Evaluate the following limits:

𝑥 2 −16 (𝑥+4)(𝑥−4)
1) lim = lim
𝑥→4 𝑥−4 𝑥→4 𝑥−4
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 + 4
𝑥→4
=4+4=8

1
4𝑥 2 −5𝑥 4𝑥 2 −5𝑥 𝑥2
2) lim = lim ∙ 1
𝑥→+∞ 1−3𝑥 2 𝑥→+∞ 1−3𝑥 2 𝑥2
5
4−𝑥
= lim 1
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥2 −3
5
4−∞ 4−0 4
= 1 = 0−3 = − 3
−3
∞2

5𝑡 4 −4𝑡 2 −1 (5𝑡 2 +1)(𝑡−1)(𝑡+1) 3 used Synthetic Division:

3) lim = lim (𝑡−1)(−9𝑡 2 −9𝑡−10)
𝑡→1 10−𝑡−9𝑡 3 𝑡→1 1⌋ − 9 0 −1 10
(5𝑡 2 +1)(𝑡+1) −9 − 9 − 10 − 10
= lim −9 − 9 − 10 0
𝑡→1 (−9𝑡 2 −9𝑡−10)
(5(1)2 +1)((1)+1) 12 3 (𝑡 − 1)(−9𝑡 2 − 9𝑡 − 10)
= (−9(1)2 −9(1)−10) = − 28 = − 7
Observe…
𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑒∞ The principle applied in the 1, 2, & 3
4) lim = lim = lim = = +∞ problems can no longer be applied to the
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥2 𝑥→+∞ 2𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 2 2
4 & 5. To evaluate the said limit,
bf
Theorems on L’Hopital’s Rule will be
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos(0) 1 used.
5) lim = lim = =1=1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 1 1

Definition:
If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are two functions such that Kinds of INDETERMINATE FORMS:
lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 0, then the bf
0 ∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 ✓ Primary Forms: 0 ; ∞
𝑓 0
function has the indeterminate form at 𝑎. ✓ Secondary Forms: 0 ∙ ∞ ; ∞ − ∞ ; 00 , ∞0 , 1∞
𝑔 0

Indeterminate Forms and L’Hopital’s Rule

𝑓(𝑥)
• Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be two functions. Then the lim 𝑔(𝑥) an indeterminate form of type:
𝑥→𝑎
0
i. if 𝑓 and 𝑔 both tends to 0 as 𝑥 tends to 𝑎.
0
∞
ii. ∞
if 𝑓 and 𝑔 both tends to ∞ as 𝑥 tends to 𝑎.
𝑓(𝑥) 0 ∞ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)
• L’Hopital’s Rule: For a limit lim 𝑔(𝑥) of the indeterminate form 0 or ∞, we have lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔′(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO

0 ∙ ∞ ; ∞ − ∞ ; 00 , ∞ 0 , 1∞
• Let 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are two differentiable functions such that lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
(which could be signed or unsigned), the product of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) is undefined having the
form 0 ∙ ∞ or ∞ ∙ 0 as 𝑥 approaches its limit. To evaluate such limit, their products are
𝑓(𝑥)
transformed to an equivalent one. Hence, lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 1 . Then the limit is
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)
0 ∞
evaluated which may result to or ∞. In either of the case L’Hopital’s Rule applies.
0
• If lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∞ and lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ∞ (which are both positive), then the lim [𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥)] is said
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
to be indeterminate of the form ∞ − ∞. The limit could be evaluated by transforming the
0 ∞
difference into an equivalent quotient whose limit when evaluated may result to 0 or ∞. Then
apply L’Hopital’s Rule.
• Given two functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥), and if:
i. 00 , lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 0, or
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
ii. ∞0 , lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∞ and lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 0, or
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
iii. 1∞ , lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 1 and lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ∞,
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
For as 𝑥 approaches +∞ or −∞ then the expression lim [𝑓 (𝑥 )] 𝑔(𝑥) assumed the
𝑥→𝑎
indeterminate forms. These may be evaluated by letting a variable y for the function, then
apply the properties of logarithm and the LHR.

Example/s
𝑑 𝑑
4𝑚2−3𝑚+7 8𝑚−3 8 4
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1) lim
𝑑 = lim𝑑 = lim =3
𝑚→∞ 3𝑚2+4𝑚−4 𝑚→∞ 6𝑚+4 𝑚→∞ 6
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
𝑥 1 1
2) lim
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
= lim −(−𝑒 −𝑥) = lim 𝑒 −𝑥 = lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 0 = 1
𝑥→0 1−𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
𝑑𝑥

1 1
𝑑 1
√9+𝑥−3 (9+𝑥) 2 −3 (9+𝑥)−2(1) 1 1
−2
𝑑𝑥 2
3) lim = lim 𝑑 = lim = lim 2 (9 + 𝑥)
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 1 𝑥→0
𝑑𝑥
1
= lim 2
𝑥→0 √9+𝑥
1 1 1
= = =6
2√9+0 2(3)

𝑑 1 1 1
1−𝑥+ln 𝑥 −1+ − 2 −
(1)2 1
4) 𝑑𝑥
lim
𝑑 = lim 𝑥
= lim 𝑥 = =−
𝑥→1 𝑥 3 −3𝑥+2 𝑥→1 3𝑥 2−3 𝑥→1 6𝑥 6(1) 6
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1
𝑑𝑥
ln 𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑥2
5) lim+ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 = lim 𝑑1 = lim 1 = lim+ 𝑥 ∙ − = lim+(−𝑥 ) = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0 + − 𝑥→0 1 𝑥→0
𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑥2
JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO
 𝑑
1 1 sec 𝜃−1 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃
𝑑𝑥
6) lim ( − 𝜃2 sec 𝜃) = lim 𝑑 = lim 2θsec 𝜃+𝜃2 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝜃→0 𝜃2 𝜃→0 𝜃2 sec 𝜃 𝜃→0
𝑑𝑥
sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃
= lim sec 𝜃(2𝜃+𝜃2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)
𝜃→0
𝑑
tan 𝜃
𝑑𝑥
= lim 𝑑
𝜃→0 2𝜃+𝜃2 tan 𝜃
𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
= lim 2+(2𝜃 tan 𝜃+𝜃2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃)
𝜃→0
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (0) 1
= 2+(2(0) tan(0)+(0)2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (0)) = 2
1
7) lim 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥→+∞
1
Let 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
1
ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥
1
lim ln 𝑦 = lim ln 𝑥 Note: 𝑦 = 𝑒 ln 𝑦
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥
𝑑
ln 𝑥 1
= 𝑑𝑥
lim 𝑑 lim ln 𝑦
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥
Now, lim 𝑥 = lim 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥→+∞
𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞
1
1 1
= lim 𝑥
= lim = ∞ = 0* = 𝑒0 = 1
𝑥→+∞ 1 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥

