INQUIRIES, INVESTIGATION, AND IMMERSION

( Practical Research 2 )

(WEEK 1): INQUIRIES, INVESTIGATION THROUGH RESEARCH

RESEARCH, a process of systematic inquiries that entails collection of data.

-​ Documentation of critical information.

-​ Analysis and interpretation of data/information, in accordance with suitable

methodologies.

APPROACH IN RESEARCH

Inductive, used to analyze an observed event, associated with qualitative research.

Deductive, used to verify the observed event, associated with quantitative research.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

SYSTEMATIC APPROACH must be followed for accurate data.

-​ Rules and procedures are an integral part of the process that sets the objective.

Research is based on LOGICAL REASONING and involves both inductive and deductive
approaches.

The data or knowledge that is derived in real time from actual OBSERVATIONS IN
NATURAL SETTINGS.

There is an IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS of all data collected so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.

Research CREATES A PATH FOR GENERATING NEW QUESTIONS, existing data helps
create more opportunities for research.

ANALYTICAL IN NATURE, it makes use of all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.

ACCURACY is one of the most important aspects of research. The information that is
obtained should be accurate and true to its nature.

4P’s IN RESEARCH

1.​ People
2.​ Problem
3.​ Phenomena
4.​ Program
TYPES OF RESEARCH

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH, primarily exploratory research.

-​ It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations.

-​ It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for
potential quantitative research.

-​ Is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the
problem.

-​ Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured

techniques.

-​ Some common methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual

interviews, and participation/observations. The sample size is typically small, and
respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH, is used to quantify the

problem by way of generating numerical data or data
that can be transformed into usable statistics.

-​ Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns
in research.

-​ Quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than Qualitative data
collection methods.

MIXED METHOD, sets on premise that the use of qualitative and quantitative approaches
together provides a better understanding of research problems than either the quantitative or
quantitative technique alone.

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE METHOD

ETHONOGRAPHY, immerse yourself in the target participants’ environment to understand

the goals, cultures, challenges, motivations, and themes that emerge.

NARRATIVE, weaves together a sequence of events, usually from just one or two
individuals to form a cohesive story.

PHENOMENOLOGY, you use a combination of methods, such as conducting interviews,

reading documents, watching videos or visiting places and events to understand the
meaning.

GROUNDED THEORY, you use primarily interviews and existing documents to build a
theory based on the data.
 -​ You will go through a series of open and axial coding techniques to identify themes
and build the theory.

CASE STUDY involves a deep understanding through multiple types of data sources.

-​ It can be explanatory, exploratory, or describing an event.

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE METHOD

SURVEY METHOD, the most fundamental tool for all quantitative outcome research
methodologies and studies.

CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH, is conducted to establish a relationship between two

closely-knit entities and how one impacts the other and what are the changes that are
eventually observed.

CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH, also called quasi-experimental research, this

quantitative research method is used by researchers to conclude the cause-effect equation
between two or more variables, where one variable is dependent on the other independent
variable.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH, it is a scientific approach to research where one or more

independent variables are manipulated and applied to one or more dependent variables to
measure their effect on the latter.

TYPES OF MIXED METHOD

TRIANGULATION, combines qualitative and quantitative data from every participant, usually
through a survey questionnaire and interview.

EMBEDDED, either quantitative or qualitative research prevails while the other method is
embedded.

EXPLANATORY DESIGN, this is conducted for a problem that is not yet well studied.

-​ This type of research is intended to explain rather than describe the phenomenon
being studied.

EXPLORATORY DESIGN, intends to mainly explore the research problems and does not
aim to provide final and conclusive solutions to existing problems.

-​ This is conducted to provide a comprehensive understanding of the problem on

various depths and meaning.

(WEEK 2): THE FIVE CHAPTERS OF RESEARCH AND ITS PARTS

CHAPTER 1 ( The Problem and Its Background ), introduces the topic being studied
including its limitations, delimitation, and the specific problems that will be addressed in the
study.

This Chapter includes the following:

1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Framework
3. Conceptual Framework
4. Statement of the Problem
5. Scope and Delimitation
6. Significance of the Study
7. Definition of Terms

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE (RRL)

LITERATURE REVIEW is a comprehensive

summary of previous research on a topic.

-​ The literature review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to
a particular area of research.

-​ The review should enumerate, describe, summarize, objectively evaluate and clarify
this previous research.

3 BASIC TYPES OF LITERATURE SOURCES

1.​ PRIMARY SOURCES, letters/correspondence, diaries, memoirs,autobiographies,

official or research reports,patents and designs and empirical research articles.

2.​ SECONDARY SOURCES, academic Journal articles, conference proceedings,

books, documentaries.

3.​ TERTIARY SOURCES, encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, atlas.

(WEEK 3): CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

RESEARCH DESIGN, refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical way.

-​ It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.

DESCRIPTION OF THE RESPONDENTS, this section elaborates the number and

description of people who are involved in the study as sources of data, a sampling procedure
and selection criteria are also presented.
DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE, this section presents all the necessary steps or stages
in gathering of data.

STATISTICAL TREATMENT, this section presents a list of appropriate tools and techniques
used in organizing, treating, and analyzing the data.

CHAPTER 4 PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION, AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

RESULTS, this portion discusses the new knowledge or the result formed in the study.

-​ Results are presented as simple and as clear as possible, showing representative

data rather than repetitive data, only the most important findings shown in tables and
graphs are extensively discussed in the text.

DISCUSSION, meanings and implications of the results

of the study is explained in this section.

-​ This showcases the importance and the value of the study.

-​ A good discussion should not repeat what has been presented in the review of the
literature.

CHAPTER 5 SUMMART OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, it provides a comprehensive discussion for each of the

significant findings.

-​ Findings are compared to or linked with previous studies mentioned in the review of
related literature.

CONCLUSION, states the well-articulated outcomes of the study briefly suggest future lines
of research in the area based on the reported findings.

-​ It presents a synthesis of the key points where the researcher recommends new
areas for further studies.

RECOMMENDATIONS, this section presents a set of suggested courses of action in view of

the findings
of the study.

-​ Recommendations must be based on the data presented in the findings.

DISASTER AND DISASTER RISK

UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF DISASTER

DISASTER, pertains to anything that disrupts the normal functioning of people, events, and
circumstances.

-​ It may be either predicted or unpredicted.

-​ Unpredicted calamities are more disastrous.

THE FORMULA OF DISASTER

To understand the occurrence of disasters, the formula was developed to simplify its
concept.

The occurrence of disaster is presented by the International Federation of Red Cross and
it is shown by the words in the box below:

(Vulnerability + Hazard) = DISASTER

Capacity

SAMPLE APPLICATION OF VULNERABILITY

1.​ A community of barangay which is not knowledgeable in disaster risk reduction and
management is a vulnerable victim of disaster.

