DEPARTMENT OF MECHATRONICS ENGINEERING,

LAGOS STATE POLYTECHNIC (LASPOTECH), IKORODU, LAGOS NIGERIA

LECTURE NOTES FOR MCE110 (FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHATRONICS I)

LECTURER: KADIRI IBRAHIM OLUWASEUN (NDI-SEMII-2019/20)

UNIT-1
Learning Outcomes:

 Semiconductors; the PN-Junction diode, Transistor, LED

 Applications of semiconductors; rectifiers, clippers, transistor amplifiers, op-amp
circuits
 Logic circuits and their operations
 The binary number system and its use in digital circuits

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductor materials are those materials whose electrical properties (precisely their
electrical conductivities) lie between those of good metallic conductors and good insulators.
Semiconductor materials form the basis for a wide variety of devices used in electronic
circuitry, such as diodes, transistors, particle detectors, photocells, and integrated circuits
(ICs).

The field of electronics would not have been in existence without semiconductor devices.
With semiconductors, basic functions such as switching, and amplification are possible to be
performed by semiconductor electronic devices.

In order to understand the operation of semiconductor electronic devices (such as diodes and
transistors), there is the need for us to discuss briefly some semiconductor backgrounds.

1.1.1 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors can be classified into two types; intrinsic type and extrinsic type
semiconductors.

I. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:
A semiconductor which is made up of semiconductor material in its extremely pure
form is known as an intrinsic semiconductor. Common examples of intrinsic conductor
are silicon and germanium. The energy gap (that separates valence and conduction bands)
 in intrinsic materials is so small to the extent that even at ordinary room temperature,
there are many electrons which possess sufficient energy to jump across the small gap
between valence and conduction bands. For each electron liberated to the conduction
band, a positively charged hole is created in the valence band. When an electric field is
applied to an intrinsic semiconductor at a temperature greater than 0o K, conduction
electrons move to the anode, and holes in the valence band move to the cathode. Hence
semiconductor current consist of movement of electrons and holes in opposite directions.
Electron current is due to movement of electrons in the conduction band while hole
current is due to “jumping” of holes from one atom to another in the valence band.

The number of electrons in intrinsic materials is only due to those few electrons in the
valence band that have acquired enough energy from thermal or light sources to break the
covalent bond. The vacancies left behind in the covalent bonding represent our very
limited supply of holes.

II. EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:

In order to make useful semiconductor devices, trace amount of impurities (doping

agents) such as boron (B), antimony (Sb) and arsenic (As) are added (about 1 part in 10 8)
to intrinsic semiconductor devices, giving it useful different electrical properties than pure
(intrinsic) semiconductor materials. The effect of the doping process is the net
conductivity of the intrinsic material is improved. Commonly used doping agents are:

1. Pentavalent atom (e.g. arsenic and antimony) or

2. Triavalent atoms (e.g. gallium and aluminum).

Pentavalent doping atoms are known as donor atoms because they donate one electron to
the conduction band of pure germanium. The trivalent atoms on the other hand, are called
acceptor atoms because they accept one electron from the germanium atom.

Extrinsic semiconductors can be sub-divided into two classes:

(i) N-type extrinsic semiconductors and

(ii) P-type extrinsic semiconductors.
 i. N-type extrinsic semiconductors: An N-type (or negative-type) material is formed
by the addition of pentavalent doping agent, such as arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), and
antimony (Sb). Pentavalent doping agents donate excess (negative) electron, and are
therefore referred to as donor impurities.

It is worth noting that despite the fact that free carriers have been establish in the N-type
material, it still remains electrically neutral. This is because ideally the number of positive
carriers (protons) and the number of negative carriers (electrons) remain equal in the
material. In N-type material, electrons form the majority carriers while holes the minority
carriers.

ii. P-type extrinsic conductors: a P-type (or positive-type) material is formed by the
addition of trivalent doping agent, such as gallium or indium to an intrinsic (pure)
semiconductor material. Trivalent doping agent accept electron from the intrinsic
material, thereby giving rise to an electron vacancy known as a hole, therefore these
impurities are referred to as acceptor, or P-type impurities.

Trivalent doping material results in a vacant hole that is positively charged. However, the
P-type material is electrically neutral for the same reason described above for N-type
material. In P-type material, holes make the majority carriers while electrons the minority
carriers.