Assignment
1 Answers…
sin(𝑥)
1) lim 1
𝑥→+∞ arctan(𝑥) 𝑑 1
sin( )
1
− 2 cos( )
1
𝑥
1) lim
𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
1 = lim 𝑥
−
1
𝑥→+∞ arctan( ) 𝑥→+∞
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1+𝑥2

2) lim+(𝑥 + 1)cot 𝑥 1
= lim − 𝑥 2 cos (𝑥) ∙ ( − 1 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑥→+∞
1

𝑥→0 1 1 1
= lim (𝑥 2 cos (𝑥) + cos (𝑥))
𝑥→+∞
1 1 1
= cos ( ) + cos ( )
3) lim+(arcsin 𝑥)(csc 𝑥) (∞)2
= (0) + cos(0) = 1
(∞) (∞)

𝑥→0

2) lim+(𝑥 + 1)cot 𝑥
ln(𝑒 𝑥−1) 𝑥→0
4) lim+ Let 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 1)cot 𝑥
𝑥→0 ln 𝑥 ln 𝑦 = cot 𝑥 ln(𝑥 + 1)
lim ln 𝑦 = lim+ cot 𝑥 ln(𝑥 + 1)
𝑑 𝑒𝑥 𝑥→0
ln(𝑒 𝑥−1) (𝑒𝑥 −1) 𝑒𝑥 ln(𝑥+1)
4) lim
+
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 = lim 1 = lim+ 𝑒 𝑥 −1 ∙ 𝑥 = lim+ 1
𝑥→0 ln 𝑥 𝑥→0+ 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1 1
𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑
ln(𝑥+1)
= lim+ 𝑒 𝑥−1 = lim+ 𝑑𝑥𝑑 (𝑥+1)
= lim+ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ((0)+1)
𝑥→0 2𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (0)
=1
𝑑 𝑥→0 tan 𝑥 𝑥→0
𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑒 𝑥
= lim 𝑑𝑥 lim (𝑥+1)cot 𝑥
𝑥→0 + 𝑑 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑒 −1 Now, lim+ (𝑥 + 1)cot 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥→0+ = 𝑒1 = 𝑒
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
𝑒 𝑥−𝑥𝑒 𝑥
= lim+
𝑥→0 𝑒𝑥 𝑑
𝑒 𝑥(1−𝑥) arcsin 𝑥
= lim+ 3) lim+(arcsin 𝑥)(csc 𝑥) = lim+ arcsin
1
𝑥
= lim+ 𝑑𝑥𝑑
𝑥→0 𝑒𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 csc 𝑥
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
= lim+(1 − 𝑥) 1
1
𝑥→0 √1−(0)2
√1−𝑥2
=1−0=1 = lim+ = =1
𝑥→0 cos 𝑥 cos(0)

JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO

Definition
If a sequence has a limit, then the sequence is
said to be a convergent. Otherwise, it is said to Sequence is just a function made up with/from
be divergent. the set of natural numbers (positive).

Theorem 1
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and 𝑓 is defined for every positive integral 𝑛, then also lim 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝐿.
𝑥→∞ 𝑛→∞

Theorem 2
If {𝑎𝑛 } and {𝑏𝑛 } are convergent sequences and 𝑐 is a constant when:
i. lim {𝑐 } = 𝑐
𝑛→+∞

ii. lim {𝑐𝑎𝑛 } = 𝑐 ∙ lim {𝑎𝑛 }

𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞

iii. lim {𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑏𝑛 } = lim {𝑎𝑛 } ± lim {𝑏𝑛 }

𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞

iv. lim {𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 } = lim {𝑎𝑛 } ∙ lim {𝑏𝑛 }

𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞

𝑎 lim {𝑎𝑛}
v. lim {𝑏𝑛 } = 𝑛→+∞ provided that lim {𝑏𝑛 } ≠ 0.
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 lim {𝑏 }
𝑛 𝑛→+∞
𝑛→+∞

Theorem 3
0, 𝑖𝑓 − 1 < 𝑟 > 1
𝑛
lim 𝑟 = { 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 = 1
𝑥→+∞
𝐷𝑁𝐸, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Theorem 4
If lim |𝑎𝑛 | = 0 , then lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0.
𝑛→0 𝑛→0

Example/s
𝑛2 +1
1) {2𝑛3 +4}
𝑑
𝑥2 + 1 2𝑥 2 1 1 1 1
lim = lim 𝑑𝑥 = lim = lim = lim = ∙0= 0
𝑥→+∞ 2𝑥 3 + 4 𝑥→+∞ 𝑑 2 𝑥→+∞ 12𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 6𝑥 6 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 6
𝑑𝑥 6𝑥