2.​ A member of the family who refused to evacuate from the house, despite repeated
warnings from the Office of the Disaster Risk Reduction and Management is a
vulnerable victim of flood or landslide.

HAZARD, pertains to any condition or circumstances that endangers a person, thing or

situation.

-​ Hazard could be classified as manmade or natural.

RISK is caused by hazards.

-​ Risk is the assessed damage to a person or property as a result of hazard.

-​ Risk that is caused by man-made or natural disasters is called disaster risk.

DISASTER RISK, is the result of hazard, exposure and vulnerability.

Disaster risk may be simplified using the formula below:

Hazard + Exposure + Vulnerability = Disaster Risk

RISK FACTORS UNDERLYING DISASTER

Voluntary Organizations in Cooperation in Emergencies, a nongovernmental
organization (NGOVOICE) and an active humanitarian aid worldwide, assists European
Organizations in times of disasters.

The organization identified some underlying factors which increase disaster, and are needed
to be addressed in order to reduce overall risk. These include:

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS such as:

a.​ Declining Ecosystems, this pertains to environmental degradation due to the

exploitation of our natural resources like rivers and mountains.

-​ Some disastrous events in the country like flash floods are believed to have
been caused by our declining ecosystem.

b.​ Social, social aspects of risk factors may pertain to apathy of the people towards
disaster preparedness.

-​ Lack of concern for some Filipino people in disaster preparedness is another

underlying factor which increases disaster.

-​ Filipinos’ apathy may be a result of the “Bahala Na” attitude which makes
people react only during the occurrence of disaster and not prevent its
possible occurrence.

c.​ Economic Vulnerabilities, lack of financial capability of the concerned authorities to

fund disaster information drives or the cost-effective thinking of builders makes them
susceptible to disasters.

d.​ Climate Change, this is also known as the change in the pattern of weather for an
extended period of time.

-​ El Niño and La Niña are considered as results of climate change.

-​ Climate change is not only one of the environmental issues in the Philippines,
it is, in fact, a global concern.

-​ Climate change affects weather and the weather systems, breaking ice in the
North and South Pole and changing the height of tides in our oceans.

HUMAN FACTOR such as:

a.​ Unplanned Urbanization, this is believed to be a threat to ecological balance and

may cause severe flooding in the city or municipality.
 -​ Migration is seen as one of the factors of unplanned urbanization, migration from
rural to urban areas may be due to natural disasters, livelihood opportunities in the
city or lack of livelihood opportunities in the place where migrants originated.

-​ However, people who migrate, not knowing the geographical location of the city, build
their houses in areas where there is a risk for earthquakes, floods, landslides and
other natural disasters.

b.​ Under-development/Poverty, due to poverty, people become more vulnerable to

disaster which increases the risk factor underlying disasters when they build homes
along the rivers and other waterways or in the dumpsite making them more prone to
diseases, which is also a kind of disaster.

TYPES OF DISASTERS

According to Adelman and Gray in their book, “The Nature of Disasters”, there are basically
two different types of disasters: natural and man-made.

NATURAL DISASTERS pertains to any act of nature which results in distressing effects to
life and property.

-​ Natural disasters can either be predicted or unpredicted.

-​ Natural disasters may not only be the natural process of the environment, it may also
be the result of some human activities like illegal logging and mining.

Examples of Natural Disasters:

-​ Earthquakes
-​ Hurricanes
-​ Floods
-​ Volcanic Eruptions
-​ Landslide

MAN-MADE DISASTERS are stressful events caused directly and primarily by human
action.

-​ It is also called as human-made or human-caused disasters.

Incidence of Man Made Disasters:

1.​ Tubbataha Reef Damage caused by the USS guardian. (middle of sulu sea)

2.​ Oil Spills, this disaster is generally caused by human negligence in which petroleum
hydrocarbon is carelessly discharged in the waters or on land.

-​ Oil spill on waters kills marine animals by depriving them of oxygen and light.
 -​ Oil spill on land causes pollution which may get into our water system and
may cause serious health problems.

3.​ The Rizal Day Bombings

Examples of Man-made Disasters:

-​ Airplane crashes
-​ Terrorist attacks
-​ Wars

TOP 10 DEADLIEST NATURAL DISASTERS IN THE PHILIPPINES

1.​ Moro Gulf Tsunami

2.​ Tropical Storm Thelma
3.​ Typhoon Bopha
4.​ Typhoon Ike
5.​ Eruption of Taal Volcano
6.​ Eruption of Mayon Volcano
7.​ Guinsaugon Landslide
8.​ Typhoon Washi
9.​ Typhoon Trix
10.​Super Typhoon Yolanda

EFFECTS OF DISASTERS

PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DISASTER, when a person lives through a disaster,

physical, mental and emotional health can be disturbed, these are normal reactions to
disasters.

Signs and Symptoms of Psychological Effects of Disasters:

1.​ FEAR, this may be characterized by fear of the dark, of being alone or of some
things.

2.​ SHOCK, any victim of disaster under the stage of shock may show irregularity in
breathing, nausea and confusion.

3.​ GRIEF victims of a disaster may show extreme sadness by crying and sighing due to
the effect of the event.

4.​ IRRITABILITY, a victim of disaster may display sudden bursts of anger.

-​ The person may also get easily frustrated by small events like noisy
surroundings and lack of basic needs like food and water.
EMOTIONAL EFFECTS OF DISASTER, may be shown through the acts of victims/survivors
or through the words they utter.

Some of the emotional effects are the following:

1.​ Feeling guilty with the thought that if he/she has done something, he/she may not
have lost a member of the family.

2.​ Feeling of dissatisfaction from the support coming from the family, neighbors, friends,
or even from the government.

3.​ Feeling of bitterness for those who survived the disaster or for those who were not
actually affected by it.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF DISASTERS

The following are some manifestations of physical effects of disasters:

1.​ Physical sickness like headaches, fever, cough and others

2.​ Change in appetite
3.​ Poor sleeping condition
4.​ Constipation

SOCIAL EFFECTS OF DISASTERS, may be displayed by children or even adolescents.

Some of the social effects of disaster are the following:

1.​ Loss of interest in the activity previously enjoyed by the victim/survivor,

children may display loss of interest with his/her favorite toys or games while adults
may display loss of interest in his/her job or hobbies.

2.​ Family May Be Rebuilt, even broken homes come together in times of disaster.

-​ Relatives with a long-time argument may even forget the issue of the past
and immediately come to the rescue of the relative in need.