1.1.2 THE PN-JUNCTION

A PN device is formed when a block of P-type material is brought in contact with a block of
N-type material. When the two types of semiconductor materials are first joined, a junction
known as the PN-junction (Fig. 1.1a) is formed. Holes concentration in the P-type block
outweighs the concentration of electrons, while in the N-type block the concentration of
electrons is greater than holes concentration.

By a process known as diffusion, free electrons from the N-type block (near the PN-junction)
migrate across the PN-junction into the P-type block to fill up the holes in the P-type block
(near the PN-junction). When this happens, a layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions)
(refer to Fig. 1.1b) is created in the N-type material near the junction. As electrons move
across the junction to the P-type block, the P-type block looses holes as electrons and holes
combine, consequently, a layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) is created (near the PN-
junction) in the P-type material. (Note that the P and N-type materials are initially neutral due
to equal number of electrons and protons).

This process of diffusion (migration of holes and electrons across the PN-junction) continues
until equilibrium is reached. Equilibrium happens when the layer near the junction in the N-
type block have acquired enough positive charges to repel any further migration of holes into
the N-type block, and the layer near the junction in the P-type block have acquired enough
negative charges to repel any further migration of electrons across the junction into the N-
type block.

The positively charged and negatively charged layers (in the N and P-type blocks) near the
PN-junction form what is known as the depletion region (refer to Fig. 1.1b). The region is
depleted of any charge carriers (electrons and holes). Forces that form electric field (or
barrier potential) exist between the positive and negative charges in the depletion region
(Coulomb’s law). The resulting electric field acts as a barrier to the movement of electrons
across the region, and application of external potential energy (with the proper polarity) is
required for electrons to be able to move across the electric field barrier in the depletion
region. Typical barrier potential is 0.3V for germanium and 0.7V for silicon at 25 0C.
However, this barrier potential depends on other factors such as amount of doping,
temperature etc.

Holes Electrons Barrier potential Vf

PN-Junction

P-type N-type P-type N-type

Depletion region
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.1 The PN-Junction and the depletion region formations
1.2 BASIC SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND THEIR OPERATIONS

In this section, we are going to talk about some useful semiconductor devices, their principle
of operations, and their practical applications in digital circuits.

1.2.1 THE PN-JUNCTION DIODE

A diode is a 2 terminals (leads) semiconductor device that acts as a one way gate to the flow
of electrons. This implies that an ideal diode will allow current to flow in only one direction.
A PN-junction diode is formed by joining together N-type and P-type silicon. In practice, as
the N-type Si crystal is being grown, the process is abruptly altered to grow P-type Si crystal.
Finally, a glass or plastic coating is placed around the joined crystal.

Figure 1.2a shows the basic structure of the PN-junction diode, diode device package is
shown in Fig. 1.2b, and Fig. 1.2c shows circuit symbol for the PN-junction diode. The P-side
is called the anode (diode +ve lead) and has the symbol A, and the N-side is called the
cathode (diode -ve lead) and the symbol K.

Depletion region

Anode, A Cathode, K A K
P-type N-type _ _
+ +

Metallic contacts Symbol for –ve lead

(a) (b)

A K
+ _

(c)
Fig. 1.2 Diode (a) basic structure; (b) package; (c) circuit symbol

DIODE OPERATION
The diode operation can be explain by considering two types of DC voltages (polarity wise)
that can be applied across the diode leads.

FORWARD BIAS OPERATION

When positive terminal of the DC voltage source is connected to the anode lead and negative
terminal of the supply to the cathode lead of the PN junction diode, this configuration is
known as forward bias condition. Forward bias configuration is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. The
forward bias configuration allows current to flow through the device in the direction pointed
by the arrow in the circuit symbol.

Holes
A K
_
+
Current Electrons
Flow
DC Voltage

+ _

Fig. 1.3 Diode in forward bias configuration

Operation

The applied DC potential difference opposes the internal barrier potential (V f in Fig. 1.1b)
and disturbs the equilibrium that was reached after the formation of the depletion region. As
soon as this happens, the positive terminal of the DC source repels the positive charge
carriers (holes) towards the depletion region, and the negative terminal of the external supply
repels negative charge carriers (electrons) towards the depletion region. When the applied
potential is greater than the internal barrier potential, the electrons acquire enough energy to
overcome the depletion region and the internal potential barrier that opposed electron motion
prior to the application of forward biasing potential energy.