3𝑛+1
2) { }
1−6𝑛
𝑑
3𝑥 + 1 3 1
lim 𝑑𝑥 = lim =−
𝑥→+∞ 𝑑 𝑥→+∞ −6 2
𝑑𝑥 1 − 6𝑥
JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO
 𝜋
3) {𝑛 sin }
𝑛
𝑑 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝜋 sin − 2 ∙ cos 𝜋(− 2 ) ∙ cos
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
lim 𝑥 sin = lim = lim = lim
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑑 1 𝑥→+∞ 1 𝑥→+∞ 1
− 2 − 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝜋
= lim 𝜋 cos
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥
𝜋
= 𝜋 ∙ lim cos
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥
𝜋
=𝜋∙ lim cos =𝜋∙1=𝜋
𝑥→+∞ ∞
𝑛2 𝜋
4) { ∙ sin }
2𝑛+1 𝑛
𝑥2 𝜋 𝑥 𝜋
lim ( ) (sin ) = lim ( ) (𝑥 sin )
𝑥→+∞ 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥
𝑑
𝑥 𝜋
𝑑𝑥
= lim ( 𝑑 ) ∙ lim (𝑥 sin )
𝑥→+∞ 2𝑥+1 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝜋
1 sin𝑥
= lim ( ) ∙ lim ( 𝑑𝑥 1 )
𝑥→+∞ 2 𝑥→+∞ 𝑑
𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
1 − 2 ∙cos𝑥
𝑥
= lim ( ) ∙ lim ( 1 )
𝑥→+∞ 2 𝑥→+∞ − 2
𝑥
1 𝜋 1 𝜋 1 𝜋
= lim ( ) ∙ lim (𝜋 cos ) = lim ( ) (𝜋 cos ) = ( ) (𝜋 ∙ 1) =
𝑥→+∞ 2 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 2 ∞ 2 2

3𝑛2 −1
5) { }
10𝑛+5𝑛2
𝑑 2
3𝑥 − 1 6𝑥 6 3
lim 𝑑𝑥 = lim = lim =
𝑥→+∞ 𝑑 𝑥→+∞ 10 + 10𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 10 5
10𝑥 + 5𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑒 2𝑛
6) { }
𝑛
𝑑 2𝑥
𝑒 2𝑒 2𝑥
lim 𝑑𝑥 = lim = +∞(𝐷𝑁𝐸)
𝑥→+∞ 𝑑 𝑥→+∞ 1
𝑥
𝑑𝑥

7) {(−√5)𝑛 } Assignment
lim (−√5)𝑥 = 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑥→+∞ 2 𝑛
1) {(1 + ) }
(−1)𝑛 𝑛
8) { } 1
𝑛 2) { }
(−1) 𝑥
(−1) 1 𝑥 √𝑛2 +1−𝑛
lim = lim | | = lim | | = 0
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥

ln 𝑛
9) { 𝑛2 }
𝑑 1
ln 𝑥 1 1 1 1
lim 𝑑𝑥 = lim 𝑥 = lim = ∙ lim 2 = ∙ 0 = 0
𝑥→+∞ 𝑑 2 𝑥→+∞ 2𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 2𝑥 2 2 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
1
1 𝑛 1 𝑥
10) {(1 + ) } Hint: {(1 + ) } = 𝑒
3𝑛 𝑥
1 1
1 𝑥 1 3𝑥 3 1 3𝑥 3 1
lim (1 + ) = lim [(1 + ) ] = [lim (1 + ) ] = 𝑒 3
𝑥→+∞ 3𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 3𝑥 3𝑥

JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO

Definition
A sequence {𝑎𝑛 } is said to be:
i. increasing if 𝑎𝑛 ≤ 𝑎𝑛+1 ∀𝑛;
ii. decreasing if 𝑎𝑛 ≥ 𝑎𝑛+1 ∀𝑛

If a sequence is increasing or decreasing, then it is called monotonic.

Example/s
For each of the following, determine if the sequence is increasing, decreasing, or not monotonic.
1 5𝑛
3) { } 1) { }
𝑛 1+52𝑛
1 1 1 1 𝑛
5 5 25 125
{ } = {1, , , , … } { }={ , , ,…}
𝑛 2 3 4 1+5 2𝑛 26 626 15626
Given the elements above, we deduce that Given the elements above, we deduce that
the given sequence is decreasing. the given sequence is decreasing.
To show: 𝑎𝑛 ≥ 𝑎𝑛+1 ∀𝑛 To show: 𝑎𝑛 ≥ 𝑎𝑛+1 ∀𝑛
1 1 5𝑛 5𝑛+1
Note that ≥ 𝑛+1 Note that ≥ 1+52𝑛+2
𝑛 1+52𝑛
⇔𝑛+1≥𝑛 ⇔ 5𝑛 (1 + 52𝑛+2 ) ≥ ( 1 + 52𝑛 )( 5𝑛+1 )
⇔ 1 ≥ 0, which is true ∀𝑛. ⇔ 5𝑛 + 53𝑛+2 ≥ 5𝑛+1 + 53𝑛+1
1 1
Thus, 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛+1 ∀𝑛, that is, {𝑎𝑛 } is decreasing. ⇔ 5𝑛 + 5(53𝑛+1) ≥ 5(5𝑛 ) + 53𝑛+1
⇔ 5(53𝑛+1 ) − 53𝑛+1 ≥ 5(5𝑛 ) − 5𝑛
𝑛 ⇔ 53𝑛+1 (5 − 1) ≥ 5𝑛 (5 − 1)
4) { }
2𝑛+1
⇔ 53𝑛+1 ≥ 5𝑛 , which is true ∀𝑛.
𝑛 1 2 3 4 5
{ } = { , , , , ,…} 5𝑛 5𝑛+1
2𝑛 + 1 3 5 7 9 11 Thus, 1+52𝑛 ≥ 1+52𝑛+2 ∀𝑛, that is, {𝑎𝑛 } is
Given the elements above, the given decreasing.
sequence is increasing.
To show: 𝑎𝑛 ≤ 𝑎𝑛+1 ∀𝑛 2𝑛
𝑛 𝑛+1 2) { }
Note that ≤ 2𝑛+3 𝑛!
2𝑛+1 2𝑛 4 2
⇔ 𝑛(2𝑛 + 3) ≤ (2𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 1) { } = {2,2, , , … }
𝑛! 3 3
⇔ 2𝑛2 + 3𝑛 ≤ 2𝑛2 + 3𝑛 + 1 Given the elements above, we deduce that
⇔ 0 ≤ 1, which is true ∀𝑛. the given sequence is decreasing.
𝑛 𝑛+1
Thus, ≤ ∀𝑛, that is, {𝑎𝑛 } is To show: 𝑎𝑛 ≥ 𝑎𝑛+1 ∀𝑛
2𝑛+1 2𝑛+3
increasing. 2𝑛 2𝑛+1
Note that ≥ (𝑛+1)!
𝑛!
⇔ 2 (𝑛 + 1)! ≥ 𝑛! (2𝑛+1 )
𝑛

Do not forget this sign (⇔) in

⇔ 2𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)𝑛! ≥ 𝑛! 2(2𝑛 )
your solution. ⇔ 𝑛 + 1 ≥ 2, which is true ∀𝑛.
2𝑛 2𝑛+1
Thus, ≥ (𝑛+1)! ∀𝑛, that is, {𝑎𝑛 } is
𝑛!
decreasing.