3.​ Circle Of Friends will expand, a simple thought of lending a blanket or slipper in
times of disaster is a gesture to start another friendship which will then expand the
social group.

ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF DISASTERS, will generally affect the economy of the country,
specifically that of the family.

These effects may be characterized by:

1.​ Loss of job of a family member

 2.​ Loss of business by the merchants

3.​ Damaged bridges, buildings and roads, which will be repaired by the government at
the expense of the country’s budget.

4.​ Forfeiture of investments from other countries

5.​ Decline of tourism industry due to damaged scenery.

COPING WITH THE EFFECTS OF DISASTERS

There are many ways to cope with disaster.

With the different effects of disasters, it requires that

coping mechanisms also vary.

However, there are general ways on how to cope and manage the effects of disasters.

These are the following:

1.​ Take Care of Yourself

2.​ Encourage Open Communication and Support
3.​ Be Brave
4.​ Be a Good Listener
5.​ Carry on with your routine

(WEEK 2): DIFFERENT ELEMENTS EXPOSED TO RISK

PHYSICAL ELEMENTS, these elements comprise aspects of geography, location, place

and physical structures like infrastructures.

-​ As to geography, location and place, researches show that developing countries face
a greater impact on disaster than developed countries due to the number of
population, human health, public services, quality of infrastructures and others.

TIPS IN BUILDING DISASTER-SAFE HOUSE

1.​ CONSULT ENGINEERS AND ARCHITECTS, engineers and architects are the best
persons who may determine the safety of your houses as to construction and design.

2.​ INSTALL DISASTER RESISTANT DESIGN IN YOUR HOUSE, the use of storm
shutters is advice by some engineers.

3.​ USE THE RIGHT MATERIALS, in building houses do not tighten the budget by
sacrificing the quality of materials needed during construction.
 4.​ IDENTIFY THE RIGHT LOCATION OF YOUR HOME, do not build your house on
landslide prone and flood prone areas.

SOCIAL ELEMENTS, social elements include demography, social groups, and health and
wellbeing.

-​ DEMOGRAPHY, this pertains to the diversity of people in the community as to age,

gender, health and others.

-​ The different types of people that compose the entirety of the population
affects the extent of susceptibility to disasters.

-​ SOCIAL GROUPS are exposed to hazards include tourists, ethnic groups, sports
enthusiasts, groups by reason of their profession and women and children who were
not trained and equipped to fight and mitigate the effects of disasters.

a.​ Tourists, often victimized by man made disasters like terrorism and
kidnapping.

-​ They are also vulnerable to natural disasters as they are not aware of the terrain and
security status of the place they are visiting.

b.​ Ethnic Groups, are likewise exposed to hazards, for instance, members of
the cultural minority may be more vulnerable to natural disasters due to
communication barriers.

c.​ Health And Well-being, refers to body defenses and the physical capacity of
the person to cope with the effects of disasters

ECONOMIC ELEMENTS are those that belong to the public and private sectors whose
businesses may be affected by disasters as they are also exposed to hazards.

-​ These elements, once exposed to hazard, are vulnerable to losses, indebtedness,

production loss and others.

-​ People whose work and livelihood are exposed to hazards will also have a direct
effect on the economy.

ENVIRONMENTAL ELEMENTS, in the concept of disasters and hazards, environmental

elements pertain to the natural resources or the misuse of public lands and waterways.

Environmental elements exposed to hazards are the following:

1. Low-lying islands
2. Coastal zones
3. Mountainous regions
4. Occupancy on waterways
VULNERABILITY AND RISKS

VULNERABILITY is the characteristic of a community

as being susceptible or prone to hazard or disasters.

-​ Vulnerability is due to several characteristics or conditions.

-​ Some of the characteristics affecting vulnerability include physical, social, economic

and environmental factors.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF VULNERABILITY

1. PHYSICAL VULNERABILITY, this classification of vulnerability pertains to the physical

aspect of the community, the people, and the infrastructures.

-​ Physical aspect of the community may pertain to the location of the

community.

-​ Those who are located on low-lying areas are more vulnerable to flood while
those located on mountainous areas are more vulnerable to landslides.

-​ Physical aspect of the people may pertain to the demographic profile of the
people living in a certain community.

-​ For instance, a community which comprises a diverse young, old, and sick
are more vulnerable than other communities.

-​ Physical vulnerability of infrastructures may pertain to the type of houses,

building compositions of bridges and buildings, and others.

2. SOCIAL VULNERABILITY is the incapability of the community to survive the hostile

effects of threats of disasters.

-​ Social vulnerability may be due to the principles and beliefs of the people in a
certain locality.

It includes aspects related to:

a.​ Awareness of the people to disasters

b.​ The existence of emergency-preparedness plan
c.​ Access to basic social services
d.​ Customs and traditions
e.​ Leadership of government officials
f.​ Optimism in life

-​ This kind of vulnerability may be associated with the financial status of a person to
stay in a safer place and build a safer home.
 -​ It could be drawn that poor people are more vulnerable to the impact of disaster
because of their incapacity to sustain a better place to stay, live and build a family.

-​ Countries which are not economically progressive are also more vulnerable to
disasters.

-​ Economic instability may result in low standards of infrastructures, emergency

equipment, supplies and reliefs.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL VULNERABILITY, even our environment and natural resources are

also vulnerable to disasters.

RISK is used interchangeably with hazard.

-​ However, in the field of disaster management, risk is different from hazard.

-​ Risk is the product of hazard and vulnerability.

It is simplified by the formula:

HAZARD X VULNERABILITY= RISK

-​ The equation means that risk is the product of the probability hazard and the degree
of vulnerability.

-​ The increase of either of the two factors will “risk” the product.

-​ Thus as the probability of hazard increases, so does the risk increases.

-​ Further, as the degree of vulnerability increases, so does risk also increase.

There are several ways on how to deal with risk. Here

are some instances:

1.​ RISK IDENTIFICATION at home, in the workplace, in school or anywhere we go, we

should be able to determine possible risk factors like the branch of a tree which may
possibly fall, an open manhole along the street, electric wires which may possibly be
a source of short circuit, and others.

2.​ RISK CLASSIFICATION all risk must be identified as minor or major risk.

-​ By classifying risk, we may be able to prioritize which of the risks shall be

addressed first.

3.​ RISK ACCEPTANCE acknowledge the presence of risk and start planning on how to
deal with it.
Example: A house built under the bridge is vulnerable to disaster. The owner of the house
must accept the fact in order to come up with measures to reduce the risk.

-​ Some measures may include the transfer of house or relocation or evacuation even
without warnings during a torrential rain.

4.​ RISK AVOIDANCE, prevent the development of risk into hazard.

