124 William D. Engelke Conversely, the tool room group bore only 20% ofthe cost of the system but reaped 45% of the benefits (Engelke, 1987). Clearly, this system could enjoy support only asa team effort including the various involved staff areas. Engineering change tracking can be a major function ofthe FMS database. This includes control ofthe design being produced, future and past versions of it, manufacturing data for various change levels, and may extend to control of inventory to ensure that usage of the components specified for each engineering design version are coordinated. When automated manufacturing processes are being used, especially with low production volumes, the integrity ofthe design is vital. Itis important to avoid having multiple copies of the design, containing inconsistent changes, culating. An early decision to prohibit manual changes todesigns and specify thatthe CAD design isthe master can enforce the necessary discipline IV. Computer-Aided Design Considerations When Planning for Flexible Manufacturing Systems ‘Computer-aided design (CAD) is the point where design intent takes on electronic form, and hence can facilitate or impede the manufacturing operation. Often CAD shops which have been in operation for many years are forced to rethink their approach to design and drafting to enable the company to enjoy the ad- ‘vantages of flexible manufacturing, The following are tools which can help with the implementation of this direction. A. LIBRARY OF PARTS AA library of parts is a database which aids the product designer who is faced with a very large selection of potential components when creating a design Its major application is as a catalog of parts to be included in an assembly. In ‘many cases, its necessary to custom-develop a library-of-parts system optimized to the product, business, and company to be using it To be a powerful design aid, the library of parts requires the following capabilites (see Figure 8): + It must be searchable so that designers can let the computer do the work of selecting the right component for a specific application from a large catalog (perhaps tens of thousands), * It must provide ancillary information on parts that meet search criteria so that the designers can decide if parts suggested by the computer will meet the need. This may be a display of a graphical representation of the part a list ‘of key dimensions or component values, or other information.5. Databases in lesble Manufacturing Systoms 1s PART NUMBER: 25513 COMPONENT TYPE: RESISTOR TYPE: WIREWOUND TOLERANCE: 0.5% POWER RATING: 2 WATTS. ([atvioute Pointe) — —+} 8s ere, [Geometry Pointer Geometry brary of Parts Database vith geometry & atinbutes Figure 8. Auibutes are related ro geometry logically. These logical relationships are embodied in atabaze architecture Additionally, a number of other functions may be required, such as an expert system which assists less experienced designers by using a knowledge base developed by seasoned experts, automatic design optimization for cosvperformance, and reference to previous design detail, to name a few. The product designer ‘must be involved in the design of the database and search system to specify search and display capabilities. ‘When a fully functional library of pars is available, itis often found that much more efficient use of available parts can be made. For example, if it is ‘easy to search the computer to see if a certain type of part already exists, there will be fewer new designs specified which largely duplicate existing parts. With proper design, the library of parts can also be designed to control the use of obsolete parts, control engineering changes, manage supplier usage based on quality, and forecast parts usage and final assembly costs. ‘Ancillary information about each component is generally stored in the library of parts long with the design so that it can be included in an assembly. ‘When component attributes are stored in the assembly, they may be extracted126 William D. Engthe by software to produce files required for assembly, machining operations, bills ‘of material, and other uses (see Section C.) Needless to say, all of these undeniably useful functions require an in- vvestment, Designing, populating, and maintaining a library-of-parts database can be very labor-intensive and time-consuming. For example, a division of General Motors found that, when creating a library of electrical parts with approximately 25,000 components, it was necessary to expend one-half to one man-hour for each part added to the system. (This database contained 20 fields of information and a drawing on each part.) After initial creation, three to five changes per day were made to reflect newly available parts and engineering changes. It was calculated, however, that tooling costs to create a new part were such that even if the library of parts reduced the incidence of new parts by only 5 to 10%, the library would be cost-effective B. GROUP TECHNOLOGY Group technology (GT) is a fairly broad term which refers to the practice of taking advantage of similarities between different parts to enhance the design ‘and manufacturing operation. Parts may be grouped by shape, machin- ing/processing requitements, material, or any other convenient attribute; GT may be used in conjunction with a library of parts, if desired. Some manufacturing ‘operations do not need a sophisticated library of parts because they are building parts only, not assemblies. In that case, a simpler library using GT can be used for process planning, optimization of machine loading, or checking for the existence of a similar part before tooling up to build a new one. Group technology is not a database methodology as such. A GT system must be set up in accordance with the needs of the product and the business and can then be adapted to fit in with the MDS. As a basis of storage-and-search, techniques for a library of components, GT can make