REVERSE BIAS OPERATION

When positive terminal of the DC voltage source is connected to the cathode lead and
negative terminal of the supply to the anode lead of the PN junction diode, this configuration
is known as reverse bias condition. Reverse bias configuration is illustrated in Fig. 1.4. The
reverse bias configuration prevents current flow through the device.

Holes
A K
_
+
Electrons

DC Voltage
_
+

Fig. 1.4 Diode in reverse bias configuration

Operation
When the diode is under reverse bias configuration as shown in Fig. 1.4, the positive terminal
of the DC source attracts electrons (the majority carriers) from the N-type side of the diode
away from the depletion, and the negative terminal of the DC supply attracts holes (the
majority carriers) from the P-type side of the diode away from the depletion region.
Consequently, the depletion region of Fig. 1.1b that was formed prior to the application of
external potential difference widens as illustrated in Fig. 1.5.

As more of the N and P regions of the diode become depleted (short) of majority carriers, the
electric field (barrier potential) between the positive and negative ions increases in strength
until the potential across the depletion region equals the bias voltage (of the DC source). At
this point, the transition current essentially ceases except for a very small reverse current that
can usually be neglected.
 Vf

P-type N-type
Wider depletion
layer

Fig. 1.5 Widening of the depletion region due to reverse biasing

APPLICATIONS OF THE PN-JUNCTION DIODE

The PN-junction diode that we have just described is one of the most important
semiconductor devices. The diode is mainly used as a rectifier (AC to DC converter). The
diode has so many other applications in modern electronics like signal modulation, diode
logic, in signal limiting circuits etc.

i. THE DIODE IN DIGITAL CIRCUTS

Diode-resistor logic (DRL) is the construction of Boolean logic gates using PN-junction
diodes and resistors. The diode logic was used extensively in the construction of early
computers. However, the diode alone has limitations for use in the construction of digital
logic gates. For example, the pure diode-resistor logic lacks amplification stage in each gate,
and the fact that only the non-inverting AND gate and OR gate can be realized using pure
diode-resistor limit its practical applications. Diodes are mostly used with transistors in the
realization of digital logic circuits.

Nevertheless, it is important for us to understand how the diode can be used in digital circuits
to perform logic operations. Let us briefly take a look at how diode-resistor based AND gate
of Fig. 1.6 works. Assuming all diodes are made of silicon material, a voltage of at least 0.7V
is required before a diode is turned ‘ON’. Let us assign the digit ‘0’ for the case when a diode
is ‘OFF’ where the voltage is less than 0.7V, and the digit ‘1’ for the case when a diode is
conducting (turned ‘OFF’) where the voltage across a diode is greater than 0.7V.
The two cathode leads for the diodes (A and B) are our input terminals for the logic circuit,
while terminal Y is our output port. After testing our circuit with different combinations of
input voltages that are below and above 0.7V, we construct table 1.1. Remember that’0’
means an input below 0.7V while ‘1’ represents an input above 0.7V.

+9V

Y
A

B
Fig. 1.6. Diode-resistor logic circuit diagram

Table 1.1 Diode-resistor logic truth table

A B Y

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

CIRCUIT OPERATION

When at least one of the diode input terminals is below 0.7V, the anode is more positive
compared to the cathode input pins and the cathode acts like a ground potential (0V). This is
a forward bias condition and the diode conducts, and all the current from the supply will be
grounded by the diode in conduction (ON mode). Consequently, the output, Y, is zero. The
only condition where the output is HIGH i.e. at a voltage above 0.7V is when none of the
input diodes pins is at a potential below 0.7V.
ii. APPLICATION OF DIODE IN CLIPPING CIRCUITS

Clipping circuits are also known as voltage (or current) limiting circuits. It controls the shape
of the output waveform by clipping (or removing) portions of the applied signal voltages
above or below certain levels. It be said that the purpose of a limiter (or clipper) is to force
the output to remain below or above certain level.

Consider in input signal shown in Fig. 1.7a. In the above sense, Fig. 1.7a is a clipping circuit.
For input voltages above 0.7V (during the positive half circle of the input signal), the diode,
D1, is in forward bias and limits signal levels above 0.7V from reaching the output (refer to
Fig. 1.7c for the output). Diode, D2, is in reverse bias mode during the positive half circle of
the input signal. Similarly, for input voltages below 0.7V (during the negative half circle of
the input voltage signal), the diode, D2, is in forward bias mode and limits signal levels
below 0.7V from reaching the output.