Example: When an area is already declared by concerned authorities to be vulnerable to

risks like earthquake or landslide, one must never build structures there anymore. This is
simply avoidance.

5.​ RISK REDUCTION, lessen the hazard that may be posed by the presence of risk.

Example: Illegal mining must be strongly enforced in

identified places to reduce the occurrence of sinkholes, landslides, and flash floods.

6.​ RISK TRANSFER, this pertains to the assignment of burden to third parties like
insurance companies.

Example: Afraid that your investment like buildings and houses may be ruined by fire, you
may apply the same for a fire insurance company. This is the common type of non-life
insurance in the country.

TNCT

(WEEK 1): UNDERSTANDING TRENDS

TREND is a directed movement or behavior, a trend also implies change, this means sooner
or later a trend is bound to change.

FAD is something that people are highly interested in for a relatively short period of time.

-​ This means that the fad comes and goes.

CHARACTERISTICS AND ELEMENTS

APPEAL, refers to the degree of attraction that a fad or a trend causes on people.

RESULTS, this pertains to the impact of a fad or trend.

SCOPE, this indicates the extent of the influence of fad or a trend.

-​ A fad has a limited scope, which means it is only accepted by a selected group of
people.

SUPPORT, this means the structure that enables a fad or trend to be sustainable.

SUSTAINABILITY, refers to the length of time that a fad or trend can continue to exist.

VALUE, pertains to the utility or usefulness that can be derived from a fad or trend.

-​ The utility is limited only to areas where it is directly related.

(WEEK 2): DEMOCRATIC INTERVENTIONS

DEMOCRACY, the term came from the Greek words demos, which means “the people”
and kratein, which
means “the rule”.

-​ Literally means “rule by the people”

-​ It is to note that originally, democracy was not perceived to be the “best” form of
government.

ELEMENTS OF MODERN DEMOCRACY

RULE OF LAW it is the heart of any democratic government.

 -​ The rule ensures that the rights and freedoms of citizens are protected and that “no
one is above the law”

SEPARATION OF POWERS

Three separate powers of a democratic government:

EXECUTIVE POWER is responsible for the implementation of laws.

-​ President
-​ Vice president
-​ Cabinet Members

LEGISLATIVE POWER is responsible for the creation of laws.

JUDICIARY is responsible for the

interpretation of laws.

-​ Judge
-​ Lawyers
-​ Prosecutors
-​ Juries

A. PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM

-​ President who serves as the head of state and of government.

-​ Legislative power is distinct from the executive power since the people also elect
members of the legislature.

-​ Legislature passes bills that the President signs into law; approves the national
budget; and decides on national policies, among others.

-​ Executive include ensuring that laws and policies are enforced; acting as the
Commander-in-chief of the armed forces; and collaborating with other heads of
government for international peace and stability.

B. PARLIAMENTARY

-​ The citizens elect the members of the Parliament.

-​ The party that wins the majority seat in the Parliament elects the Prime Minister from
among themselves.

-​ Prime Minister serves as the head of Government and is distinct from the head of
state.
 -​ In England, the head of the royal family serves as the head of state while the royal
family serves as the head of state while the Prime Minister is the head of the
government.

C. MIXED SYSTEM

-​ Some nations employ a mixed system that draws the best features of both the
Presidential system and the Parliamentary system.

-​ It may also be referred to as a Semi- Presidential elect a President that does not only
have ceremonial functions but shares executive powers with the Prime Minister.

SUFFRAGE, derived from the civil and political rights of

the citizens, as recognized under the rule of law, the right to suffrage.

-​ The right to suffrage means that every citizen, within the recognized legal age, has
the right to participate in elections by casting a vote.

FREEDOM OF SPEECH, it ensures that the citizens are able to voice out their agreement,
disagreement, affirmations, criticisms, and proposals to their government.

LIBEL LAW, it is a crime broadly characterized by maliciously publishing an article or write

up that may be detrimental to a person’s character or may cause dishonor.

PLURALISM

-​ Genuine democracy is characterized by pluralism.

-​ Since the rule of law recognizes the basic rights and freedom of citizens, this entails
that the people are entitled to diverse beliefs and opinions, which may result in them
becoming part of different organizations with varying thrusts and advocacies.

TYPES OF DEMOCRACY

DIRECT DEMOCRACY, it is also referred to as pure

democracy.

-​ The citizens come together or decide on issues or pass laws through a vote.

-​ Each citizen has a voice in making important decisions for the community.

INDIRECT DEMOCRACY, the people elect leaders to act as their representatives in the
government.

-​ The advantage of an indirect democracy is that it is relatively easier to decide on

issues, pass laws and carry out their implementation.
THE DIMENSIONS OF DEMOCRACY

THE PEOPLE, as previously pointed out, democracy is etymologically defined as “rule by

the people”, thus the concept of ‘people” is central in any discussion of democracy.

-​ The question before us is “Who are the people or what does the phrase the people
mean in the definition of democracy as rule by the people?

EQUALITY, the principle of equality in a democracy can be interpreted as the people of a

democratic nation having an equal right to rule and an equal
right to vote.

-​ Republic Act. Article V, Sec.1 of the Philippine Constitution, which states that
“Suffrage may be exercised by all citizens of the Philippines not otherwise
disqualified by law”

COMMON GOOD, ensuring that the common good is always upheld is a very important task
of any democratic government.

-​ Since sovereignty belongs to the people, the government, then, is by the people and
for the people.

REPRESENTATION, in a direct democracy wherein, citizens represent themselves or in an

indirect democracy wherein representatives are elected, the concept of representation is at
work.

DEMOCRACY AND OTHER FORMS OF GOVERNMENT

ANARCHY, it is a state of affairs wherein no existing government in a group, organization or

nation takes change in implementing laws and administering the affairs of its members.

ARISTOCRACY it is a form of government wherein the people are ruled by members of the
nobility or those who belong to the upper class of society.

Other forms of government as degenerate form of the former:

TIMOCRACY, whose criteria for selection of leaders are honorable.

OLIGARCHY, whose criterion is wealth.

DEMOCRACY, whose criterion is popularity.

TYRANNY, whose criterion is power, in that order.

CAPITALISM, it is a form of government wherein

the people are allowed to own properties or businesses for purposes of profit insofar as
these owners pay taxes to the government.
Example : United States of America

COMMUNISM, It is a form of government wherein

the idea is to arrive at a classless society through the equal sharing of goods by the people.

-​ In communist government, private ownership of capital or property is prohibited, and

the affairs of the State are governed by a single ruling party.

CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY, It is a form of government wherein a democratic

government exists side by side with a monarchy and the responsibilities in ruling are divided
between two heads.

Example: The United Kingdom is an example of constitutional monarchy where the Prime
Minister of the Parliament serves as the Head of Gov’t while the Monarch serves as the
Head of State.

