ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

(Phys 1011)

PREPARED BY:
ADINEW BEZABH (MSc)
TEKESTE DANKALA (MSc)
ADIMASU ABERA (MSc)
EDITED BY:
MULUGETA HABTE (PhD)

JANUARY, 2013 E.C

 General Physics Laboratory Manual 2013 E.C

LABORATORY RULES
When entering the laboratory premises you are entering a working professional environment
therefore, you are expected to adhere to the following rules:
1. Food or drinks are not allowed in the laboratory.
2. The use of cell phones or music players is not permitted.
3. Behave in a professional and respectful manner towards your instructor and your
fellow students.
4. Punctuality is critical. Arrive on time to each laboratory session or equipment may be
removed from your workbench. Punctuality is factored into your grade.
5. Laboratory reports must be submitted as soon as you enter the laboratory room,
otherwise points may be deducted for lateness.
6. Bring a scientific calculator, a notebook and pen/pencil for each laboratory session.
7. Your laboratory partner and you are responsible for the equipment and workbench
you use during an experiment. Please handle equipment with care, do not make any
markings or write on any piece of equipment or on your workbench. Being
responsible on the handling of equipment and caring for your work station is also
factored into your grade.
8. Return or leave equipment as it was given to you when the laboratory session started.
Be mindful that students from other laboratory sections use the same equipment and
work stations; please cooperate to maintain everything in working conditions.
9. After completing an experiment and before leaving the premises check that your
workbench is clean and clutter free, push in your chair.
10. Be sure to take all your belongings, the laboratory is not responsible for any lost
items. Your cooperation in abiding by these rules will be highly appreciated.
REPORT FORMAT FOR PHYSICS LABORATORY
Please keep this list handy so that you can refer to it when taking data and writing your lab
report. All reports must be typed. Reports must be neat, well organized, have good grammar
and correct punctuation. Things must be done in a logical, proper order. Also, always use
complete sentences when writing discussions or answering questions. Please remember that
an unclear statement is considered wrong, always.

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Please spread your report out based on the following report writing format:
COVER PAGE:
Your cover page should include the following information:
1. The title of the experiment
2. The authors of the report; these are the people that wrote the report and who will get
credit for it.
3. The course name and time; for example, Physics 1011 Monday at 8:00 PM
4. The date the experiment was performed.
OBJECTIVE:
Here you will write the purpose of the experiment. This is a few sentences explaining what
you are trying to accomplish and solve the problem or question in this experiment. The
objective goes after the cover sheet and before the equipment.
EQUIPMENT:
List all the apparatus that you used during the experiment. If some piece of data gathering
equipment is used (oscilloscope, computer, etc.) list the make and model number.
Remember, others may want to duplicate your results, and they need to know what gear you
used. Write this as a list not a paragraph.

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THEORY:
This part include an outline of the theory underlying an experiment as a help in underlying
why certain things are done and how the readings are of in calculating the final result.
PROCEDURE:
List all the steps that you took to complete the experiment. Theses should be written in your
own words in PAST PASSIVE tense, example “The solid was weighed and completely
immersed in water …” Do not copy the procedure of the lab manual as you will not be giving
credit for copying.
DATA:
Here you will list, using tables, all the values (with units) that you have measured. List only
the values that you measured; any value that is calculated does not belong here. The “data”
must have correct units, proper significant figures and be organized in a neat fashion.
DATA ANALYSIS:
In this section, you will use your data as written in the data section, to complete required
calculations. Keep as many digits as your calculator allows, obtaining a more accurate
answer. We will take care of significant figures and instruments‟ precision in the result
section.
Calculations must be typed using an equation editor.
The following steps provide the acceptable format for calculations:
1. Write the equation first in symbols.
2. Substitute the numbers using correct units.
3. Finally write the numerical result.
4. For repetitious calculations, a single sample calculation of the type described above
suffices.

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Graphs:
The graphs will need to be completed in Excel. Make your graphs large. It is often best to
devote an entire page to the graph. Also, graphs must have titles, the axes must be labeled
(have titles) and the axis must have units. Finally, the graphed information must be presented
in an easy to understand way.
ERROR ANALYSIS:
Percent Error and Percent Difference
If necessary, calculate the percent error or the percent difference between your experimental
results and the expected values. You should do this before leaving the lab in case you need to
retake data.
If the percent error or percent differences are too high then it is expected that you:
1. Recognize the problem. If you fail to recognize that a problem exists, or if you just
ignore it, you will surely receive a bad grade on that report.
2. Fix the problem if possible, or at least provide an intelligent explanation for why
there is a problem.
QUESTIONS:
Some of the experiments have questions throughout the experiment and/or at the end that you
must answer. Include those answers in this section. Please use complete sentences and proper
grammar.
CONCLUSION:
Report your findings. Give a brief explanation of your results. What did you learn from the
experiment? Finally, this document covers most of the formatting and presentation
information that you will need when writing a lab report. But, of course, it cannot cover
every possible situation or answer every possible question. So if you have questions about a
formatting or presentation issue, then please ask.

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Contents
LABORATORY RULES……………………………………………………………………………………………………ii

Experiment 1…….……………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………1

Measurements of Basic Constants Length, Mass and Volume………..……………………………….1

Experiment-2…………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………….….5

Hooke's Law .......................................................................................................................... 5

Experiment-3……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….9

Density of a Substance .......................................................................................................... 9

Experiment-4……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..15

Determinations of acceleration due to gravity (g) by using simple pendulum ................... 15

Experiment-5……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..19

Calibration of voltmeter and ammeter from galvanometer ................................................. 19

Experment-6………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………29

Ohm‟s law, series-parallel dc circuits ................................................................................. 29

Experiment-7……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..36

Kirchhoff‟s Law .................................................................................................................. 36

Experment-8………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………44

I-V Characteristics of a Diode ............................................................................................. 44

Experiment-9……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..55

Half wave and full wave rectifiers ...................................................................................... 55

Experiment-10……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………61

Logic gate (AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XNOR)…………………………………………61

REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….68

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Experiment-1
Measurements of Basic Constants Length, Mass and Volume
Objectives
 To practice measuring of length, mass and volume with different instruments
 To calculate derived physical quantities from measured fundamental physical
quantities.
Apparatus
 Metric ruler
 Varner caliper
 Rectangular block
 Spherical shaped object
 Cylindrical shaped objet
 Triple beam balance
 Spring balance
Theory
Physical quantities are quantities that can be measured and expressed in numbers and units.
The physical quantities that can be measured by using the measuring instruments are called
fundamental physical quantities. The others are derived from the combination of fundamental
ones (measured indirectly) are called derived physical quantities.
We have seven fundamental physical quantities and the rest are derived from them.
Fundamental quantity Unit/ abbreviation
Length meter (m)
Time second ( s)
Mass kilogram (kg)
Electric Current ampere( A
Temperature kelvin ( K)
Amount of Substance mole (mol)
Luminous intensity candela (cd)
In this experiment we are going to practice measuring the length mass and volume of the
object
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1. Rectangular block
The length l width W and edge ℎ of the block can be measured with the length measuring
device.
Mass can be measured with beam balance
Volume of the block:
(1.1)

Density: (1.2)

2. Cylindrical object
We can measure the diameter d of the base of cylinder and height ℎ in length measuring
device.

Base area (1.3)

Volume (1.4)
3. Spherical object
The volume of the sphere can be measured

Volume (1.5)

Procedures
1. Check that all the beam balance measures zero value without a mass
2. Check that length measuring devices starts from zero initial value.
Part I. Rectangular block
1. Measure the length width and edge of the rectangular block with a ruler and
record on the data table
2. Repeat procedure 1. Using Varner caliper and record on the table
3. Measure the mass of the block using triple arm beam balance
4. Again measure the mass with spring balance
Part II: Cylindrical block
1. Measure the diameter of the base of the cylinder with ruler calculates the radius,
record on the data table.
2. Repeat procedure 1. With Varner caliper
3. Measure the mass of the cylinder using both Beam balance and record on the table

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Part III: Sphere

1. Measure the radius of the sphere and calculate the radius, record in data table.
2. Measure the mass of the sphere and record on the data table.
Data Tables
Part I: Rectangular Block
Material used Length Width Height Mass m (in kg)
(m) (m) (m)
Metric ruler Triple beam Spring
balance balance
Vernire caliper

Part II: Cylindrical Block

Material used Diameter Base area Height Mass ( kg)
(m) (m)

Metric ruler Triple beam Spring

balance balance
Vernire caliper

Part III: Sphere

Material used Diameter in (m) Volume Mass m (in kg)

Metric ruler Triple beam balance Spring balance

Vernire caliper

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Analysis and Questions

Calculate the densities using the measurements obtained based the combinations of the
given instrument. (Density: )

Material used Rectangular Cylindrical Sphere

block
Metric ruler and Triple beam balance

Metric ruler and Spring balance

Vernier caliper and Triple arm balance

Vernier caliper and Spring balance

Mean density
Percentage deviation

Note that: “Metric ruler +Triple arm balance” means the volume is obtained from
measurement done by metric ruler and mass is by triple beam balance.
Calculate the deviation of the density?
What do you think the source of the errors in your measurement? How to minimize the
errors?
From this experiment which quantities are fundamental and which derived physical
quantities?