The limiter circuit can be seen as a voltage divider circuit (comprising of the resistor R and
the internal resistance of the diode) when any of the diodes is in conduction mode.
Vi Vo

6V R

0.6V
Vi D1 D2 Vo
-0.6V

-6V

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.7 Output limiting using diodes; (a) Input signal; (b) Circuit; (c) Output signal
iii. THE DIODE AS A RECTIFIER

Rectification is the process of converting AC signal into DC signal. A device that converts an
AC input signal to DC signal is known as a rectifier. Diode rectifier uses the principle that a
diode conducts in only direction to convert an AC signal to DC signal.

Half-Wave Rectifier
A half-wave rectifier converts the half cycle of applied AC signal into DC signal. The half-
wave rectifier (Fig. 1.8a) converts a sinusoidal waveform (Fig. 1.8b) into a unidirectional
waveform, with a non-zero average component (Fig. 18c). Ordinary transformer and a single
diode may be used here.

The diode (D) in the basic rectifier circuit shown in Fig. 1.8a is forward biased only during
the positive half-cycles of the input sinusoidal waveform and is reverse biased during
negative half-cycles.

Vin Vout

Vin RL Vout

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.8 Half-wave rectifier; (a) circuit; (b) input waveform; (c) output waveform

Full-Wave Rectifier

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole cycle of applied AC signal waveform into pulsating
DC signal. Full wave rectification can be achieved using a centre tap transformer and a pair
of diodes (Fig. 1.9a) or by using a normal transformer and four diodes configured as shown in
Fig. 1.9b (bridge rectifier).

For the case of the bridge rectifier circuit shown in Fig. 1.9b, during the positive half-cycles
of the input signal, diodes D1 and D3 are in forward conducting states, while diodes D2 and
D4 are in reverse blocking states. Similarly, during the negative half-cycles of the input
signal, diodes D2 and D4 are in forward conducting states, while diodes D1 and D3 are in
reverse blocking states.

(a) (b)
 (c) (d)

Fig. 1.9 Full-wave rectifier; (a) centre tap transformer configuration; (b) bridge rectifier
mode; (c) input signal waveform; (d) full-wave rectifier output

1.2.2 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light emitting diode (LED) is essentially a PN-junction diode. As it is illustrated in Fig.

1.10a, when carriers are injected across a forward-biased junction, it emits incoherent light
due to spontaneous emission in the junction region. An LED realized using two differently
doped semiconductors that are the same material is called a homojunction. When it is realized
using different materials it is called a heterostructure device. The pin-heterostructure diode is
the most basic and practically useful light emitting structure, and it is brighter than a
homojunction LED.

The circuit symbol and a typical example of a commercial pin-type (or through hole) LED
are shown in Fig. 1.10b.
 (a) (b)

Fig. 1.10 Light Emitting Diode (a) PN-junction; (b) Circuit Symbol and device package

Applications of LED:

LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off cycling. In addition,
LEDs light up very quickly, are inexpensive, they are easily populated onto printed circuit
boards due to their small size, and they do not contain mercury (unlike compact fluorescent
lamps). LEDs have a lot of applications. Following are few examples.

 TV and Computer Screens

 In Remote Controls (TVs, VCRs)
 In Modern Automotive Lighting
 Indicators, Signs and 7-segments display
 Optoisolators and Optocouplers
 In Optical Fiber Network etc.

1.2.3 THE TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a 3-lead semiconductor device. Just like the diodes that we discussed, the
transistor is a semiconductor device that works on the PN-junction fundamental principle.
The transistor can be seen as a diode with a control mechanism (i.e. electrically controlled
switch). Types of transistors include the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), the junction field
effect transistor (JFET), and metal oxide semiconductor FET (MOSFET). Also there are NPN
and PNP types of BJTs.
The structure of an NPN transistor, circuit symbol for NPN and PNP transistors and typical
example a commercial transistor package are shown in Fig. 1.11. The three leads of the
transistor are labeled as the collector (C), the base (B) and the emitter (E). Transistors are
employed in switching and amplification circuits.