DEMOCRACY, it is a form of government wherein the power to rule resides in the people.

DESPOTISM, it is a form of gov’t wherein the people are governed by a single individual
who treats the people as slaves.

Example: Ivan the Terrible, the first czar of Russia, can be considered as a despot.

DICTATORSHIP, it is a form of government wherein the people are governed by an

individual who has absolute governing power and assumes the roles of the three branches
of the gov’t – executive, legislative, and judiciary.

Example: Adolf Hitler – Germany Ferdinand Marcos – Philippines

FEDERALISM, it is a form of gov’t wherein the governing power is shared between a central
gov’t and a group of regional or local gov’t.
Ex. The USA is an example of a federalist country.

MONARCHY, it is a form of gov’t wherein the people are ruled by a Monarch (King and
Queen) and this power to rule is passed on as inheritance to the Monarch’s children (a
prince who will be king or a princess who will be queen).

-​ A monarch who has managed to expand one’s kingdom to an empire is called

Emperor or Empress.

OLIGARCHY, it is a form of government wherein the people are ruled by a few people.

-​ These few may be wealthy or powerful, thus having the power to rule.

REGIONAL OR LOCAL, it is a form of gov’t wherein people in a specific locale are ruled by
a small group of leaders whose ruling power is only limited within the confines of the locales
they serve.
REPUBLIC, it is a form of gov’t wherein the people are not ruled by a monarch but by an
elected president, in most cases.

-​ The gov’t of the Philippines is an example of a republic.

REVOLUTIONARY, results in a situation wherein

the existing government is forcibly overthrown by revolutionary forces.

-​ Bonifacio and Aguinaldo’s respective gov’t can be considered as revolutionary.

.
SOCIALISM, it is a form of gov’t wherein businesses that are involved in the production and
distribution of goods and basic utilities such as electricity and water are administered by the
gov’t and not by capitalists.

TIMOCRACY, it is a form of gov’t wherein leaders are chosen on the basis of being
honorable.

TOTALITARIAN, it is a form of gov’t wherein only a single political party is recognized.

TRANSITIONAL, exists when a country is undergoing transition from one form of gov’t to
another.

TYRANNY, it is a form of gov’t wherein the people are ruled by a wealthy person who wields
the power to rule by overthrowing those who are in power through means that are not
prescribed by law.

(WEEK 3): INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

ICT enables the various forms of communication that we enjoy today, for instance, the
internet, which paved the way for social networks such as Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), ICT is the
collective term that refers to:

The tools and the processes to access, retrieve produce, present and exchange information
by electronic and other automated means:

• Hardware
• Software
• Telecommunication

THE HISTORY OF ICT

300 B.C. — when the Abacus was invented.

19TH CENTURY — the calculator was developed.

1833 — Charles Babbage produced the initial
designs of the computer.

1931 — the first electronic calculator was assembled by Kondrad Zuse.

1894 Guglielmo Marconi invented “wireless telegraphy” which paved the way for the
development of the radio in the 20th century.

1920s commercial radio broadcasts for entertainment became widespread in America

Developed Television.

1940s colored television was developed and became prevalent in the 1960s.

In 1876 the telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell.

1930s the technology became widespread with the creation of the telephone sets.

1970s mobile phone technology was introduced.

1980s the earliest mobile phones were sold.

2000 advancements in digital technology led to the greater popularity of mobile phones,
gaining widespread popularity.

DIGITAL DIVIDE is the natural consequence of advancements in ICT, is what is referred to

as the digital divide, which refers to the discrepancy in people’s access and skill related
to ICT.

THE EFFECTS OF ADVANCEMENT IN ICT

According to the UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT, the

effects of ICT in a country are influence by three factors, namely,

●​ existing ICT infrastructures,

●​ level of education, skills and income in the country,

●​ ICT policy and regulation of the gov’t and the level of e-gov’t.

EFFECTS ON CITIZEN PARTICIPATION

-​ ICT has become a very potent tool in increasing citizen participation in the affairs of a
country.

-​ One cannot expect citizens to react and participate in issues concerning their
countries if they are not informed about what is happening around them.
THE IMPACTS OF ICT ON SOCIETY

Positive Impacts:

A.) Faster Communication Speed

B.) Lower Communication Cost
C.) Paperless Environment
D.) Effective Sharing of Information

Negative Impacts:

A.) Social Problems

B.) Health Problems

EFFECTS ON ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE

-​ The benefit from the utilization of ICT equipment and infrastructure contribute to the
growth of the economy of a given country.

-​ ICT has an effect, either directly or indirectly, on a nation’s economic performance.

-​ Since the availability of goods and services is promptly communicated to consumers

while the needs of consumers are also swiftly relayed to manufacturers and service
providers.

EFFECTS ON EDUCATION

-​ In the field of education, ICT has provided avenues that enhance communication of
knowledge and facilitate the learning process.

EFFECT ON EMPLOYMENT AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION

-​ The emergence and spread of ICT have definite effects on employment because of
the jobs that it has created.

-​ On the one hand, research, development, and manufacturing of ICT-related

infrastructure and equipment of ICT involve hiring of employees ranging from
construction laborers to scientists and engineers.

EFFECTS ON HEALTH

-​ The use of mobile phones and devices such as the Samsung S Gear to monitor
pulse, calories burned during exercise, nutritional intake per meal, and reminders for
meds, to name a few, has been very helpful in maintaining a healthy lifestyle for a
number of people.

OTHER EFFECTS OF ICT:

 -​ Effects on Individuals and Communities
-​ Effects on Innovation and Research
-​ Effects on Privacy and Security

‘’MASS” which means bulk, quantity or many.

“MEDIA” means channels, ways, or vehicles.

HISTORY OF MASS MEDIA

There are a few different versions of the origins of Mass Media. Some accounts say that it
started in Egypt with the first book – The Book of the Dead – that was written around 1400
B.C.

RECORDING surfaced as a mass media during the late 19th century – around 1890.

-​ Prior to its arrival, music was disseminated through print.

CINEMA, a new kind of mass media, began to replace the role of recording the cinema.

-​ Recording features sounds, moving pictures, and thus ushering in the advent of
multimedia.

RADIO in 1920s the radio started to gain popularity as a form of mass media.

-​ In comparison with the first three media, whose contents can only be consumed after
they were produced, radio broadcasts are more or less real-time.

-​ It shows that features drama or comedy are also broadcasted on a scheduled basis,
which listeners follow.

-​ It also features product advertisements, weather reports and live sports updates, to
name a few.

-​ The radio is considered a portable mass media for the most part of its development.

TELEVISION OR TV began conquering the market in the 1950s.