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Experiment-2
Hooke's Law
Objectives
At the end of this course students are expected to:
 To learn about the oscillation period and frequency, harmonic oscillation, the
spring constant and Hook‟s law.
 To verify Hooke's Law by measuring the spring constants of springs and spring
systems
Apparatus
 Spring
 Meter stick
 Variety of masses
 Base with Stands
Theoretical Back Ground
Hooke's Law
Elastic force occurs in the spring when the spring is being stretched/compressed or
deformed ( ) by the external force. Elastic force acts in the opposite direction of the
external force it tries to bring the deformed end of the spring to the original (equilibrium)
position. See Fig. 2.1.

Figure 2.1: diagram representation for hooks law

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To deform a material requires the application of a force. Some materials deform more
easily than others. Materials that return to their original dimensions after the deforming
force has been removed are called elastic. All materials exhibit some degree of elasticity
but not always in sufficient quantity to be useful from a practical sense.
The elasticity property makes its presence known through a restoring force that opposes
the deformation force and tries to maintain the original dimensions of the material.
We will be considering elasticity in only one dimension. The restoring force is
proportional to the magnitude of the deformation. This can be expressed in an equation
known as Hooke‟s Law after the discoverer of the effect, Robert Hooke.
(2.1)
Where k is a constant, usually called the spring constant, and is a stretch (the
difference between the new x and the equilibrium position). The minus sign in front of
the spring constant in equation (1) indicates that the elastic force and stretch act in the
opposite direction.

Figure 2.2: stretching a spring from initial length X0 to elongation X1.

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One can calculate the period of the motion using the angular frequency for

small amplitude

√ (2.2)

Experimental procedure:
1. Make the Experimental set-up as shown in Fig.2.2 with no mass suspended and
the indicator pin is exactly at Zero mark of Meter rule.
2. Suspend the mass 10, 20 or 50gm and record the elongation caused by the weight
of its mass W=mg and record your measurements on the data table.

Figure 2.3: Experimental set-up of Hooke‟s law.

3. Repeat the step 2 for different masses. (𝑚2, 𝑚3)
4. Calculate the applied force for different masses and spring.
5. Plot a graph of the weight (W) versus the elongation, X.
6. Determine the slope of the graph that gives the spring constant, K.

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Part II
1. Suspend the mass and release the mass10, 20, or 50gm with small amplitude and
using a counter (stopwatch) measure the time for 10 oscillations (3 times). Repeat
the measurement for 10, 20 or 30gm (100, 150 & 200gm) and record your
measurements on data table 2.
2. Calculate the spring constant from the Eq. (2.2) for each measurement and record
it on the data table 2.
3. Calculate the average of the spring constant for both loading mass using
arithmetic mean and record the result on the data table 2.
4. Recording the spring constant found above and compare with what is found in
Part I
Part I Data table Part II Data table

Mass+ ∆x(m) W(N) K (N/m) Mass1+ holder Mass2+ holder

holder Trials
(kg) _______kg _________kg
10T T K (N/m) 10 T (s) T (s) K (N/m)
(s) (s)
1
2
3
K1ave= ________N/m K2ave=________N/m

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Experiment-3
Density of a Substance
Objectives:
At the end of this experiment students are expected to:
 determine the density of a known liquid (water)
 identify an unknown liquid by determining its density
 determine the density of a regular solid and an irregular solid
 distinguish between accuracy and precision
Apparatus
In this experiment the following apparatus are used:
50-100mL of graduated cylinder
500-1000mL beaker
Metric ruler
Water
Samples of known and unknown liquids
Samples of regular and irregular solid
Beam balance
Spring balance (optional)

Theoretical Back Ground

Measuring Density:
Much of what is done in the physics laboratory involves taking measurements. A
measurement is a quantitative observation that has both a numerical value and a unit.
How well a measurement is taken determines both its precision and its accuracy.
Precision is related to the reproducibility of the measurement. It is a comparison of
several measured values obtained in the same way. For example, a student measures the
volume of a liquid three times, obtaining in the same way.
For example, a student measures the volume of a liquid three times, obtaining the values
3.66 mL, 3.62mL, and 3.64mL. These measurements have high precision; there is only a
0.040 mL difference between the highest and lowest values.

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Figure 3.1: displacement of water using an overflow cup

Accuracy is a comparison of a measured value to the accepted, or true, value. Suppose
the volume of the liquid had actually been 5.44mL. Then the accuracy of the three
measurements taken would be low because a difference of 1.80 mL between the average
measured value and the true value is relatively large.
A good scientist is always trying to achieve both high precision and high accuracy in the
laboratory. In this laboratory, you will practice taking measurements and recording them
to the correct degree of uncertainty while determining the density of various samples.
Density defined as mass per unit volume and can be calculated using the equation

OR (3.1)

Once you determine a density experimentally, you will need to evaluate the precision and
accuracy of your results. We shall use a calculation called percent range to express
precision and a calculation called percent error to express accuracy. The necessary
formulas are:

( ) (3.2)

( ) (3.3)

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Procedure
Part A: Procedure: Density of Water
1. Determine the mass of an empty graduated cylinder to the nearest tenth (0.1) and
record data in Table 3.1.
2. Fill the graduated cylinder with 50-100 mL of water and record the volume in
Table 3.1. Remember to read at the bottom of the meniscus.
3. Determine the mass of the water and graduated cylinder and record data in Table
3.1.
4. Calculate the mass of just the water by subtracting the mass of the empty graduated
cylinder from the mass of the water and graduated cylinder and finally Determine
the density of water
Table3.1: Density of Water
measured values using
No Measuring parameters
Triple beam balance Spring balance

1 Mass of empty graduated cylinder (g)

2 Mass of graduated cylinder and water (g)
3 Mass of water (g)
4 Volume of water (mL)
5 Density of water (g/mL)
Density of Unknown
5. Record the mass of the empty graduated cylinder in Table 3.2.
6. Repeat steps #2-5 above with your unknown liquid and record the data in Table 3.2.
Table3.2: Density of Unknown sample
measured values using
No Measuring parameters
Triple beam balance Spring balance
1 Mass of empty graduated cylinder (g)
2 Mass of graduated cylinder and water (g)
3 Mass of unknown liquid (g)
4 Volume of unknown liquid (mL)
5 Density of unknown liquid (g/mL)

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Part B: Density of Solids (cylindrical and rectangular)

Regular Solid
1. Determine and record the mass of your object using a beam balance.
2. If your sample is cylindrical, measure the diameter of the circular face and the
height (h). From the diameter, determine the radius (r) for the cylinder. The
radius is ½ the diameter of the circular face.
3. If your sample is rectangular, measure the height (H), length (L) and width (W)
for the rectangular object.
4. Determine the volume (V) of your rectangular object using the formula:
5. Determine the volume (V) of your solid cylindrical sample using the formula:
(3.4)
Calculate the density of your sample and record this value in the data table given below.
Table3.3: Density of Solids
For Cylindrical object
No Mass Height of radius (r) of the volume (V) of Density of
(g) cylinder cylinder (cm2) cylindrical object cylindrical
(cm) (cm3) object (g/cm3)
1
2
3
For rectangular object
No Mass Length Width Height volume (V) of Density of
(g) (m) (m) (m) rectangular rectangular
object (cm3) object (g/cm3)
1
2
3