Assignment
𝑛! 𝑛𝑛
1) {3 𝑛 } 2) { 𝑛! }
JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO
Definition
A sequence {𝑎𝑛 } is said to be bounded if it has an upper bound and a lower bound.
It is bounded above (upper bound) if there is a number 𝑀 such that 𝑎𝑛 ≤ 𝑀 for all 𝑛 ≥ 1
It is bounded bellow (lower bound) if there is a number 𝑚 such that 𝑚 ≤ 𝑎𝑛 for all 𝑛 ≥ 1
If it is bounded above and below, then {𝑎𝑛 } is a bounded sequence.

Theorem
Every bounded, monotonic sequence is convergent.
Bound is just a number.

Example/s
• {𝑛2 + 1} = {2,5,10,17, … } → this has no upper bound but has a lower bound.
(Increasing monotonic) Convergent
Lower bound: 2

• {−𝑛2 + 1} = {0, −3, −8, −15, … } →this has no lower bound but has an upper bound.
(Decreasing monotonic) Convergent
Upper bound: 0

2𝑛 4 2 4
• { } = {2,2, , , , … } →this has lower bound and upper bound.
𝑛! 3 3 15
(Decreasing monotonic) Convergent
Lower bound: 0
Upper bound: 2

1 1 1 1 1
• { } = { , , , , … } →this has lower bound and upper bound.
𝑛+1 2 3 4 5
(Decreasing monotonic) Convergent
Lower bound: 0
1
Upper bound: 2

• {(−2)𝑛+1 } = {4,8,16,32, … } →no lower bound and no upper bound Divergent

Lower bound: → +∞
Upper bound: → −∞

Note:
• All number that is greater than or equal to 1 can be the upper bound.
• All number that is less than or equal to 0 can be the lower bound.
• If it is bounded and monotonic, then it is convergent.

JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO

Infinite Series of Constant Terms
Definition
An expression of the form 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 is called a finite series. The sum of a finite
series is obtained by adding all the terms in the series.
An expression of the form 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 + ⋯ is called an infinite series. The kth partial
sum of the infinite series is the sum
𝑘

∑ 𝑈𝑖 = 𝑆𝑘 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑘
𝑖=1

The sum of the infinite series is the limit of the sequence of partial sums 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 , … , 𝑆𝑛 , …
If the limit exists, then the series 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 + ⋯ is convergent. Otherwise, it is
divergent.

Example/s
1) Sequence: {𝑛}
Series:
+∞

1+ 2 + 3+ 4+ ⋯+ 𝑛 + ⋯ = ∑ 𝑛
𝑛=1
𝑆𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 +⋯ + 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛 + (𝑛 − 1) + (𝑛 − 2) + ⋯ + 1
2𝑆𝑛 = (𝑛 + 1) + (𝑛 + 1) + (𝑛 + 2) + ⋯ + (𝑛 + 1)
2𝑆𝑛 = (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛)
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑆𝑛 =
2
𝑛(𝑛+1)
Sequence of Partial Sum← {𝑆𝑛 } = {1,3,6,10, … , , … } →Example of divergent
2
+∞
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
∑ 𝑛 = lim 𝑆𝑛 = lim = +∞
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞ 2
𝑛=1
2)
+∞
1
∑
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1
1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+ + ⋯ →Convergent
2 6 12 𝑛(𝑛+1)
By Partial Function: Note that
1 1
= −
1
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝑛(𝑛+1) 𝑛 (𝑛+1)
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) [ = + ] 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) Now,
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 = 𝐴(𝑛 + 1) + 𝐵𝑛 𝑆𝑛 = (1 − ) + ( − ) + ( − ) + ( − ) + ⋯
2 2 3 3 4 4 5
*Let 𝑛 = −1 1 1 1 1
1 = 𝐴(−1 + 1) + 𝐵(−1) +( − )+( − )
𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1
1 = −𝐵 1 𝑛
𝐵 = −1 𝑆𝑛 = 1 − =
𝑛+1 𝑛+1
*Let 𝑛 = 0 +∞
1 = 𝐴(0 + 1) + 𝐵(0) 1 𝑛
∑ = lim =1
1=𝐴 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 + 1
𝑛=1
𝐴=1

JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO

3)
+∞
1
∑
(2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1
1 1 1 1
= 3 + 15 + 35 + ⋯ + (2𝑛−1)(2𝑛+1) + ⋯ →Convergent
By Partial Function:
1 𝐴 𝐵
(2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1) [ = + ] (2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
(2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1) (2𝑛 − 1) (2𝑛 + 1)
1 = 𝐴(2𝑛 + 1) + 𝐵(2𝑛 − 1)
*Let 𝑛 = − 12 1
−
1
1
1 1 Note that = 2
+ (2𝑛+1
2