-​ This was made possible by merging the multimedia concept of the cinema with the
streaming format of the radio, which one can enjoy in the comforts of his/her home.

INTERNET in 1990s was the time when the internet

started to make its presence felt in mass media.

-​ The term internet is a contraction for interconnected networks.

-​ Simply put, as the internet developed over the years, everything that the five mass
media had to offer was assimilated by the internet and distribution at a global scale
almost instantaneously.
MOBILE PHONES the category “seven mass media” only came out when mobile phones
were considered to be 7th mass media around the year 2000.

7 unique benefits that are exclusive:

1.​ The mobile phone is the first personal mass media channel.

2.​ The mobile phone is permanently carried.

3.​ The mobile phone is always on.

4.​ Only the mobile phone provides a built-in payment channel.

5.​ The mobile phone is available at the point of creative impulse, enabling user
generated content.

6.​ The mobile phone is the first media with near perfect audience data.

7.​ Only the mobile phone captures the social context of media consumption.

THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL MEDIA

-​ The media is a powerful tool in shaping our culture by influencing the way we think as
well as our ideologies.

-​ Our primary sources of information appear to be found in the Internet and

secondarily, because contents can be accessed almost anywhere through our Mobile
phone.

-​ We live in a society that depends on information communication to keep moving in

the right direction and do daily activities like work, entertainment, attitudes,
healthcare, education, personal relationships, travelling and anything else we have to
perform.

Media is the means of support to the people in the world which shapes their attitude,
opinion, and makes them think before they start doing a particular work.

THEORIES OF INFLUENCE OF MASS MEDIA

AGENDA-SETTING THEORY, it says that the media are not always successful at telling us
what to think, but they are quite successful at telling us what to think
about.

CULTIVATION THEORY, it says that television has become the main source of storytelling
in today's society.
 -​ Those who watch it for four or more hours a day are labeled heavy television
viewers while those who view less than four hours per day are light viewers.

CULTURAL IMPERIALISM THEORY, states that Western nations dominate the media
around the world, which in return have a powerful effect on Third World cultures by imposing
on them Western views and therefore destroying their native cultures.

MEDIA DEPENDENCY THEORY, this theory states that the more dependent an individual is
on the media in fulfilling his or her needs, the more media will be to that person.

MEDIA EQUATION THEORY, this theory responds unconsciously and automatically to

communication media as if it were human.

SPIRAL OF SILENCE THEORY explains why people often feel the need to conceal their
opinions, preferences, views, etc. when they fall within the minority group

TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINATION, it is the Media technology shapes how we as

individual in a society think, feel, act and how society operates as we move
from one technological age to another.

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY, there are five

functional approaches that the media serve their users:

1.​ Surveillance
2.​ Correlation
3.​ Transmission
4.​ Entertainment
5.​ Mobilization

HUMAN ACTION THEORY it can be predicted because people make choices with a
purpose for their actions.

MEDIA INFORMATION AND LITERACY

(WEEK 1): WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

The word communication was transcribed from the Latin word “COMMUNICARE”, which
means to share, to impart, to participate or to transmit.

“COMMUNIS”, which means “to make common or to share”.

COMMUNICATION is the act of conveying meaning from one entity or group to another
through the use of mutually understood signs, symbols, and semiotic rules.
BASIC TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

NON VERBAL

-​ Signs
-​ Symbols
-​ Colors
-​ Gestures
-​ Body Language
-​ Facial Expressions

VERBAL

-​ Oral
-​ Written
-​
PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

LINEAR MODEL views communication as a one way or linear process in which the speaker
speaks and the listener listens.

-​ Laswell’ s (1948) model was based on the five questions below, which effectively
describe how communication works.

SHANNON – WEAVER’S COMMUNICATION MODEL, Shannon and Weaver (1949)

introduced the concept of noise in communication .

-​ This model states that the information is encoded and goes through a channel or
transmitter.

-​ The information is then decoded by the receiver and goes to the destination.

BERLO’S SMCR COMMUNICATION MODEL, David Berlo postulated

SenderMessage-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication from Shannon and Weaver’s
model (1949).

-​ He described the factors that are affecting the individual components of

communication, making the communication more efficient

OSGOOD – SCHRAMM’S COMMUNICATION MODEL, Schramm (1955) and Wood

(2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or listener providing
feedback to the sender or speaker.

-​ The speaker or sender of the message also listens to the feedback given by the
receiver or listener.

-​ Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and to listen to each other.
 -​ Feedback is given either verbally or nonverbally, or in both ways.

MEDIA LITERACY, the ability to read, analyze, evaluate and procedure communication in
various media forms.

INFORMATION LITERACY, the ability to recognize

when information is needed and to locate, evaluate, and effectively use communication
information in various formats.

TECHNOLOGY LITERACY ( Digital Literacy ), the ability to use digital technology,

communication tools or networks to locate, evaluate, use, and create information.

MEDIA AND INFORMATION LITERACY, is defined as a set of competencies that

empowers citizens to access, retrieve, understand, evaluate and use, create, as well as
share information and media content in all formats, using various tools, in a critical, ethical
and effective way, in order to participate and engage in personal, professional and societal
activities.

(WEEK 2): EVOLUTION OF TRADITIONAL MEDIA TO NEW MEDIA

PRE-HISTORIC AGE (1500 BC - 1500 AD), is the period of human activity between the use
of the first stone tools.

-​ Technology that predates recorded history.

-​ Anything prior to the first written accounts of history is prehistoric meaning "before
history", including earlier technologies.

Examples:

-​ Cave Paintings
-​ Papyrus in Egypt
-​ Clay Tablets in Mesopotamia

INDUSTRIAL AGE (1700s -1930s), is a period of history that encompasses the changes in
economic and social organization that began around 1760 in Great Britain and later in other
countries.

-​ Characterized chiefly by the replacement of hand tools with power-driven machines

such as the power loom and the steam engine, and by the concentration of industry
in large establishments.

Examples:

-​ Telegraph
-​ Typewriter
ELECTRONIC AGE (1930s – 1980s) is the invention of the transistor ushered in the
electronic age.

-​ People harnessed the power of transistors that led to the transistor radio, electronic
circuit, and early computers.

-​ In this age long distance communication became more efficient.

Examples:

-​ Television
-​ Apple 1 Computer
-​ Apple 2 Computer

DIGITAL AGE (1900s-2000s) or Informational Age is a period in human history

characterized by the shift from traditional industry that the Industrial Revolution brought
through industrialization, to an economy based on information computerization.

-​ The internet paved the way for advanced use of microelectronics with the invention of
personal computers, devices and wearable technology. Moreover, voice, image,
sounds, and data are digitised.