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Irregular Solid
1. Using a 1000 mL graduated cylinder, obtain roughly 200 to 300 mL volume of an
irregular solid sample.
2. Level your sample in number or later.
3. Determine and record the mass of your sample (be sure it‟s dry).
4. Add approximately 500 mL of water to a 1000 mL graduated cylinder.
5. Read and record the initial volume of water.
6. Carefully place your solid sample in the graduated cylinder with the water.
Gently agitate the graduated cylinder to eliminate trapped air bubbles.
7. Read and record the new volume of water. This is the volume of the water and
the sample.
8. Calculate the volume of your sample by subtracting the initial water volume (no
sample) from the final water volume (with sample).
9. Calculate the density of your sample.
Table 3.4: Irregular Solid
No Mass of initial volume of final volume Change of the density of
Irregular water (ml) of water volume of sample
sample (g) (ml) water (ml) (g/ml)
1
2
3

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Calculations:
1) Calculate the mass and density of the water and unknown and write in the data table.
2) Determine the average density of water:
3) Determine the average density of the unknown:
Accepted Density Values
The “CRC” (short for Chemical Rubber Company Handbook of Chemistry & Physics) is
a commonly used source of physical and chemical data. Among the information
compiled in this resource are the density values for all of the solid and liquid elements
and numerous compounds. Refer to this data when identifying your unknown substance.
Physical Constants of Inorganic Compounds (solids):
Substance Density (g/cm3)
lead 11.3
gold 19.3
Copper 8.96
Aluminum 2.70
Iron 7.87
zinc 7.14
Tin 7.265
Potassium chloride 1.988

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Experiment-4
Determinations of acceleration due to gravity (g) by using simple
pendulum
Objective:
At the end of this experiment students are expected to:
To measure the acceleration due to gravity at Arba Minch using a simple
pendulum
To relate and appreciate the law of physics, in which theory and practice.
Equipment List
 1m stand with base
 Mass less thread
 Spherical mass or bob
 Metric Ruler
 Electronic Stopwatch (use stopwatch from your mobile).
Theoretical Background
The simple pendulum consists of a small bob (in theory a particle) of mass m suspended
by a light inextensible thread of length from some point about which it is allowed to
swing back and forth as shown in Figure 4.1 bellow.
The forces on the bob are the tension in the thread and the weight 𝑚 of the bob acting
vertically down wards (as shown in Figure 4.1). Resolving 𝑚 radially and tangentially
at point , we see that the tangential component is the unbalanced restoring force acting
towards the equilibrium position O.

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Figure 4.1: Schematic diagram of simple pendulum

If represents the acceleration of the bob along the arc at point A due to the presence of
force (𝑚 ) then the equation of motion of the bob is represented by;
𝑚 𝑚 (4.1)
The negative sign indicates that the force is towards point „O‟ (restoring force) while the
displacement is measured along the arc from „O‟ in the opposite direction.
When is small, then we can consider in radians and
Hence
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 (4.2)

(4.3)

Where The motion of the bob is thus a simple harmonic motion since the

acceleration of the bob is directly proportional to its distance from the equilibrium point
O and is always directed towards that point.
Here is a constant representing the angular frequency of the motionin radian per
second and so the period T is constant and given by;

√ (4.4)

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As we see from the above equation is therefore independent of the amplitude of the
oscillation and at a given place on the earth‟s surface where is constant; it depends only
on the length of the pendulum.
The period T of a simple pendulum (measured in seconds) is given by the formula:

(4.5)

Using equation (4.1) to solve for “g”, L is the length of the pendulum (measured in
meters) and g is the acceleration due to gravity (measured in meters/sec2). Now with a bit
of algebraic rearranging, we may solve Eq. (4.4) for the acceleration due to gravity g.
(You should derive this result on your own).

(4.6)

Procedure
1. Measure the length of the pendulum to the middle of the pendulum bob. Record the
length of the pendulum in the table below.
2. With the help of a lab partner, set the pendulum in motion until it completes 30 to and
fro oscillations, take care to record this time. Then the period T for one oscillation is just
the number recorded divided by 20 using (eq. 2).
3. You will make a total of six measurements for g using different values of the length L.

Trials L(meter) Time for 10 Period T T2

oscillation (second) (second) (s2)
1
2
3
Average value of gravity =--------m/s2

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Questions
1) From your data what effect does changing the length have on the period (for a given
value of the length L)?
2) What role, if any, does air resistance have on your results? Explain your reasoning.
3) Would you conclude that Galileo was correct in his observation that the period of a
simple pendulum depends only on the length of the pendulum?
4) On the moon, the acceleration due to gravity is one-sixth that of earth. That is
𝑚
𝑚

5) What effect, if any, would this have on the period of a pendulum of length L?
6) How would the period of this pendulum differ from an equivalent one on earth?

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Experiment-5
Calibration of voltmeter and ammeter from galvanometer
Objective
 To Convert a given voltmeter to an ammeter of suitable range and calibrate the
ammeter so prepared.
 To Convert a given (micro or milli) ammeter to a voltmeter of suitable range and
calibrate the ammeter so prepared.
 To convert a given galvanometer into ammeter of desired ranges and to calibrate
it.
Apparatus
o Voltmeter
o (micro or milli) Ammeter
o resistance boxes (1Ω – 10kΩ and fractional)
o connection wires
o digital voltmeter and milli-ammeter or multimeter
o power supply (0–5 volt)
o Galvanometer
Working Theory
Voltmeter measures voltage drop across resistance by putting it in parallel to the
resistance as shown in Fig5.1. The internal resistance of a voltmeter is quite high (Rm ≫
R) and, therefore, when connected in parallel the current through the voltmeter is quite
small (iv ≈ 0). This keeps the current ir flowing through the resistance R almost the same
as when the voltmeter was not connected. Hence, the voltage drop (ir R) measured across
the resistance by a voltmeter is also almost the same as the voltage drop without the
voltmeter across the resistance.
On the other hand, ammeter measures current through resistance by connecting it in
series with the resistance, Fig5.1. An ammeter has very low resistance (Rm ≪ R) and
changes the effective resistance of the circuit only by a tiny amount (R + Rm ≈ R), not
altering the original current by too much. Therefore, the current measured by the
ammeter is about the same as without the ammeter in the circuit.

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Fig5.1. Schematic diagram of voltmeter and ammeter connections

I. Conversion of voltmeter to ammeter
Since the internal resistance of a voltmeter is much greater than ammeter, for conversion
to ammeter we need to decrease the voltmeter‟s internal resistance by adding appropriate
shunt i.e. resistance in parallel to the meter. Let the range of the voltmeter be 0 – V0 volt
and we convert it to an ammeter of range 0 – I0 Amp.
To calculate the shunt resistance, we need to know the resistance of the voltmeter. This is
done by half-deflection (potential divider) method using the circuit shown in Fig 5.2(a).
Let Rm be the internal resistance of the voltmeter, and when R = 0 the voltmeter reading
is Vm, the current through the circuit is i = Vm/Rm. But when R = 0 and the voltmeter
reads Vm/2, the current in the circuit reduces by half implying i/2 = Vm/(R + Rm). The
voltmeter resistance Rm is given by:
(5.1)

Once Rm is determined, the shunt Rsh can be determined by noting that, to get full-scale
reading V0 of the voltmeter we need a maximum current of Im = V0/Rm.
For full-scale reading of voltmeter V0 corresponding to full-scale reading I0 of our
constructed ammeter, we need to send a current Im through the voltmeter and the
remaining Ish through the shunt. Therefore the shunt resistance Rsh, the maximum
resistance that can allow minimum Ish current, is calculated as:
(5.2)

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Fig5.2. (a) Circuit for determination of voltmeter resistance, (b) circuit for using the
voltmeter as ammeter
II. Conversion of ammeter to voltmeter
Converting an ammeter to a voltmeter involves increasing the resistance of the ammeter.
This is done by adding a high resistance in series with the ammeter. Let the range of the
ammeter be 0 – I0 Amp and we convert it to a voltmeter of range 0– V0 volt.
To calculate the series resistance Rss, we first determine the ammeter resistance using the
circuit Fig5.3 (a). Let Rm be the internal resistance of the ammeter, then the current
flowing through the circuit is i = E/(R + Rm), where E is the input voltage. The voltage
drop across R is Vr and the current is ir = Vr/R. Since i = ir, the ammeter resistance Rm is
obtained as:

(5.3)

To calculate Rss we note that the voltage drop across the ammeter, showing full scale
reading I0, is Vm = I0 × Rm. To make ammeter full-scale to read full-scale voltage V0, the
remaining voltage Vss = V0 − Vm should drop across Rss and from this consideration we
calculate series resistance as:
(5.4)

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Fig5.3. (a) Circuit for determination of ammeter resistance, (b) circuit for using the
ammeter as voltmeter

Experimental procedure

1. The first step to convert a voltmeter to an ammeter is to determine the resistance

Rm of the voltmeter. Make the circuit connections as shown in Fig5.2 (a).
2. Keeping R = 0, adjust the supply voltage E so that the voltmeter shows large
readings Vm.
3. Choose suitable R to reduce the voltage recorded in voltmeter to half, Vm/2. The
voltmeter resistance is then Rm = R. You may choose to plot the Rm against serial
numbers and draw an average line through them to obtain the average Rm.
4. Calculate the shunt resistance Rsh and fabricate the circuit shown in Fig 5.2(b).
Use a digital ammeter or a multimeter, set to appropriate range, as the standard
ammeter.
5. Changing the supply voltage for a fixed R (chosen such that the maximum current
in the circuit is little above I0), record the converted and the standard ammeter
readings Inew and Istandard.
6. Plot the calibration curve Inew - Istandard versus Istandard.
7. Begin converting an ammeter to a voltmeter by determining the resistance Rm of
the ammeter. Make the circuit connections as shown in Fig5.3 (a). The resistance
R in series with the ammeter must be kept at large value to prevent large current
from flowing through the ammeter and damaging it.
8. Change R appropriately and each time measure the voltage drop across it Vr with
a digital voltmeter or a multimeter. Also change the supply voltage E to change

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the Vr. Calculate Rm from these set of readings either by direct averaging or by
ploting Rm versus serial number and drawing an average line.
9. Calculate the series resistance Rss and fabricate the circuit as shown in Fig5.3 (b).
Use a digital voltmeter or a multimeter, set to appropriate range, as the standard
voltmeter.
10. Changing the supply voltage for a fixed R (chosen such that the maximum voltage
in the circuit is little above V0), record the converted and the standard voltmeter
readings Vnew and Vstandard.
11. Plot the calibration curve Vnew - Vstandard versus Vstandard.

Data recording and Observations

i. Converting voltmeter . . . . . . Volt to ammeter . . . . . . Amp

ii. Full-scale reading of the voltmeter = . . . . . . Volt
iii. Number of divisions in the scale = . . . . . .
iv. Value of minimum division of the voltmeter = . . . . . . Volt
v. Full-scale reading of the converted ammeter = . . . . . . Amp
vi. Number of divisions in the scale = . . . . . .
vii. Value of minimum division of the converted ammeter = . . . . . . Amp
Table1. Measurement of voltmeter resistance Rm
Serial No Full deflection Half deflection (Ω) Average (Ω)
(volt) R(Ω) (volt) R(Ω)

1
2
3
4
5

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Calculation of Rsh:
Im = V0/Rm = . . . . . . Amp
Ish = I0 − Im = . . . . . . Amp
Rsh = V0/Ish = . . . . . . Ohm
Table2. Calibration of the converted Ammeter
S. No Converted ammeter Standard ammeter Correction
Inew (Amp) Istandard (Amp) Inew - Istandard (Amp)
1
2
3
4
5

i. Converting Ammeter . . . . . . Amp to Voltmeter . . . . . . Volt

ii. Full-scale reading of the ammeter = . . . . . . Amp
iii. Number of divisions in the scale = . . . . . .
iv. Value of minimum division of the ammeter = . . . . . . Amp
v. Full-scale reading of the converted voltmeter = . . . . . . Volt
vi. Number of divisions in the scale = . . . . . .
vii. Value of minimum division of the converted voltmeter = . . . . . . Volt
Table3. Measurement of ammeter resistance Rm
Serial E (volt) R(Ω) (volt) (Ω) Average (Ω)
No

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Calculation of Rss:
Vm = I0 × Rm = . . . . . . volt
Vss = V0 − Vm = . . . . . . volt
Rss = RmVss/Vm = . . . . . . Ohm
Table2. Calibration of the converted Voltmeter
S.No Converted ammeter Standard ammeter Correction
Vnew (Volt) Vstandard (Volt) Vnew - Vstandard (Volt)
1
2
3
4

III. Galvanometer Into Ammeter

Working Principle

A galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by connecting a low resistance (shunt)

wire parallel to it. Let the resistance of the galvanometers G and current required to
produce full scale deflection in it be Ig.
When a shunt resistance RS is connected in parallel to the given galvanometer for
conversion into ammeter of range I amperes, then Ig will flow in galvanometer and
current (I-Ig) flows through the shunt resistance as shown in figure5.4 Applying KVL we
have
( ) (5.5)

Formula Used
To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter of desired ranges, the resistance to be
connected in parallel to it is given by

(5.6)

Where, RS = shunt resistance in ohms

RG = Resistance of galvanometer in Ohms.
Ig = Current for full scale deflection in galvanometer in mA.
I = Desired range of ammeter in mA.

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Fig.5.4. (a) half deflection of the galvanometer (b) curcuits of converted Ammeter

Procedure

1. Determination of Galvanometer Resistance (RG) and the value of Ig:

2. Take the circuit connection of figure in order to determine the resistance of the
galvanometer by half deflection method.
3. Introduce some high resistance Rh in the high resistance box H.R.B. Close key
K1 and observe deflection in the galvanometer. If the deflection goes out of scale
bring it within the scale by increasing the value of Rh. Adjust the deflection for
even number of divisions on the scale. In this adjustment the key K2 should
remain open.
4. Now close key K2. Increase the value of R in low resistance box. Adjust the value
of R such that the deflection in galvanometer becomes half of its previous value.
5. This value of R is equal to the galvanometer resistance i.e. RG = R.
6. Now change the value of deflection (θ) in the galvanometer by changing the value
of Rh. For each value of Rh adjust the value of R for half deflection in the
galvanometer. In this way take about five sets of readings.
7. Determine the value of RG from each set and determine mean RG.
8. Note that number of divisions on the galvanometer scale on one side of the zero.
9. Calculate the value of Ig for each set from its formula, and determine mean Ig

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Calibration of converted Ammeter:

1. Take the connecting wire of desired length and connect it across the terminals of
the galvanometer. By doing so, the galvanometer is converted into an ammeter of
range i.
2. Make circuit as shown in figure (b) in order to calibrate the converted ammeter.
3. Close key K. Adjust the Rheostat Rh to get some current in the circuit. Note this
value of current in the ammeter A. Simultaneously note the deflection of the
converted ammeter in number of divisions.
4. Now change the position of the rheostat and again note the readings of the
ammeter and the converted ammeter. In this way take sufficient number of the
readings up to the full range of the ammeter.
5. If the reading of ammeter for a particular value of current in the circuit is i‟ and
the number of divisions in the converted ammeter is n for the same value of
current, then the value of current in the converted ammeter will be i‟‟ = (n/N)i
Amp.
6. Determine the difference of i‟‟ and i‟ for various readings taken. The difference
will be the error in the reading of the converted ammeter.
7. The graph plotted between i‟ and the error (i‟‟ - i‟) will be calibration graph.
Observations

A) To determine the galvanometer resistance (RG), current for full scale deflection in the
Galvanometer (Ig) and shunt resistance (RS):
i) No. of divisions on the galvanometer scale N =.......................
ii) E.M.F. of the battery = ..................volt
Table1. Determination of Galvanometer Resistance (RG) and the value of Ig
S. High Deflection in Resistance for Mean RG Mean
No. resistance galvanometer half deflection resistance (Amp)
(Ω) Θ=n division R= (Ω) (Ω)
1
2
3

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Table2. Calibration of the converted ammeter

S. Ammeter reading Number of Current measured Error =(ii‟‟-i‟)
No. i‟(Amp) Deflection on by converted (cm)
galvanometer scale ammeter( i‟‟)
(n) i‟‟ = (n/N)i Amp
1
2
3
4

Calculations

Range of converted galvanometer as ammeter (i) = .........Amp.

