉2 2 𝜕𝑊𝑥
+ 𝑍1 𝑔 + ℎ1 + = + 𝑍2 𝑔 + ℎ2 + (20)
2 𝑑𝑚 2 𝑑𝑚
Equation (19) & (20) are know as steady flow energy equation to
control volume. All terms in (19) represent energy flow per unit
mass of fluid (J/kg) whereas all terms in (20) represent energy flow
per unit time (J/kg). Equation (20) can be written as:
𝑉2 2 −𝑉1 2
𝑄 − 𝑊𝑥 = (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )+ +g(𝑍2 − 𝑍1 ) (21)
2
17
Steady flow process examples
In the differential form, the steady flow energy equation becomes:
Q - WX = dh + 𝑉𝑑ത 𝑉ത + 𝑔𝑑𝑍
Nozzle and Diffusor:
A nozzle is a device which increases the velocity of kinetic energy of a
fluid at the expense of its pressure drop, whereas a diffusor increases
the pressure of a fluid at the expense of its kinetic energy.
The steady flow energy equation of the control surface gives:
𝑉1 2 𝜕𝑄 𝑉2 2 𝜕𝑊𝑥
+ 𝑍1 𝑔 + ℎ1 + = + 𝑍2 𝑔 + ℎ2 + (20)
2 𝑑𝑚 2 𝑑𝑚
18
Steady flow process examples
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑊𝑥
Here = 0, = 0, and the change in potential energy is zero, the
𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑚
above equation reduces to:
𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2
+ ℎ1 = + ℎ2
2 2
The continuity equation gives:
𝐴1 𝑉1 𝐴2 𝑉2
w= =
𝑣1 𝑣2
When the inlet velocity or the ‘velocity of approach’ V1 is small
compared to V2, the above equation becomes:
𝑉2 2
ℎ1 = + ℎ2 V2 = 2(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) (m/s)
2
These equations can be applied to diffusor as well
19
Steady flow process examples
Throttling device:
When a---------------------------------------
fluid flows through a constricted passage, like a partially
opened valve, an orifice, or a porous plug, there is an appreciable
drop in pressure, and the flow is said to be throttled.
2
Steady flow process examples
Throttling device (cont.):
Same as---------------------------------------
the case of nozzles and diffusors, the steady flow energy
equation (S.F.E.E.) for throttling device will be reduced to:
𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2
+ ℎ1 = + ℎ2
2 2
Often the pipe velocities in throttling are so low that the kinetic
energy terms also negligible. So the above equation becomes:
h1 = h2
Or the enthalpy of the fluid before throttling is equal to the enthalpy
of the fluid after throttling
Turbine and Compressor:
Turbines and engines give positive power output, whereas
compressors and pumps require power input (negative).
2
Steady flow process examples
For a turbine which is well insulated, the flow velocities are often
small, ---------------------------------------
and the K.E. terms can be neglected. The S.F.E.E. then
𝜕𝑊 𝑊
becomes: ℎ1 = ℎ2 + 𝑥 𝑥 = (ℎ1 - ℎ2 )
𝑑𝑚 𝑚
So that work is done by the fluid at the expense of its enthalpy
Similarly, for an adiabatic pump or compressor, work is done upon
the fluid and W is negative. The S.F.E.E. becomes:
𝑊 𝑊
h1 = h2 - 𝑥 𝑥 = (ℎ2 - ℎ1 )
𝑚 𝑚
The enthalpy of the fluid increases
by the amount of work input
2
Steady flow process examples
Heat Exchanger (H.E.):
A H.E.---------------------------------------
is a device in which heat is transferred from one fluid to
another. The following figure shows a steam condenser, where steam
condenses outside the tubes and cooling water flows through the
tubes.
23
Steady flow process examples
Heat Exchanger (Cont.):
---------------------------------------
The S.F.E.E. for a steam condenser gives:
wc h1 + ws h2 = wc h3 + ws h4
ws (h2 – h4) = wc (h3 – h1)
Here the K.E. and P.E. terms are considered small, there is no
external work done, and heat exchange in the form of heat is
confined only between the two fluids, i.e. there is no external heat
interaction or heat loss.
24
Terminology
1st Law of Thermodynamics: Định luật nhiệt động thứ nhất
Energy---------------------------------------
conservation: Bảo toàn năng lượng
Steady flow: Dòng ổn định
Closed system: Hệ kín
Open system: Hệ hở
Molecular internal energy: Nội năng phân tử
Work changing volume: Công thay đổi thể tích
Shaft work: Công trên trục
Flow work: Công lưu động
Displacement work: Công dịch chuyển
External work: Ngoại công
Nozzle: Ống phun (ống tăng tốc)
Diffusor: Ống tăng áp
Throttling: Tiết lưu
Heat exchanger: Bộ trao đổi nhiệt 25