1 = 𝐴 (2 (− ) + 1) + 𝐵 (2 (− ) − 1) (2𝑛−1)(2𝑛+1) (2𝑛−1) )
2 2 1 1 1
1 = −2𝐵 = −
1 (2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1) 2(2𝑛 − 1) 2(2𝑛 + 1)
𝐵=− 1 1 1
2
= −
*Let 𝑛 = 12 (2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1) 4𝑛 − 2 4𝑛 + 2
1 1
1 = 𝐴 (2 ( ) + 1) + 𝐵 (2 ( ) − 1)
2 2 Now,
1 = 2𝐴 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 𝑆𝑛 = ( − ) + ( − ) + ( − ) + ( − ) + ⋯
𝐴= 2 6 6 10 10 14 14 18
2
1 1 1 1
+( − )+( − )
4𝑛 − 6 4𝑛 − 2 4𝑛 − 2 4𝑛 + 2
1 1 4𝑛 + 2 − 2 4𝑛 4𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = − = = =
2 4𝑛 + 2 2(4𝑛 + 2) (8𝑛 + 4) 4(2𝑛 + 1)
𝑛
=
(2𝑛 + 1)
+∞
1 𝑛 1
Note: ∑ = lim =
(2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1) 𝑛→+∞ (2𝑛 + 1) 2
𝑛=1
1 1
−
4𝑛 − 2 4𝑛 + 2
1 1
= −
4(𝑛 − 1) − 2 4(𝑛 − 1) + 2
1 1
= −
4𝑛 − 4 − 2 4𝑛 − 4 + 2
1 1
= −
4𝑛 − 6 4𝑛 − 2

JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO

Theorem
If ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is convergent, then lim 𝑢𝑛 = 0.
𝑛→+∞

Theorem
If lim 𝑢𝑛 ≠ 0, then ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is divergent.
𝑛→+∞

Example/s
1)
+∞
𝑛2 + 1 𝑛2 + 1 2𝑛
∑ = lim = lim = lim 1 = 1 ≠ 0 ∴ It is divergent.
𝑛2 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛2 𝑛→+∞ 2𝑛 𝑛→+∞
𝑛=1
2)
+∞

∑(−3)𝑛 = lim 𝐷𝑁𝐸 ≠ 0 ∴ It is divergent.

𝑛→+∞
𝑛=1
3)
+∞
1 1 1
∑ = lim = =0
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) ∞
𝑛=1
Note:
We have seen that the number 3 result is 0 and we have
concluded it that it is really convergent base on the previous
discussion. But base to the theorem (If ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is convergent,
then 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢𝑛 = 0), can we really conclude the problem is
𝑛→+∞
convergent because it is equal to 0? And the answer is NO. Even
if it is equal to 0, the theorem did not say that if 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢𝑛 = 0, then
𝑛→+∞
∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is convergent. The true here is its contrapositive
theorem (If lim 𝑢𝑛 ≠ 0, then ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is divergent). So, to
𝑛→+∞
determine the problem we must solve it either partial function
or any other way.

Harmonic
Definition
A harmonic series is in the form
+∞
1 1 1 1
∑ = 1+ + +⋯+ +⋯
𝑛 2 3 𝑛
𝑛=1

Theorem
1
The harmonic series ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑛 is divergent.

JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO

Example/s
Series whose limit (𝑢𝑛 ) is 0 and is divergent.
Proof by Contradiction: ~𝑄 ⇒ ~𝑃
+∞
1 1 1
∑ = lim = = 0 but divergent.
𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 ∞
𝑛=1
1
→ any variation of this form (harmonic series) will always be DIVERGENT.
𝑛
1 1 1
(ex: 𝑛 + 2𝑛 + 3𝑛 + ⋯ + and so on).

+∞
1
∑ = 𝑆 → has sum ⇒ assumption:
𝑛
𝑛=1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑆 =1+ + + + + + +
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
>1+ + + + + + +
2 4 4 6 6 8 8

1 1 1
2 3 4

1 1 1 1 1
= + 1 + + + + ⋯+ + ⋯
2 2 3 4 𝑚

1 1
= + 𝑆 → Is 𝑆 equal to 2 + 𝑆? It’s NO!
2
1
𝑆 > 2 + 𝑆 which is true
So, it’s contradicting…

Geometric
Definition
A geometric series is in the form
+∞

∑ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 + ⋯
𝑛=1
The nth partial sum is given by:
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑟 𝑛−1 )
Identity: 1 − 𝑟 = (1 − 𝑟) (1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑟 𝑛−1 )
𝑛 2
𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
Thus, 𝑆𝑛 = (Geometric series Formula)
1−𝑟

Remarks:
i. If −1 < 𝑟 > 1, 𝑎(1−𝑟𝑛 ) 𝑎 𝑎𝑟𝑛 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
lim = lim (1−𝑟 − 1−𝑟) = lim = 1−𝑟 → (since it’s constant). So, 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
𝑛→+∞ 1−𝑟 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞ 1−𝑟

ii. If 𝑟 = 1, then 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛𝑎.

JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO

Theorem
The geometric series
+∞

∑ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑛=1
converges to the sum
𝒂
if |𝑟| < 1,
𝟏−𝒓
and it diverges if |𝑟| ≥ 1.

Example/s
Determine whether the given series is convergent or divergent. If it is convergent, then give its sum.

1) 3)
+∞ +∞ +∞ +∞
1 1 𝑛−1 2 1 𝑛−1
∑ = ∑(1) ( ) ∑ = ∑(2) ( )
2𝑛−1 2 3𝑛−1 3
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
1
a= 1, r= a= 2, r=
1
2 3

1 1 1 1
Since, |𝑟| = |2| = < 1, the given Since, |𝑟| = |3| = 3
< 1, the given
2
+∞ +∞
1 2
∑ is convergent. ∑ is convergent.
2𝑛−1 3𝑛−1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