Resistance of galvanometer = ................Ohm.
𝑚 (5.7)

(5.8)

Result
The resistance of given galvanometer RG = ....................ohm.
The given galvanometers converted into ammeter of range i = ..........Amp.
by connecting a shunt of resistance RS = ........ohm
The calibration graph drawn between i‟ and error (ii‟ - i‟) is obtained as shown in the
attached

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Experment-6
Ohm’s law, series-parallel dc circuits
Ohm’s law
Objective
At the end of this experiment students are expected to:
o To Examines Ohm‟s law, one of the fundamental laws governing electrical
circuits. It states that voltage is equal to the product of current times resistance.
Theory
Ohm’s Law and Resistance
Ohm‟s law states that the voltage or potential difference between two points is directly
proportional to the current or electricity passing through the resistance, and inversely
proportional to the resistance of the circuit. The formula for Ohm‟s law is V=IR. This
relationship between current, voltage and relationship was discovered by German
scientist Georg Simon Ohm. Let us learn more about Ohms Law, Resistance, and its
applications.
Ohm’s Law Definition
Most basic components of electricity are voltage, current, and resistance. Ohm‟s law
shows a simple relation between these three quantities. Ohm‟s law states that the current
through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the
two points.

Ohm‟s Law Formula

(6.1)

Where, V= voltage, I= current and R= resistance

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The SI unit of resistance is ohms and is denoted by Ω. This law is one of the most basic
laws of electricity. It helps to calculate the power, efficiency, current, voltage, and
resistance of an element of an electrical circuit.

Applications of Ohm’s Law

Ohm‟s law helps us in determining voltage, current or impedance or resistance of a linear

electric circuit when the other two quantities are known to us. It also makes power
calculation simpler.
How do we establish the current-voltage relationship?
In order to establish the current-voltage relationship, the ratio V / I remains constant for a
given resistance, therefore a graph between the potential difference (V) and the current (I)
must be a straight line.
How do we find the unknown values of resistance?
It is the constant ratio that gives the unknown values of resistance,
(6.2)

Conductors, resistance of which does not depend on either V or I are called ohmic
conductors. Otherwise they are non-ohmic conductors. Most metals are ohmic
conductors, whereas semiconductors and many conductive ceramics are non-ohmic
conductors. Resistance of a conductor depends on various factors, e.g. the material the
conductor is made of, its shape and size, the direction of electric current flow,
temperature. For ohmic conductors, graphing V vs I, in Cartesian coordinates yields a
straight line whose slope is R (Fig. 5.1a), while non-ohmic conductors may exhibit very
complex V vs I characteristics like one shown on Fig. 5.1b.

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Fig.5.1. (a) Voltage applied to a conductor as a function of the induced current for an
ohmic conductor. Slope of this dependence calculated as the change of voltage ∆V
divided by the corresponding change of current ∆I equals resistance R of this conductor:
R=∆V/∆I. (b) Non-ohmic conductors may exhibit complex non-linear dependences of
voltage versus current.

Limitations of ohms law

Ohm‟s law is not applicable to unilateral networks. Unilateral networks allow the current
to flow in one direction. Such types of network consists elements like a diode, transistor,
etc.
Ohm‟s law is also not applicable to non – linear elements. Non-linear elements are those
which do not have current exactly proportional to the applied voltage that means the
resistance value of those elements changes for different values of voltage and current.
Examples of non – linear elements are the thermistor.
Resistors

Resistors are one of the important blocks of electrical circuits. They are made up of the
mixture of clay or carbon, so they are not only good conductors but good insulators too.

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Most of the resistors have four color bands. The first and second bands reveal the first
and second digits of the value respectively. The third band is used to multiply the value
digits and the fourth band tells us the tolerance. If there is no fourth band, it is assumed
that the tolerance is plus or minus 20%.
Resistance in series
A series generally means connected along a line, or in a row, or in an order. In
electronics, series resistance means that the resistors are connected one after the other and
that there is only one path for current to flow through.

Laws of Series Circuits

Individual resistance add up to the total circuit resistance
Current through the circuit is the same at every point.
Individual voltages throughout the circuit add up to the total voltage.
Resistance in parallel
There are many different ways to organize a parallel circuit. In the practical world, most
of the wiring is done in parallel so that the voltage to any one part of the network is the
same as the voltage supplied to any other part of it.

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Laws of Parallel Circuits

The reciprocals of all the individual resistances add up to the reciprocal of the total circuit
resistance.

(6.3)
Voltage through the circuit is the same at every point.
Individual current draws throughout the circuit add up to the total current draw.
EQUIPMENT
 Adjustable DC Power Supply
 Digital Multimeter (DMM)
 Decade Resistance Box
 1 kΩ resistor, 6.8 kΩ resistor and 33 kΩ resistor

Figure 5.1 Schematic representations of circuit

Procedure
1. Build the circuit of Figure 5.1 using the 1 kΩ resistor. Set the DMM to measure
DC current and insert it in-line between the source and resistor. Set the source for
zero volts. Measure and record the current in Table 5.1. Note that the theoretical
current is 0 and any measured value other than 0 would produce an undefined
percent deviation.
2. Setting E at 2 volts, determine the theoretical current based on Ohm‟s law and
record this in Table 5.1. Measure the actual current, determine the deviation, and
record these in Table 5.1. Note that:
( – )
(6.4)

3. Repeat step 2 for the remaining source voltages in Table 5.1.

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4. Remove the 1 kΩ and replace it with the 6.8 kΩ. Repeat steps 1 through 3 using
Table 5.2.
5. Remove the 6.8 kΩ and replace it with the 33 kΩ. Repeat steps 1 through 3 using
Table 5.3.
6. Using the measured currents from Tables 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3, create a plot of current
versus voltage. Plot all three curves on the same graph. Voltage is the horizontal
axis and current is the vertical axis.
Data Tables

Table 5.1 (1 kΩ)

theoretical Measured
E (volts) Deviation
current (I) current (I)
0
1
2
3
4
5

Table 5.2 (6.8 kΩ)

theoretical Measured
E (volts) Deviation
current (I) current (I)
0
1
2
3
4
5

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Table 5.3 (33 kΩ)

theoretical Measured
E (volts) Deviation
current (I) current (I)
0
1
2
3
4
5

Supplemental Questions:

1. Does Ohm‟s Law appear to hold in this exercise?

2. Is there a linear relationship between current and voltage?
3. What is the relationship between the slope of the plot line and the circuit
resistance?
4. If the voltage across a 1.2kΩ resistor is 3.6 V, what is the current (in mA) flowing
through it?
5. A 1.5V battery is connected in series with a 3.3 kΩ resistor, a 4.7kΩ resistor, and
a 1.0 kΩ resistor. Calculate the current (in mA) through and the voltage (in V)
across each resistor.
6. What is the effective resistance of a series combination of a very large resistance
and a very small resistance? First try 10 kΩ and 10Ω, rounding the answer off to
two significant figures, to get a feel for what is happening, and then state the
general rule for finding the result given any large and small resistances, not
necessarily these exact two values.
7. If a voltage divider connected across a 1.5V battery, approximately what will be
the potential drop across each resistor?
8. What is the effective resistance of a parallel combination of a very large
resistance and a very small resistance? First try 10 kΩ and 10Ω, and then
generalize the result. If connected to a power supply delivering 100 mA of
current, approximately what will be the current through each resistor?