Examples:

-​ Facebook
-​ Google
-​ Skype
-​ Friendster

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION AND MEDIA

1.​ Inform Citizens Of What Is Happening (Monitoring Function)

2.​ Educate The Audience

(Meaning And Significance Of Facts)

3.​ Provide A Platform For Public Discourse

(Public Opinion And Expression Of Dissent)

-​ Public Opinion, views prevalent among the general public.

4.​ “Watchdog” Role Of Journalism

5.​ Channel For Advocacy For Political Viewpoints

(WEEK 3): INFORMATION LITERACY

INFORMATION, data that has been collected, processed, and interpreted in order to be
presented in a usable form.

-​ A broad that can cover processed data, knowledge derived from study, experience,
instruction, signals or symbols.

-​ In the media world, information is often used to describe knowledge of specific

events or situations that has been gathered or received by communication,
intelligence, or news reports.

Why do you need information?

-​ to be updated with the news

-​ for learning/education purposes
-​ for communication
-​ to acquire knowledge needed for decision making

Where do you search for information?

-​ internet
-​ television
-​ radio
-​ library
-​ newspaper

How do you acquire and store information?

-​ Write
-​ Print
-​ Photocopy
-​ Photograph
-​ Download
-​ Cloud Storage
-​ Record
-​ Memory Card

How will you determine the quality and accuracy of information that you have?

-​ It should come from reputable source

-​ Don’t rely on a single source only

How do you use information that you have?

-​ Share
-​ Apply
-​ Announce
-​ Post
-​ Archive
 -​ Reminder
-​ Answer query
-​ Clarify confusion

How will you communicate information?

-​ Announcement
-​ Text
-​ Post to social media
-​ Face to face session
-​ Note
-​ Chat
-​ Email
-​ Save file

THE INFORMATION LITERATE PERSON CAN:

The information literate student can IDENTIFY the nature and extent of information needed.

The information literate student can FIND needed information effectively and efficiently.

The information literate student can EVALUATE information and its sources critically.

The information literate student can APPLY information effectively to accomplish a specific
purpose.

The information literate student can ACKNOWLEDGE sources of information and the
ethical, legal and socio-economic issues surrounding

INFORMATION LITERACY, the term “information literacy” describes a set of abilities that
enables an individual to acquire, evaluate, and use information.

-​ You can think of information literacy as having five components: identify, find,
evaluate, apply, and acknowledge sources of information.

-​ Information literacy is a lifelong learning process.

-​ While each skill is individually important, understanding how they fit together is
essential to becoming an information literate person.

ETHICAL USE OF INFORMATION

-​ There are times when you need to share information that you have acquired from
various sources written by different authors.

-​ It is inevitable to directly quote their words in order to preserve their meaning.

 -​ However, quoting someone else’s words without giving credit to the author
essentially gives an impression that you are claiming ownership of the words they
have said, this is called plagiarism.

PLAGIARISM, many people think of plagiarism as copying another’s work or borrowing

someone else’s original ideas. But terms like “copying" and “borrowing” can disguise the
seriousness of the offense.

-​ According to Merriam-Webster online dictionary, to plagiarize means; to steal and

pass off ideas or words as one’s own; to use without crediting the source; to commit
literacy theft. In other words, it is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone
else’s work and lying about it afterward

QUOTATION, this is using someone’s words directly.

-​ When you use a direct quote, place the passage between quotation marks, and
document the source according to a standard documenting style.

PARAPHRASE, using someone’s ideas, but rephrasing them in your own words.

-​ Although you will use your own words to paraphrase, you must still acknowledge and
cite the source of the information.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

(WEEK 1): CONCEPT OF RECREATION

RECREATION is an activity that people do during their free time.

-​ Recreation must be fun, enjoyable, and socially acceptable, helping cultivate a

steady balance in life.

-​ Can also be seen as a social instrument because of what it can contribute to the
community.

-​ A program that can help promote youth development, leadership, good family
relations, and the attainment of various physical needs of individuals.

FREE TIME is time off from business, work, studies, household chores, duties and
responsibilities.

BENEFITS OF RECREATION

ENVIRONMENTAL, creates awareness and interest in nature especially during trekking and
hiking activities.
 -​ Encourages involvement in the conservation of natural resources.

ECONOMIC

-​ Serve as a preventive health service.

-​ Result in a fit and ultimately productive workforce.

-​ Motivates business relation and expansion in the community.

-​ Serves as a catalyst for tourism, a growing sector of the economy.

SOCIAL

-​ Provides leadership opportunities that build strong communities.

-​ Reduces alienation, loneliness, and antisocial behaviors.

-​ Promotes ethnic and cultural harmony.

-​ Build strong families, the foundation of a stronger society.

-​ Provides opportunities for community involvement and shared management and

ownership resources.

-​ Provides integrated and accessible leisure services for people with disabilities.

-​ Serves as a foundation of community pride.

-​ Enriched and complements protective services for latchkey children through

after-school and other recreational services.

PERSONAL

-​ Contributes to a full and meaningful life.

-​ Helps promote physical fitness.

-​ Aids in stress management.

-​ Serves as an essential source of positive self-image.

-​ Provides people with the opportunity to lead balanced lives.

-​ Plays an important role in the human development process, especially children…

(WEEK 2): GROUP GAMES

WARM-UP, this exercise will help improve posture and strengthen the legs which will be
helpful in playing the games in the lesson.

GAMES are an example of recreational activity.

-​ May be done indoor or outdoor.

-​ May be played individually, by pairs, or by groups or teams.

-​ May need props and tools.

-​ Aim at enjoyment, learning, or competition.

-​ Are guided by purpose, structure, and rules.

-​ Require mental, physical, or psychological processes.

-​ May vary according to the ages and sexes of players.

Example of games:

TUG OF WAR, one of the most popular group games, is a sport that pits two teams against
each other in a test of strength.

Examples:
1.​ Up to creek
2.​ Beanbag Pick-up
3.​ Timed tug of war
4.​ Paul reverses tug of war

SAMSON, DELILAH, AND THE LION, is a modified version of rock, paper, scissors, or jack
n poy games.

RABBIT, WALL, AND SOLDIER, is another version of samson, delilah, and the lion with
different characters.

TOUCH BALL, is a ball game that involves running, and improves agility.

-​ It is played by two teams with equal numbers of players each.

Examples:
1.​ Side by side touch ball
2.​ Front and back touch ball

KICK BALL, originally called kick baseball, is derived from baseball and football, it involves
running and passing and helps develop the players agility.
(WEEK 3): HUMAN BOARD GAMES

BOARD GAMES involve counters or pieces placed and moved according to a set of rules on
a pre-marked surface or board.