The sum of the series given by The sum of the series given by
𝑎 1 1 2 𝑎 2 2 3 6
= = =1∙ =2 = = =2∙ = =3
1−𝑟 1− 1 1 1 1−𝑟 1−1 2 2 2
2 2 3 3
2) 4)
+∞ +∞ +∞ +∞ +∞
2 𝑛
2 2 𝑛−1
−𝑛+2 𝑛+1
42 (4𝑛−1 ) 42 (4𝑛−1 )
∑( ) = ∑ ( )( ) ∑(9 )(4 ) = ∑ = ∑ 𝑛−1 −1
3 3 3 9𝑛−2 (9 )(9 )
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
2 2 +∞
a= , r= 4𝑛−1
3 3
= ∑(42 )(91 ) ( )
2 2 9𝑛−1
Since, |𝑟| = |3| = 3
< 1, the given 𝑛=1
+∞
+∞
2 𝑛 4 4 𝑛−1
∑ ( ) is convergent. a= 144, r= = ∑(144) ( )
3
9 9
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
4 4
Since, |𝑟| = | | =
9 9
< 1, the given
The sum of the series given by +∞
2 2 ∑(9−𝑛+2 )(4𝑛+1 ) is convergent.
𝑎 3 2 3 6
= = 3 = ∙ = =2 𝑛=1
1−𝑟 1− 2 1 3 1 3
3 3 The sum of the series given by
𝑎 144 144 9 1296
= = = 144 ∙ =
1−𝑟 1− 4 5 5 5
9 9
5)
+∞ +∞ +∞ +∞
(−4)3(𝑛−1) (−64)𝑛−1 1
(−64)𝑛−1 −64 𝑛−1 −64
∑ = ∑ 𝑛−1 −1 = ∑(5 ) ( ) = ∑(5) ( ) a= 5, r=
5𝑛−2 (5 )(5 ) 5𝑛−1 5 5
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞
3(𝑛−1)
(−4)
Since, |𝑟| = |
−64
|=
64
> 1, the given ∑ is divergent.
5 5 5𝑛−2
𝑛=1

JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO

Theorem
If ∑+∞ +∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 and ∑𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 are two infinite series differing only in their first 𝒎 terms, then either
both series converge or both series diverge.

Example/s
Consider the series
+∞
1 1 1 1 1
∑ = + + + ⋯+ +⋯
𝑛+3 4 5 6 𝑛+3
𝑛=1
can be written as
1 1 1 1
0+0+0+ + + +⋯+ +⋯ (S1)
4 5 6 𝑛
Recall:
1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + + +⋯+ +⋯ (S2)
2 3 4 5 6 𝑛

Theorem
i. If ∑+∞ +∞ +∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑆, then ∑𝑛=1 𝑐𝑢𝑛 = 𝑐 ∑𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑐𝑆.

ii. If ∑+∞ +∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 diverges, then ∑𝑛=1 𝑐𝑢𝑛 also diverges.

iii. If ∑+∞ +∞ +∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑆 and ∑𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑅, then ∑𝑛=1(𝑢𝑛 ± 𝑣𝑛 ) = 𝑆 ± 𝑅.

iv. If ∑+∞ +∞ +∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 converges and ∑𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛 diverges, then the series ∑𝑛=1(𝑢𝑛 + 𝑣𝑛 ) diverges.

Example/s
Determine whether the given series is convergent or divergent. If it is convergent, then give its sum.
1)
+∞
1 1
∑ = Divergent (since consider a divergent)
2𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=1
2)
+∞
1 1 1
∑( + 𝑛 ) = Divergent (since 𝑛 consider a divergent)
2𝑛 2
𝑛=1
3)
+∞
1 1
∑( − ) = Divergent (since 1 consider a divergent)
3𝑛 2𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=1
4)
+∞ +∞ +∞ +∞ +∞ +∞
−𝑛 −𝑛
1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑛−1 1 1 𝑛−1
(
∑ 2 +3 ) = ∑ ( 𝑛 + 𝑛) = ∑ 𝑛 + ∑ 𝑛 = ∑ ( ) ( ) + ∑( )( )
2 3 2 3 2 2 3 3
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
1 1
1 1
2 3 1 3
Convergent (and applying geometric series = + = 2 + 3 =1+ =
1 1 1 2 2 2
to find the sum) 1− 1−
2 3 2 3
JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO
Infinite Series of Positive Terms
Theorem. (Comparison Test)
Let ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 be a series of positive terms.

i. If ∑+∞ +∞
𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛 is a convergent series such that 𝑢𝑛 ≤ 𝑣𝑛 for all 𝑛, then ∑𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is
convergent.
ii. If ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑤𝑛 is a divergent series of positive terms such that 𝑢𝑛 ≤ 𝑤𝑛 for all 𝑛,
then ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is divergent.

Example/s
Determine whether the given series is convergent or divergent.
1) 2)
+∞ +∞
2 1
∑ 𝑛 ∑
3 +1 𝑛=1
√𝑛
𝑛=1

Solution: Solution:
Note that 3𝑛 + 1 > 3𝑛 ∀𝑛. Note that √𝑛 ≤ 𝑛 ∀𝑛.
1 1 1 1
Hence, 3𝑛 +1 < 3𝑛 , that is So, 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛 ∀𝑛
√
2
< 3𝑛
2
∀𝑛. Also,
3𝑛 +1 +∞
Also, 1
+∞ +∞ ∑ is divergent.
2 1 𝑛−1 𝑛
𝑛=1
∑ 𝑛 = ∑ (2) ( )
3 3
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
1 1 By Comparison Test,
is convergent since |𝑟| = |3| = 3 < 1. +∞
1
∑ is divergent.
By Comparison Test, 𝑛=1
√𝑛
+∞
2 is convergent.
∑ 𝑛
3 +1
𝑛=1

Theorem. (Limit Comparison Test)

Let ∑+∞ +∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 and ∑𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛 be two series of positive terms.