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Experiment-7
Kirchhoff’s Law
Objective

At the end of this experiment students are expected to:

 To determine the amount or magnitude of the electrical current flowing around an
electrical or electronic circuit
 To verify Kirchoff‟s current law (KCL) and Kirchoff‟s voltage law (KVL) in the
given circuit.
 To build our own electrical or electronic circuit

Theory
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824 - 1887) a German physicist published the first systematic
description of the laws of circuit analysis. These laws are known as Kirchhoff‟s current
law (KCL) and Kirchhoff‟s voltage law (KVL). His contribution forms the basis of all
circuit analysis problems.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Kirchhoff‟s Current Law (KCL) is Kirchhoff‟s first law that deals with the conservation
of charge entering and leaving a junction.
To determine the amount or magnitude of the electrical current flowing around an
electrical or electronic circuit, we need to use certain laws or rules that allow us to write
down these currents in the form of an equation. The network equations used are those
according to Kirchhoff‟s laws, and as we are dealing with circuit currents, we will be
looking at Kirchhoff‟s current law, (KCL).
Gustav Kirchhoff‟s Current Law is one of the fundamental laws used for circuit analysis.
His current law states that for a parallel path the total current entering a circuit‟s junction
is exactly equal to the total current leaving the same junction. This is because it has no
other place to go as no charge is lost.
In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a junction
must be equal to zero as: Σ IIN = Σ IOUT.

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This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as the Conservation of Charge, as the current
is conserved around the junction with no loss of current. Let‟s look at a simple example
of Kirchhoff‟s current law (KCL) when applied to a single junction.
A Single Junction
Junction Rule Loop Rule
ΣI entering the node = ΣI leaving the ΣV around a closed loop = 0
node Concentrating on loop abdf
At junction b we have three currents:

Collecting the voltages around the closed loop

abdf using a counterclockwise direction and
I1 and I2 enter the node while I3 taking into account the sign convention we
leaves the node. Therefore, obtain:
I1 + I2 = I3 ε1 - R2I3 - R1I1 = 0
Table.6.1. – Sample Application of Kirchhoff‟s First and Second Rules
Here in this simple single junction example, the current IT leaving the junction is the
algebraic sum of the two currents, I1 and I2 entering the same junction. That is IT = I1 + I2.
Note that we could also write this correctly as the algebraic sum of: IT - (I1 + I2) = 0.
So if I1 equals 3 amperes and I2 is equal to 2 amperes, then the total current, IT leaving the
junction will be 3 + 2 = 5 amperes, and we can use this basic law for any number of
junctions or nodes as the sum of the currents both entering and leaving will be the same.
Also, if we reversed the directions of the currents, the resulting equations would still hold
true for I1 or I2. As I1 = IT - I2 = 5 - 2 = 3 amps, and I2 = IT - I1 = 5 - 3 = 2 amps. Thus we
can think of the currents entering the junction as being positive (+), while the ones
leaving the junction as being negative (-).
Then we can see that the mathematical sum of the currents either entering or leaving the
junction and in whatever direction will always be equal to zero, and this forms the basis

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of Kirchhoff‟s Junction Rule, more commonly known as Kirchhoff’s Current Law, or

(KCL).
For batteries, the rule of sign says: when a battery is passed from positive terminal to
negative terminal, its electromotive force is taken as negative (-Ɛ). Otherwise it is taken
as positive (+Ɛ). This rule of signs is shown in Table 1 below.

conventions
for EMF
conventions Sign
for resistors
Sign

Table.6.2. Sign Conventions for voltages on batteries and resistors in DC circuits. Arrows
show in the batteries the path direction around the loop, and arrows show direction of the
current flow through the resistance.

Equipment:

 Breadboard,
 Several values of Resistors (Decade Resistance Box)
 Digital Multimeter (DMM)
 Connecting wires

Applying KCL to more complex circuits

Procedure 1
1. Using a digital multimeter (DMM), measure the actual resistances of the resistors
and electromotive forces of the batteries.
2. Note that each component must be measured individually that is, disconnected
from the circuit.

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3. Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig. 2 using the given resistors and batteries.
Complete a series of calculations for final schematic of the assembled circuit
provided in Fig. 3.
4. In this circuit there are four distinct junctions for current to either separate or
merge together at nodes A, C, E and node F. The supply current IT separates at
node A flowing through resistors R1 and R2, recombining at node C before
separating again through resistors R3, R4 and R5 and finally recombining once
again at node F.
5. But before you can calculate the individual currents flowing through each resistor
branch, and you must first calculate the circuits total current, IT.
6. Using a digital multimeter (DMM) measure current drop across the node in the
circuit and record the data in the table below.
7. Record the total currents entering at node and those leaving the node.

Figure 2: Kirchhoff‟s Current Law

Ohms law tells us that I = V/R and as we know the value of V, 12 volts, we need to
calculate the circuit resistances as follows.
Circuit Resistance RAC
(7.1)

1. Calculate the equivalent circuit resistance between nodes A and C using the
equation above.

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Circuit Resistance RCF

(7.2)

2. Calculated the equivalent circuit resistance between nodes C and F using the
above equation.
Then determine the total circuit current (IT).
(7.3)

(7.4)

3. Construct the equivalent circuits shown below in the diagram.

Figure3: Kirchhoff‟s Current Law Equivalent Circuit

Having established the equivalent parallel resistances and supply current, we can now
calculate the individual branch currents and confirm using Kirchhoff‟s junction rule as
follows.

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We can confirm that Kirchhoff‟s current law holds true around the circuit by using node
C as our reference point to calculate the currents entering and leaving the junction as:
(7.5)
We can also double check to see if Kirchhoff‟s Current Law holds true as the currents
entering the junction are positive, while the ones leaving the junction are negative, thus
the algebraic sum is: I1 + I2 - I3 - I4 - I5 = 0.
So we can confirm by analysis that Kirchhoff‟s current law (KCL) which states that the
algebraic sum of the currents at a junction point in a circuit network is always zero is true
and correct in this example.
Table 6.1.Data table for Kirchhoff‟s current Law in a series Circuit
No Equivalent Applied Current Current
resistance voltage Theoretical calculated
1
2
3
4
5
6

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in a Parallel Circuit

Kirchhoff‟s Voltage Law (sometimes denoted as KVL for short) will work for any circuit
configuration at all, not just simple series. Note how it works for this parallel circuit:

Figure4: Kirchhoff‟s voltage Law Equivalent Circuit

Being a parallel circuit, the voltage across every resistor is the same as the supply
voltage: 6 volts. Tallying up voltages around loop 2-3-4-5-6-7-2, we get:

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Voltage from point 3 to point 2

Voltage from point 4 to point 3
Voltage from point 5 to point 4
Voltage from point 6 to point 5
Voltage from point 7 to point 6
Voltage from point 2 to point 7

Note how we label the final (sum) voltage as E2-2. Since we began our loop-stepping
sequence at point 2 and ended at point 2, the algebraic sum of those voltages will be the
same as the voltage measured between the same points (E2-2), which of course must be
zero.

Procedure 2
1. Using a digital multimeter (DMM), measure the actual resistances of the resistors
and electromotive forces of the batteries.
2. Note that each component must be measured individually that is, disconnected
from the circuit.
3. Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig. 4 using the given resistors and batteries.
4. Use Kirchhoff‟s voltage law to find the voltage flowing around circuits.
5. Using a digital multimeter (DMM) measure voltage drop across the resistance in
the circuit and record the data in the table below.
6. Determining the value of currents entering at node while applying the voltage
starts from 1-6 volt.

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Table 6.2 Data table for Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in a Parallel Circuit
No Equivalent Applied Current Current
resistance voltage Theoretical calculated
1
2
3
4
5
Questions
Is KCL satisfied in Tables 6.1?
Is KVL satisfied in Tables 6.1?

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Experment-8
I-V Characteristics of a Diode
Objective:
The object of this experiment is to study the I-V characteristics of a diode.
Apparatus:
o DC Power Supply
o Silicon or Germanium diodes
o Connecting wires (including those on the power supply)
o Milliammeter
o Voltmeter

Theory
Semiconductor devices such as diodes, transistors and thermistors are all constructed
using semiconductor PN junctions connected together and as such they‟re I-V
characteristics curves will reflect the operation of these PN junctions. Then these devices
will have non-linear I-V characteristics, as opposed to resistors which have a linear
relationship between the current and voltage.
So for example, the primary function of a semiconductor diode is rectification of AC to
DC. When a diode is forward biased (the higher potential is connected to its Anode), it
will pass current. When the diode is reverse biased (the higher potential is connected to
its Cathode), the current is blocked. Then a PN junction needs a bias voltage of a certain
polarity and amplitude for current to flow. This bias voltage also controls the resistance
of the junction and therefore the flow of current through it. Consider the diode circuit
below.