the database more un- derstandable and accessible to people who have little computer training. C. SPECIAL COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM DATA PREPARATION ‘When product and process are designed together, a product model can be developed which contains all the information necessary for effective interfacing tothe FMS. The usefulness of a model created in CAD is directly proportional {0 its intelligence content. The two major facets of intelligence are geometry and. attributes.5. Databases in Flexible Manufacturing Systems 127 1. About Geometry ‘The geometry of a part is the computer’s model of its physical shape. Typically, the minimum requirement in a CAD model destined to be used for FMS is a 3D wire frame. This level of detail captures front-to-back, side-to- side, and relative-fit relationships. It can be of use for FMS if parts are straight: forward and not easily misinterpreted; this implies that CAM engineers devel- ‘ping tool paths can easily understand the nature of the required surfaces. When part designs may contain ambiguities in a wire-frame model, itis necessary to add surface representation to the part, This is also the case when sculptured surfaces are required. Solid modeling offers the ultimate in part intelligence content, but adds litte that is of use to the CAM engineer. AAs part of the effort to integrate product and process design, the creation ‘of CAD parts must consider the needs of FMS, Specific needs depend on the system and product. Typical examples: + Some CAM packages require that the end points of lines have identical ‘coordinates to be considered joined. (This is necessary for the system to generate instructions that will. say. allow a cutting tool to continue around a corner.) However, it is easy (o inadvertently create a part design where the end points look as if they are joined but differ by a minute amount too small to be visible ‘on the screen. The discrepancy will later create annoying fix-up work for the CAM engineer. + It is important that design intent information in the CAD model be ‘complete enough so that the CAM engineer can create tool pathing and other required planning by reference to the design. Some of the advantages of using CADICAM are negated if the CAM group must constantly be on the phone to the CAD department while preparing FMS data. This may require the creation of software customized to the product so that all required questions are answered up front. 2. About Attributes Autibutes are information items about a part which are stored along with the CAD design: they contain data that may or may not be displayed when the part is viewed or plotted. These attributes can be created manually when the CAD designer draws the part or created by engineering.assistance software which queries the designer for information (see the following section) Once a design has been created, software can be created which extracts attribute information as required for use in various FMS subsystems. Design of the attribute database for a product is based on the product’s characteristics and the needs of downstream applications. For an assembly, f database often will have a hierarchical sirmcture. This allows reference to128 Witham D. Engelke subassemblies at any level. In some cases, database topology may reflect tech- nical considerations, such as the need to analyze the load on a structure or current in a branch of a circuit. The database in this situation acts as a model of the product. The database may also be (topologically) very simple in the case of ‘machined components. 3. Design Cycle Data Preparation To take full advantage of the capabilites offered by a joint geometry/ attribute database, custom software must be developed to aid the designer (Figure 9). Here, a library of parts with attributes has been created. Also, custom software has been written which interacts with the designer during the design process. ‘This has several functions: + To ensure that engineering design standards are followed * To audit the design to prevent certain (predictable) errors and omissions from occurring + To do custom computations unique to the product (e-g., calculating precise quantities of required materials even in a nonscaled drawing, checking certain technical attributes such as current, flow rate, ete.) + To handle certain repetitious functions + To recommend or automatically select features based on requited pa + To force the designer to pay attention to manufacturing constraints such a process limitations, producibility, and quality concerns Automatic decision making can be incorporated by the use of artificial intelli gence; an expert system making use of the experience of many designers can be developed to interact with the designer if appropriate. AS the designer works at the CAD station, 2 geometry/atribute database is built which is specific to this particular part or product. After completion of the design process, another custom program is run which extracts information from the product's attribute database suitable for use in other MDS functions. Depending on requirements, CAM engineers may also make use of the 3D model to develop NC programs and/or robot software. Completed manufacturing data then are moved to databases which are accessible during the scheduling and manufacturing operation, Another important part of design data planning is standardization of draw- jng/model content. Since models are used by multiple departments in an inte- grated system, standards must be set and adhered to for entity types, geometric presentation, level content, scaling, surface representation, completeness of model data, and possibly others. Custom application software can include capabilities to create designs that follow the standards5, Databases in Flexible Mansfacarng Systems 129 Biep 4. Step 2 Create a design using CAD This creates a design database system and design aid sofware. containing model