𝑢
i. If lim ( 𝑣𝑛 ) = 𝑐 > 0, then the two series either both converge or both
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛
diverge.
𝑢
ii. If lim ( 𝑣𝑛 ) = 0 and ∑+∞ +∞
𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛 converges, then ∑𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 converges.
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛
𝑢𝑛
iii. If lim ( 𝑣 ) = +∞ and if ∑+∞ +∞
𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛 diverges, then ∑𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 diverges.
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛

JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO

Example/s
Determine whether the given series is convergent or divergent.
1) 2)
+∞ +∞
2 1
∑ 𝑛 ∑
3 +1 √𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
2 1
Take 𝑣𝑛 = 3𝑛 Take 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑛
Now, Now,
2 1
𝑢𝑛 𝑛
𝑢𝑛
lim ( ) = lim 3 2+ 1 lim ( ) = lim √1 = lim
𝑛 1 𝑛
∙
𝑛→+∞ 𝑣𝑛 𝑛→+∞
𝑛→+∞ 𝑣𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞ √𝑛 1
3𝑛 𝑛
2 3𝑛 𝑛
= lim 𝑛 ∙ = lim
𝑛→+∞ 3 + 1 2 𝑛→+∞ √𝑛
3𝑛 1
= lim 𝑛 = lim 𝑛2 = +∞
𝑛→+∞ 3 + 1 𝑛→+∞
(3𝑛 )(ln 3) +∞
= lim =1
𝑛→+∞ (3𝑛 )(ln 3) Since ∑ 1 is divergent and
+∞ 𝑛
2 𝑛=1
Since ∑ 3𝑛 is convergent and 𝑢𝑛
𝑛=1 lim ( ) = +∞, by Limit
𝑛→+∞ 𝑣𝑛
𝑢 Comparison
lim ( 𝑣𝑛) = 1 > 0, by Limit
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 Test, ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is also divergent.
Comparison Test, ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is also
convergent.

Infinite Series of Nonnegative Terms

Theorem. (Integral Test)
Suppose that 𝑓 is a continuous, nonnegative and nonincreasing function defined
for all 𝑥 ≥ 1, that is, 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 ∀𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑦) if 𝑥 < 𝑦. If ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is series with
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑛) ∀𝑛, then

+∞
i. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is convergent if and only if ∫1 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 is convergent.
+∞
ii. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is divergent if and only if ∫1 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 is divergent.

JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO

Example/s
Determine whether the given series is convergent or divergent.
1)
+∞
1
∑
𝑛 ln 𝑛
𝑛=1
Solution:
• Show that 𝑓 is nonincreasing:
• Show that 𝑓 is nonnegative: Suppose 𝑥 < 𝑦. Now,
Note that ln 𝑥 > 0 ∀𝑥 > 1. 𝑥 ln 𝑥 < 𝑦 ln 𝑦
1
Hence, 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 > 0 ∀𝑥 > 1. 1 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = > = 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑦 ln 𝑦
Then, 𝑓 is nonincreasing.
+∞ 𝑡
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 Improper
1 𝑡→+∞ 1 Integral

𝑡 (𝑙𝑛 𝑥 )2 𝑡
1
lim ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = lim [ ]
𝑡→+∞ 1 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑡→+∞ 2 1
[𝑙𝑛(𝑡)] 2 [𝑙𝑛(1)]2
= lim [ − ] Let 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 𝑢2
𝑡→+∞ 2 2 1 ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 =
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
[𝑙𝑛(∞)]2 [𝑙𝑛(∞)]2
= lim [ − ] = +∞ (ln 𝑥)2
𝑡→+∞ 2 2 =
+∞
2
1
By Integral Test, ∑ is divergent.
𝑛 ln 𝑛
𝑛=1
Note:
2)
+∞ If there is a limit, then
−𝑛2 it is convergent.
∑ 𝑛𝑒
𝑛=1
Solution:
• Show that 𝑓 is nonnegative: • Show that 𝑓 is nonincreasing:
2
Note that 𝑒 −𝑥 > 0 ∀𝑥 > 1 Let 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦. To show: 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≥ 𝑓(𝑦)
2
Hence, 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 > 0 ∀𝑥 > 1 Now,
2 2
𝑓 ′(𝑥 ) = 1 ∙ 𝑒 −𝑥 + (𝑥)(𝑒 −𝑥 )(−2𝑥)
2 2
𝑡
𝑒 −𝑥 𝑡
2
= 𝑒 −𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 < 0
−𝑥 2
lim ∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = lim [− ] If 𝑥 ≥ 1.
𝑡→+∞ 1 𝑡→+∞ 2 1
2 2 By the 1st derivative test, 𝑓 is now
𝑒 −(𝑡) 𝑒 −(1)
= lim [− − (− )] decreasing.
𝑡→+∞ 2 2 𝑑𝑢 1
2 Let 𝑢 = −𝑥 2 ∫ 𝑒𝑢 − = − ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑒 −∞ 𝑒 −1 𝑑𝑢 = −2𝑥𝑑𝑥 2 2
=− + 1 𝑢
2 2 𝑑𝑢
− = 𝑑𝑥 = − [𝑒 ]
2
1 1 1 1 2
= − ∞2 + = 0+ = 𝑒𝑢
+∞ 2𝑒
2𝑒 2𝑒 2𝑒 =−
2 2
By Integral Test, ∑ 𝑛𝑒 −𝑛 is convergent. 𝑒 −𝑥
2

𝑛=1 =−
2
JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO
 Theorem. (The P-Series Test)
If 𝑘 > 0, then
+∞
1
∑
𝑛𝑝
𝑛=𝑘
converges if 𝑝 > 1, and diverges if 𝑝 ≤ 1.

Infinite Series of Positive and Negative Terms

Theorem. (Alternating Series Test)
Let ∑+∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1(−1) 𝑢𝑛 be an alternating series.
If
i. |𝑢𝑛+1 | < |𝑢𝑢 | for every 𝑛; and
ii. lim 𝑢𝑛 = 0,
𝑛→+∞
then the series ∑+∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1(−1) 𝑢𝑛 is convergent.