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I-V Characteristic Curve of a Diode

When the diode is forward biased, anode positive with respect to the cathode, a forward
or positive current passes through the diode and operates in the top right quadrant of its I-
V characteristics curves as shown. Starting at the zero intersection, the curve increases
gradually into the forward quadrant but the forward current and voltage are extremely
small.
When the forward voltage exceeds the diodes P-N junctions‟ internal barrier voltage,
which for silicon is about 0.7 volts, avalanche occurs and the forward current increases
rapidly for a very small increase in voltage producing a non-linear curve. The “knee”
point on the forward curve.
Likewise, when the diode is reversed biased, cathode positive with respect to the anode,
the diode blocks current except for an extremely small leakage current, and operates in
the lower left quadrant of its I-V characteristic curves. The diode continues to block
current flow through it until the reverse voltage across the diode becomes greater than its
breakdown voltage point resulting in a sudden increase in reverse current producing a
fairly straight line downward curve as the voltage losses control. This reverse breakdown
voltage point is used to good effect with zener diodes.
Then we can see that the I-V Characteristic Curves for a silicon diode are non-linear
and very different to that of the previous resistors linear I-V curves as their electrical
characteristics are different. Current-Voltage characteristics curves can be used to plot the
operation of any electrical or electronic component from resistors, to amplifiers, to
semiconductors and solar cells.
The current-voltage characteristics of an electronic component tells us much about its
operation and can be a very useful tool in determining the operating characteristics of a

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particular device or component by showing its possible combinations of current and

voltage, and as a graphical aid can help visually understand better what is happening
within a circuit.
PN Junction Diode
A PN-junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is fused to an n-type
semiconductor creating a potential barrier voltage across the diode junction
The effect described in the previous tutorial is achieved without any external voltage
being applied to the actual PN junction resulting in the junction being in a state of
equilibrium.
However, if we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both the N-type and
the P-type materials and then connect them to a battery source, an additional energy
source now exists to overcome the potential barrier.
The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being able
to cross the depletion region from one side to the other. The behavior of the PN junction
with regards to the potential barrier‟s width produces an asymmetrical conducting two
terminal device, better known as the PN Junction Diode.
A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which
has the characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a
resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the diode
has an exponential current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we cannot described
its operation by simply using an equation such as Ohm‟s law.
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN
junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross
the junction as the width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.
By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled
away from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has
the effect of increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself
allowing or blocking current flow through the diode.
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage
and narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the
differences in the electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in

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physical changes taking place. One of the results produces rectification as seen in the PN
junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage) characteristics. Rectification is shown by an
asymmetrical current flow when the polarity of bias voltage is altered as shown below.
Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics

But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device we
need to firstly bias the junction, ie connect a voltage potential across it. On the voltage
axis above, “Reverse Bias” refers to an external voltage potential which increases the
potential barrier. An external voltage which decreases the potential barrier is said to act in
the “Forward Bias” direction.
There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the standard
Junction Diode and these are:
Zero Bias: No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode
Reverse Bias: The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material
and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of
increasing the PN junction diode‟s width.
Forward Bias: The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material
and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of
Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.

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Zero Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is
applied to the PN junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few
holes (majority carriers) in the P-type material with enough energy to overcome the
potential barrier will move across the junction against this barrier potential. This is
known as the “Forward Current” and is referenced as IF
Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation
favorable and move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the
“Reverse Current” and is referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and
forth across the PN junction is known as diffusion, as shown below.
Zero Biased PN Junction Diode

The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority
carriers across the junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few
free electrons in the P-region and few holes in the N-region) to drift across the junction.
Then an “Equilibrium” or balance will be established when the majority carriers are equal
and both moving in opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current flowing in
the circuit. When this occurs the junction is said to be in a state of “Dynamic
Equilibrium“.
The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so this state of
equilibrium can be broken by raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an
increase in the generation of minority carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in leakage
current but an electric current cannot flow since no circuit has been connected to the PN
junction.

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Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to
the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.
The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive
electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted
away from the junction towards the negative electrode.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes
and presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high
potential barrier is created thus preventing current from flowing through the
semiconductor material.
Increase in the Depletion Layer due to Reverse Bias

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero
current flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a
very small leakage current does flow through the junction which can be measured in
micro-amperes, (μA).
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a
sufficiently high enough value, it will cause the diode‟s PN junction to overheat and fail
due to the avalanche effect around the junction. This may cause the diode to become
shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current and this shown as a step
downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.

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Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilizing circuits
where a series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown
current to a preset maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the
diode. These types of diodes are commonly known as Zener Diodes and are discussed in
a later tutorial.
Forward Biased PN Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to
the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this
external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts
for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be
overcome and current will start to flow.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction
giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the
opposite direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a
characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the “knee” on
the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little increase in the
external voltage as shown below.

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Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion
layer becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the
junction thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase
in current takes place is represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the
“knee” point.
Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very
large currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The
actual potential difference across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of
the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v for
silicon junction diodes.
Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it effectively
becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its
current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current specification causes the device to
dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for resulting in a very
quick failure of the device.

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Junction Diode Summary

The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important characteristics:
Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, “Holes” and “Electrons”.
The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.
A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-type
doping), so that it contains mobile charges which are primarily electrons.
A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type doping),
so that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.
The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion region.
The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied
voltage.
When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a natural Potential
Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for
silicon diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for germanium diodes.
When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region reduces
and the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full current to flow. When a junction diode
are Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region increases and the diode acts like
an open circuit blocking any current flow (only a very small leakage current).
We have also seen above that the diode is two terminal non-linear device whose I-V
characteristic are polarity dependent as depending upon the polarity of the applied
voltage, VD the diode is either Forward Biased, VD > 0 or Reverse Biased, VD < 0. Either
way we can model these current-voltage characteristics for both an ideal diode and for a
real silicon diode as shown:
Junction Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics

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In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at the small signal diode sometimes called
a switching diode which is used in general electronic circuits. As its name implies, the
signal diode is designed for low-voltage or high frequency signal applications such as in
radio or digital switching circuits.
Signal diodes, such as the 1N4148 only pass very small electrical currents as opposed to
the high-current mains rectification diodes in which silicon diodes are usually used. Also
in the next tutorial we will examine the Signal Diode static current-voltage characteristics
curve and parameters.
Procedure:
Forward Biased Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1) using silicon or germanium PN Junction
diode.
2. Vary Vf gradually in steps of 0.1 volts up to 5volts and note down the corresponding
readings of If.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.
Circuit Diagram:
Forward Bias Condition:

Fig (1) Forward Bias Condition

S. No Forward Voltage across the diode Forward current through
Vf (volts) the diode If (mA)
1
2
3
4
5

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Reverse biased condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (2) using silicon or germanium PN Junction
diode.
2. Vary Vr gradually in steps of 0.5 volts up to 8 volts and note down the corresponding
readings of Ir.
3. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages.
,

Where: VR is the Voltage across Resistor.

Fig (2) Reverse Bias Condition

Sl. No Reverse Voltage across the Reverse current through
diode Vr (volts) the diode Ir (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6

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Experiment-9
Half wave and full wave rectifiers
Objective

 To study the characteristics of half wave, full wave and bridge rectifier with and
without filters and
 To calculate the ripple factor, rectification efficiency and % regulation.

Components and Equipment Required

Diodes, Resistor, Transformer, Voltmeter Ammeter, Breadboard and CRO

Theory

Rectifier changes ac to dc and it is an essential part of power supply. The unique property
of a diode, permitting the current to flow in one direction, is utilized in rectifiers.

Half Wave Rectifier

Mains power supply is applied at the primary of the step-down transformer. All the
positive cycles of the stepped down AC supply pass through the diode and the entire
negative half cycles get eliminated. Peak value of the output voltage is less than the peak
value of the input voltage by 0.6V because of the voltage drop across the diode.

For a half wave rectifier

And : where 𝑚 value of input, V Average value of input

and = peak value of output.