Fig. 1.11 BJT transistor structure and circuit symbols

Transistor Operation:

Consider the NPN transistor circuit shown in Fig. 1.12a. In this NPN transistor, there are two
PN-junctions that need to be biased properly for the device to operate. When no voltage is
applied at the base of the transistor (the control lead), electrons from the emitter are prevented
from passing to the collector side because of the PN junctions.

If a negative voltage is applied to the base, things get even worse as the base-emitter PN-
junction is reverse biased resulting in the formation of depletion region that prevents current
flow.

If a positive voltage (>0.6V) is applied to the base of the NPN transistor, the Base-Emitter
PN-junction becomes forward-biased. During forward bias, escaping electrons are drawn to
the positive base. Some electrons exit through the base, but because the P-type base is so thin,
the onslaught of electrons that leave the emitter get close enough to the collector side that
they begin jumping into the collector. Increasing the base voltage increases the emitter-to-
collector electron flow and hence more current flow.
 (a) (b)

Fig. 1.12 NPN transistor forward bias operation

Applications of Transistors:

The transistors is used in amplifying current (or voltage), in signal switching circuits, in dc
motor bidirectional control, in digital logic circuits, in the manufacture of integrated circuits
(ICs) for example the computer CPU etc.

Consider the Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) circuit shown in Fig. 1.13, if we define a “1”
as any voltage above 0.7V and a “0” as any voltage below 0.5V, table 1.2 is obtained after
testing the circuit input terminals (V1in and V2in) with different combinations of “0”s and
“1”s, at the same time recording the output voltage at pin Vout.

Fig. 1.14 TTL logic circuit diagram

 Table 1.2 Diode-resistor logic truth table
V1in V2in Vout

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

From table 1.2, it can be seen that the output (Vout) is “1” (i.e. above 0.7V) if and only if
none of the two transistors in turned ON. Any voltage above 0.7Vapplied at the base pin of a
transistor turns that transistor ON, consequently, all the current from the 5V source will be
passed to the ground via collector-emitter path, and zero current will reach the output.
Similarly, any voltage below 0.5Vapplied at the base pin of a transistor turns that transistor
OFF, consequently, the collector-emitter path of that transistor will be open, and hence, no
current will be allowed to pass via the collector-emitter path of that transistor. In summary,
the circuit operation is that the output (Vout) is always “0” if at least one transistor is ON and
the out is “1” otherwise. The TTL logic circuit that we just described is called NOR gate.
1.2.4 TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

An amplifier is a device which is used for linearly amplifying (or increasing) the amplitude of
variation of alternating voltage, current or power. The amplifier thus produces an enlarged
version of the input signal.

The general concept of amplification is represented in Fig. 1.15. There are two input
terminals for the signal to be amplified and two output terminals for connecting the load, and
a means of supplying power to the amplifier. The nature of the output signal from the
amplifier output depends on how the amplifier is configured. The nature of the output for
common base (CB) and common emitter (CE) are shown in Fig. 1.15. The common here is
used to refer to which of the transistor pin (C, B, or E) is common to both input and output.

For the amplifier to operate linearly, proper biasing must be established. There are many
techniques for biasing the transistor amplifier. These include voltage divider, emitter
feedback, collector feedback, self bias etc.

CB Output

Power Supply
Input

AMPLIFIER OR

CE Output

Fig. 1.15 General concept of amplifier

Common Base (CB) Amplifier

The general circuit configuration for a CB amplifier in collector feedback bias is shown in
Fig. 1.16. The common-base configuration has the transistor base (B) as the common
terminal, or ground, to an ac signal. CB configuration attenuates current rather than amplifier
it, however, the input voltage gets amplified. As shown in Fig. 1.16, the output voltage in this
configuration is in phase with the input signal.

Vout
Vin
Rin Vout
Vin

Fig. 1.16 Common Base amplifier general configuration

Common Emitter (CE) Amplifier

The general circuit configuration for a CE amplifier in collector feedback bias is shown in
Fig. 1.17. The common-emitter configuration has the emitter as the common terminal, or
ground, to an ac signal. CE amplifiers exhibit high voltage gain and high current gain. As
shown in Fig. 1.17, the output signal in this configuration is 180 0 out of phase with the input
signal. +Vcc

Vin Vout
Rc

Vout

RB
Vin

Fig. 1.17 Common-Emitter amplifier general configuration