geometry, drawings ‘nd altsbute information canicam ‘System v9 oa) Standard CAD fois pus design assstar| Star pecans farsi your proc. 3D mode! feutes tut Oatabase Custom spec sasn siabice Stop 3. Sep & Fun a program 1 extract and ut data into file prepare atrbute data required easy to be downloaded bY the FMS. Addtional manual Into manutacturing cat oBerations on the data may as raquired by schedule, be required rus Figure 9. Steps in going fom CAD to CAM to FMS-eady data V. Computer-Aided Manufacturing Considerations When Planing for Flexible Manufacturing Systems ‘Adding a new part to the FMS is @ multistep procedure which includes consid- ‘ration of requirements for machining, raw material, material handling, and inspection, Each additional item then becomes part of the repertoire of parts that can be produced in the FMS, Manufacturing data therefore require the same130 Wiliam D. Engelke level of control as is provided to tracking engineering changes and design levels in the CAD arena Considerable care must be given to planning the flow of data from CAD to CAM to numerically controlled (NC) machines. Assuming CAD data are complete, itis still necessary to do quite a bit of work to prepare a tool path, Along with guiding the CAM software in selecting machining paths, the engineer ‘must set speeds, tools, coolant, and numerous other parameters. Completed NC Programs must be stored in a database such that the MDS can access them in the correct sequence and pass them to the appropriate manufacturing cell as required. Part NC programming must be performed well enough in advance so that test pieces may be machined. Completed and tested NC programs can then become part of the NC database. A typical FMS cell will have a fairly limited range of products it can build, So itis possible for NC programmers to develop a high skill evel within this narrow range. Also, expert systems can be combined with machinability data- bbases to increase the effectiveness of the NC programming operation Robot programming can be improved by using a simulator package for off-line programming. A number of systems are available which provide the ability to develop robot programs off-line and visualize the robot moving through its steps. A difficulty often encountered is that there are few standards in robot languages. It then becomes an entire area of database storage and control to ‘manage the creation of the robot programs on the simulator and translation into the robot's language. Typical steps in this procedure are + Develop 3D kinematic models of the machines to be used, including robots, conveyors, parts feeders, transfer mechanisms, and all other moving ‘equipment. (Kinematic implies developing rules governing how the model's parts ccan move.) Vendors of off-line programming systems can supply models of ‘many popular robots, and develop custom models for specialized equipment ‘These models can also include simulation of other key capabilities of automatic equipment, such as inputioutput (/O) ports and programmed decision making, ‘These become part of the database associated with FMS. + Develop 3D models of the manufacturing cell to be simulated. This refers to stationary equipment with which moving equipment could possibly collide + Program simulations of the cell action sequence to be implemented. This allows engineering to check for collisions and interferences, observe the timing of operations, ensure that robot destinations are reachable, check that MO inter- connections make sense, and other factors. Simulation programs are written in a language unique to the simulator. * Translate the simulation program into the required robot language. This ccan be a real challenge if the simulator language does not map well into the5, Databases in Fesble Mansfocaring Systems 131 robot language; some manual fix-up of the robot program will probably be necessary + Even though most program problems will have been cleared from robot software prior to use (by way of the simulation) there will still be discrepancies. Most notable of these are destination errors, because a manufacturing work cell is usually built with slight errors. The program and robot must now be calibrated against the actual work cell Preparing robot programs by simulation reduces the amount of time the expensive robot must be tied up for enginecring debugging, as well as reducing the danger to personnel and fixturing due to testing new robot software. It also simplifies the creation of high-precision robot activities, VI. The Flexible Manufacturing System Database System ‘The typical FMS will require a combination of databases and complementary software systems which manipulate them. This section discusses commonly needed system areas and design methods for customizing a system for a specific FMS. Additionally, it is important to plan data exchange with other MDSs and treatment of specialty areas unique to a particular business, A. MAJOR SOFTWARE/DATABASE SUBSYSTEMS Since software to control the FMS and FMS databases are tightly linked, they must be considered together. It will also often be found that specific da- tabases have data interactions with multiple applications. An application may also access and update several databases. Because of this, it is vital to consider areas of required functionality rather than considering databases or software in isolation, A high level of automation in FMS control requires a fairly complete complement of “upstream” manufacturing database subsystems, Refer to Figure 10, Major software/database functions which may be required for the operation of an FMS include the following: + Computer-aided process planning (CAPP)iwork scheduling includes ac- cepting order information from the MIS, planning production, scheduling ma- chines, possibly optimizing the schedule. A machine capacity database is a vital pat of this application area, as is a calendar system to allow rational scheduling of operations.