Example/s
Determine whether the given series is convergent or divergent.
3) 2) 1)
+∞ +∞
+∞
(−1)𝑛+1 (−1)𝑛−1 𝑛+2
∑ ∑ ∑(−1)𝑛
𝑛 2𝑛 + 5 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
𝑛=1 𝑛+2 𝑛+2 1
1
Given: 𝑢𝑛 =
1 Given: 𝑢𝑛 = = =
Given: 𝑢𝑛 = 2𝑛+5
𝑛(𝑛+1) 𝑛2 +𝑛) 2𝑛
𝑛
i. To show |𝑢𝑛+1 | < |𝑢𝑢 | i. To show |𝑢𝑛+1 | < |𝑢𝑢 | or
i. To show |𝑢𝑛+1 | < |𝑢𝑢 | 1 1 𝑢𝑛+1
1 1 | |<| | | |<1
| |= 2𝑛 + 7 2𝑛 + 5 𝑢𝑢
𝑛+1 𝑛+1 Note that 𝑛+3
1 1 |𝑢𝑛+1 | =
2𝑛 + 7 > 2𝑛 + 5 ∀𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
| |=
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+2
Thus, |𝑢𝑢 | =
Note that 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
1 1 𝑛+3
𝑛 + 1 > 𝑛 ∀𝑛 < 𝑢𝑛+1
2𝑛 + 7 2𝑛 + 5 (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
1 1 | |=
𝑛+2
< 𝑢𝑢
𝑛+1 𝑛 1 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
1 ii. lim =0 𝑛+3 𝑛 (𝑛 + 1 )
ii. lim =0 𝑛→+∞ 2𝑛+5 = ∙
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 +∞ (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) 𝑛 + 2
+∞ (−1)𝑛−1 𝑛 ( 𝑛 + 3) 𝑛2 + 3𝑛
(−1) 𝑛+1
By AST, the series ∑ 2𝑛 + 5 = = 2
By AST, the series ∑ 𝑛 (𝑛 + 2)(𝑛 + 2) 𝑛 + 4𝑛 + 4
is convergent. 𝑛=1 𝑛2 + 3𝑛
is convergent. 𝑛=1
= 2 <1
(𝑛 + 3𝑛) + (𝑛 + 4)
𝑛+2
Note: ii. lim =0
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛(𝑛+1)
In to show, the 𝑛 of the given 𝑢𝑛+1 +∞
𝑛+2
is substituted by 𝑛 + 1. By AST, the series ∑(−1)𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
is convergent. 𝑛=1
JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO
Theorem
If the series ∑+∞ +∞
𝑛=1|𝑢𝑛 | converges, then the series ∑𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 converges.

Definition
If the series ∑+∞ +∞
𝑛=1|𝑢𝑛 | is convergent, then ∑𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is said to be absolutely
convergent. If the series ∑+∞ +∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is convergent but ∑𝑛=1|𝑢𝑛 | is divergent, then
∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is said to be conditionally convergent.

Example/s
The series
+∞
(−1)𝑛 +∞ +∞
∑ (−1)𝑛 1
𝑛3 ∑ | 3 | = ∑ 3 → By The P-Series Test, the series
𝑛=1 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 +∞
is absolutely convergent. 1
∑ is convergent because
𝑛3
𝑛=1
𝑝 = 3 > 1.

Theorem. (Ratio Test)

If the series ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is a series with no zero terms. Then

𝑢𝑛+1
i. If lim | | = 𝐿 < 1, then the given series is absolutely convergent.
𝑢𝑢
𝑢𝑛+1 𝑢𝑛+1
ii. If lim | | = 𝐿 > 1 or lim | | = +∞, then the given series is divergent.
𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢
𝑢𝑛+1
iii. If lim | | = 1, then no conclusion regarding the convergence may be made.
𝑢𝑢

Example/s
Determine whether the given series is convergent or divergent.
1)
+∞
2𝑛
∑
𝑛!
𝑛=1
2𝑛 2𝑛+1
|𝑢𝑛+1 | = | | =
𝑛!
(𝑛 + 1)!
2𝑛+1
𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑛 + 1)! 2𝑛+1 𝑛! 2(2𝑛 )𝑛! 2
lim | | = lim | 𝑛 | = lim ( ∙ 𝑛 ) = lim = =0
𝑛→+∞ 𝑢𝑢 𝑛→+∞ 2 𝑛→+∞ (𝑛 + 1)! 2 𝑛→+∞ (𝑛 + 1)𝑛! 2𝑛 ∞
𝑛! +∞
2𝑛
∑
Since 0 < 1, by RT, the given series 𝑛! is absolutely convergent.
𝑛=1

JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO

2) Note:
+∞
(−1)𝑛 𝑛 |(−1)𝑛 | or |(−1)𝑛+1 | or |(−1)𝑛−1 |
∑ is just equal to 1 no matter the
2𝑛
𝑛=1 exponent is because of the
(−1)𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1 absolute.
|𝑢𝑛+1 | = | |=
2𝑛 2𝑛+1
𝑛+1
𝑢𝑛+1 2 𝑛+1 𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)2𝑛
lim | | = lim | | = lim ( 𝑛+1 ∙ ) = lim
𝑛→+∞ 𝑢𝑢 𝑛→+∞ (−1)𝑛 𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 2 𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 2(2𝑛 )𝑛
2 𝑛
𝑛+1 1
= lim =
𝑛→+∞ 2𝑛 2
+∞
1 (−1)𝑛 𝑛
Since 2 < 1, by RT, the given series ∑ 2𝑛 is absolutely convergent.
𝑛=1

3)
+∞
(2𝑛)! Note:
∑
𝑛100 𝑛 100
𝑛=1 (𝑛+1) is just equal to 1.
(2𝑛)! (2𝑛 + 2)!
|𝑢𝑛+1 | = | 100 | = 100
𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)
(2𝑛 + 2)!
𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑛 + 1)100 (2𝑛 + 2)! 𝑛100
lim | | = lim | | = lim ( ∙ )
𝑛→+∞ 𝑢𝑢 𝑛→+∞ (2𝑛)! 𝑛→+∞ (𝑛 + 1)100 (2𝑛)!
𝑛100
(2𝑛 + 2)(2𝑛 + 1)2𝑛! 𝑛100
= lim
𝑛→+∞ (𝑛 + 1)100 2𝑛!
𝑛 100
= lim (2𝑛 + 2)(2𝑛 + 1) ( )
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛+1
∞ 100
= (2(∞) + 2)(2(∞) + 1) ( ) = +∞
∞+1
+∞
(2𝑛)!
Since +∞, by the RT, the given series ∑
𝑛100 is divergent.
𝑛=1

JAMAICA CUYNO SOLIANO