-​ Some board games are based on strategy and skills, while others are based on
chances.

CHECKERS/DAMA, is a game for two players, each player has 12 disks or checkers which
are placed on the black squares.

-​ The dark colored checkers are usually black and the light colored ones are white.

-​ Capturing moves occurs when an opposing piece jumps, this can also be done
diagonally and can happen only when the square behind is open.

There are two types of moves:

1.​ Capturing moves

2.​ Non Capturing moves

GAME OF THE GENERALS, also called salpakan is a psychological war game designed for
2 players and requires the use of logic simulating armies at war trying to outflank and
outmaneuver each other.

ARBITER or NEUTRAL THIRD PERSON, who will act as judge in the challenge by looking
at the pieces, applying piece ranks and eliminating the weaker piece.

-​ The game board has a 9x8 square ( 72 plain square ) The players put their pieces on
the shaded part of the square.

-​ Each player has 21 pieces, each piece has a specific function.

-​ All pieces move the same forward, backward, and sideways.

-​ Each player has one square per turn.

CREATIVE WRITING
OR CREATIVE NON FICTION

LITERATURE, it deals with thoughts, ideas and emotions of man- thus, it can be said that
literature is the story of man.

-​ It enriched ideas about the world and strengthened our knowledge about the
different subjects connecting us in a world where there are no boundaries.
LITERARY GENRES

TRAGEDY, i is define as a genre that focuses around a

serious and dignified style of sorrow or terrible events encountered or caused by a heroic
individual.

COMEDY, a genre that consists of discourses or works intended to be humorous or

amusing by inducing laughter in theater, film, television, and others.

CREATIVE NONFICTION, it employs the creative writing techniques of literature, such as

poetry and fiction, to retell a true story of a literature.

TRADITIONAL GENRES OF LITERATURE

A traditional genre of literature consists of stories that have been passed down orally and in
written form throughout history.

FOLK TALES is a fictional story that are usually anonymous and have been shared by
multiple narrators over time.

MYTHS is a traditional story that explain natural or social phenomena, often using
supernatural beings and set in the early civilizations.

FABLES a short fictional story that teaches a moral lesson to the readers.

LEGENDS is a traditional story that explain a particular person or place.

DRAMA a portrayal of fictional or nonfictional events through the performance of written

dialogue.

POETRY is a type of literature that uses a variety of techniques to evoke emotions and
meanings to the readers.

NONFICTION a broad genre of writing that is based on

facts and actual events, rather than being fictional.

FICTION is the category of literature and other creative work whose content is imagined,
fabricated, or invented by the author that may not be necessarily based on facts.

-​ A type of literature where the content is imagined, fabricated, or invented by the

author itself.

-​ Is the most common genre of literature due to its great storytelling technique by using
narration as its foundation.

CONVENTIONS OF FICTION
SETTING, it tells the reader the when, where, and how
of the narrative. It sometimes includes the weather and climate where the story is set.

A.​ Physical Setting may sometimes be general or specific where the story takes place.

B.​ Chronological Setting is the time when the story takes place or the social setting.

CHARACTERS defined as any person, animal, or persona represented in any literary work.
It can be simple or complex to understand the development of the story.

Six types of characters:

1.​ Protagonist, the main character of the story.

2.​ Antagonist, the villain of the story.

3.​ Dynamic, a character that changes and evolves over time.

4.​ Static, a character in the story that doesn’t change in the story.

5.​ Round, have a complex personality.

6.​ Flat, a one-dimensional character, and don’t have a lot of backstory or depth.

CONFLICT it refers to the different drives of the characters where different forces are
involved.

PLOT it is what draws the readers into the lives of

the characters and made them understand the
reason behind the characters' decision in a story.

5 Stages of Plot:

1.​ Exposition, beginning of the story where the characters, background, and settings
are revealed

2.​ Rising Action, events in the story became complicated, this is where the conflict is
revealed.

3.​ Climax, this is where the tension has been built.

4.​ Falling action, used to clarify the events of the climax, ease built-tension, or wrap up
loose ends.

5.​ Denouement, the resolution of the story or the ending.

FREYTAG'S PYRAMID, a dramatic structure that breaks the story into five parts/stages: (
exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, denouement. )
THEME it is the main idea that the author wants to
convey to the readers and what the readers think
the work wants to convey

WHAT IS POETRY?

POETRY is a type of literature where it uses aesthetic

and rhythmic qualities of language on its content.

-​ Poetry evokes emotions and ideas through symbolic representations. It also uses
forms and conventions to suggest different interpretations and emotional responses.

STRUCTURE AND FORM poetry uses stanzas and lines. It is organized in lines,
verses/stanzas, and the rhyming patterns.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE poetry uses figure of speech such as simile and metaphor to
express different meanings rather than using the literal interpretation.

-​ Poets use figurative language to emphasize and to evoke the emotions that they
want to convey to their readers.

RHYME i is the repetition of similar sounds mostly at

the end of each line of a poem.

METER it is the systematic sound pattern of a poem

– basically, the measurement of poetry.

-​ Iambic
-​ Tronchee
-​ Pyrrhic
-​ Spondee

IMAGERY it is the language in poetry where poets use

to provide a visual presentation of what they are writing.

-​ The use of words to draw mental images using the five senses of humans.

Five Senses:

1.​ Hear - Auditory

2.​ Sight - Visual
3.​ Smell - Olfactory
4.​ Taste - Gustatory
5.​ Touch - Tactile

DRAMA is a type of literary genre that involves actors acting as characters in a story.
 -​ It can be performed on stage through prose or verse that is interpreted in a dramatic
presentation.

-​ It can be a play, a puppet show, a dance presentation, or an opera.

MAJOR ELEMENTS OF DRAMA

ACTS AND SCENES

-​ Scene is a part of an act that is defined with the development of the characters in a
drama.

-​ Act is the exposition of the information that sets up the story.

STAGE DIRECTION gives instructions to the actors on how they are going to move and
speak their lines on stage – it includes where the actors are supposed to enter and exit.

DIALOGUE is the form of a discussion in a drama.

-​ In short, it is the lines spoken by the characters in a story (conversation among the
characters).

REVIEWER BY: LAUREN MICAELLA

LINKS FOR ACTIVE RECALL

CORE SUBJECT:

●​ Inquiries, Investigation, and Immersion

W1-W3: https://shorturl.at/D2hRN

●​ Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction

W1: https://shorturl.at/cNF50
MAJOR SUBJECT:

●​ Trends, Networks, and Critical Thinking

W1-W3: https://shorturl.at/3MbEj

●​ Creative Nonfiction
D1-D4: https://shorturl.at/kDqu5

LINKS FOR ACTIVE RECALL BY: GERWIN B.