Ripple factor r =Vr.rms/Vdc where Vr,rms is the rms value of the AC component.
Since
(9.1)

√ (9.2)

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Full Wave Rectifier

During the positive half cycle of the transformer secondary voltage, diode D1is forward
biased and D2 is reverse biased. So a current flows through the diode D1, load resistor
RL and upper half of the transformer winding. During the negative half cycle, diode D2
becomes forward biased and D1 becomes reverse biased. The current then flows through
the diode D2, load resistor RL and lower half of the transformer winding. Current flows
through the load resistor in the same direction during both the half cycles. Peak value of
the output voltage is less than the peak value of the input voltage by 0.6V because of the
voltage drop across the diode.
For a full wave rectifier,
, (9.3)
√

√ (9.4)

Bridge Rectifier

During the positive half cycle of the secondary voltage, diodes D1 and D2 are forward
biased and diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased. Therefore, current flows through the
secondary winding, diode D1, load resistor RL and diode D2. During the negative half
cycle, D3 and D4 are forward biased and diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased. Therefore,
current flows through the secondary winding, diode D3. Load resistor RL and D4. During
both the half cycles, the current flows through the load resistor in the same direction.
Peak value of the output voltage is less than the peak value of the input voltage by 1.2V
due to the voltage drop across two diodes. The ripple factor of the bridge rectifier is the
same as that of full wave rectifier.

Rectifiers with Filter

All rectifier outputs contain considerable amount of ripple in addition to the DC

component. In order to avoid AC components, a filter is connected at the output of the
rectifier.
Capacitor input filter, choke input filter, RC, CRC, LC, and CLC filters are the usually
used filters. Capacitor input filter is the simplest and cheapest. A high value capacitor C
is connected in shunt with the load resistor RL. Capacitor charges to peak voltage Vm

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when the half cycle appears at the output. After the peak value is passed, the capacitor
discharges through the load resistor slowly since the diode is reverse biased by the
capacitor voltage. Before the capacitor voltage drops substantially, next output cycle
arrives and the capacitor recharges to peak.
The rms value of the filtered output is calculated assuming that the wave as a triangular
wave and it is

Where is the peak to peak value of the ripple voltage.

(9.5)

(9.6)

For a half wave rectifier the ripple factor is also expressed as a function of capacitance
and load resistance √ . For a full wave rectifier, it is given by the
expression, √ . f is the mains supply frequency 50 Hz.

Rectifier Efficiency

Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of DC output power to the input power from
the AC supply. Even with ideal rectifiers with no losses, the efficiency is less than 100%
because some of the output power is AC power rather than DC which manifests as ripple
superimposed on the DC waveform.

(9.7)

Percentage regulation:

It is a measure of the variation of DC output voltage as a function of DC output current

i.e. variation in load.

(9.8)

= Voltage across load resistance when minimum current flows through it.
= Voltage across load resistance when maximum current flows through it.

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Procedure

1. After testing all the components wire up the half wave rectifier circuit without
capacitor as shown in the figure below.

Fig.8.1. half wave rectifier circuit without capacitor

2. Switch on the main supply. Observe the transformer secondary voltage waveform
and output voltage waveform across the load resistor, simultaneously on the CRO
screen. Note down and calculate and .
3. Calculate the ripple factor, rectifier efficiency and % regulation using the
expressions.
4. Connect the capacitor filter and observe the waveforms. Note down and
and calculate ripple factor, rectifier efficiency and %regulation using the
expressions. Repeat for different capacitor values.

Fig.8.2. Half wave rectifier with filter

5. Repeat the above steps for full wave and bridge rectifiers as shown in the figure
8.3 &8.4.

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Fig.8.3. Full wave rectifier with filter

Fig.8.4. Bridge rectifier with filter:

Design

Select 230V/6V-0-6V, 100 mA center-tapped transformer and diodes 1N4001.

DESIGN OF LOAD RESISTOR ( )
Load resistor should be high enough to make the capacitor discharge slowly. Same
time it should limit the current through the diodes. Assume a current of 5mA to flow
through the diodes. Then:
√
.

Because voltage drop across the two diodes together are 1.4V.
Select

Design of capacitance C:

The required ripple factor of capacitor input filter is 3%. Theoretical value of
√ .

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Power supply frequency , Assume and Then

Data table
Table 1: Rectifier without filter
HWR √

FWR √
√

BR √
√

Table 2: Rectifiers with capacitor filter

Type √

HWR
FWR
BR

WAVEFORMS

Typical waveforms of half wave rectifier without filter and with filter are shown in the
figure below

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Experiment-10
Logic gate (AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XNOR)
Objectives:
 To verify the truth table of basic logic gate (NOT, AND, OR) and universal logic
gates (NAND and NOR) using RTL (using Resistor Transistor Logic)/ DTL
(Diode Transistor Logic) circuits.
Apparatus used:

Resistor, diode, transistor, LED, 5-volt power supply, IC and connecting wires

Theory
A logic gate is a device that acts as a building block for digital circuits. They perform
basic logical functions that are fundamental to digital circuits. Most electronic devices we
use today will have some form of logic gates in them. For example, logic gates can be
used in technologies such as smartphones, tablets or within memory devices.

In a circuit, logic gates will make decisions based on a combination of digital signals
coming from its inputs. Most logic gates have two inputs and one output. Logic gates are
based on Boolean algebra. At any given moment, every terminal is in one of the
two binary conditions, false or true. False represents 0, and true represents 1. Depending
on the type of logic gate being used and the combination of inputs, the binary output will
differ. A logic gate can be thought of like a light switch, wherein one position the output
is off (0), and in another, it is on (1). Logic gates are commonly used in integrated
circuits (IC).

Basic logic gates

There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.
The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called "false" and 1 is called "true," the gate
acts in the same way as the logical "and" operator.

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AND gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output

1
1
1 1 1
The OR gate gets its name from the fact that it behaves after the fashion of the logical
inclusive "or." The output is "true" if either or both of the inputs are "true." If both inputs
are "false," then the output is "false." In other words, for the output to be 1, at least input
one OR two must be 1.

OR gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

1 1
1 1
1 1 1
The XOR (exclusive-OR) gate acts in the same way as the logical "either/or." The output
is "true" if either, but not both, of the inputs are "true." The output is "false" if both inputs
are "false" or if both inputs are "true." Another way of looking at this circuit is to observe
that the output is 1 if the inputs are different, but 0 if the inputs are the same.

XOR gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

1 1
1 1
1 1
A logical inverter, sometimes called a NOT gate to differentiate it from other types of
electronic inverter devices, has only one input. It reverses the logic state. If the input is 1,
then the output is 0. If the input is 0, then the output is 1.

Inverter or NOT gate

Input Output
1
1

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The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. It acts in the manner
of the logical operation "and" followed by negation. The output is "false" if both inputs
are "true." Otherwise, the output is "true."

NAND gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output
1
1 1
1 1
1 1

The NOR gate is a combination OR gate followed by an inverter. Its output is "true" if
both inputs are "false." Otherwise, the output is "false."

NOR gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

1
1
1
1 1

The XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gate is a combination XOR gate followed by an inverter. Its
output is "true" if the inputs are the same and "false" if the inputs are different.

XNOR gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

1
1
1
1 1 1

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Procedure
Formula and circuit diagram:
[1] NOT Gate:

Figure 1: RTL as NOT gate

[2] AND Gate: Y= A. B

Figure 2: Diode circuit as AND gate

[3] OR Gate: Y= A + B

Figure 3: Diode circuit as OR gate

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[4] NAND Gate:

Figure 4: DTL as NAND Gate

[5] NOR Gate:

Figure 5: neither DTL as NOR Gate

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Observation
Truth Table for NOT gate
A
0
1

Truth Table for AND gate

A B A.B
0
0
1
1

Truth Table for OR gate

A B A+B
0
0
1
1

Truth Table for NAND gate

A B A.B
0
0
1
1

Truth Table for NOR gate

A B A.B
0
0
1
1

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RESULT:

The truth tables for basic logic gates are verified.

Precaution:
1. Input must be off 5 volts.
2. Connections should be jointed correctly.
3. Connections must be tight.

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REFERENCES
[1] P. A. M. Zaitsev, “Phy 156 laboratory manual.”
[2]. Halliday& Resnick, Fundamentals of Physics, 9th editions
[3]. Serway Jewet- Physics for Scientists and Engineers 6th editions.
[4]. Wondimagegn A., Birhanu M., Wondimeneh L., Tamirat B, (2019), “module for
General physics”

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