SECTION 1:

ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
ENGR 201 – Electrical Fundamentals I
2 Introduction

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Electricity – what is it?
3

 Fundamental form of energy

 Resulting from charge differentials
 Electrons are the carriers of electrical charge
 Electron is negatively charged
 Hole – absence of an electron – is positively charged

 May occur naturally

 Lightning, static electricity
 May be produced by conversion from other forms
of energy
 Generator, battery, solar panel
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 Electricity – why do we care?
4

 Electricity can do work for us

 Mechanical, heat, light, etc.

 Efficient means of energy transmission

 Large regions supplied by a single power plant

 Used to process and transmit information

 Computers, mobile phones, TV, radio, etc.
 Instrumentation and measurement

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 Electrical Energy
5

 Energy is conserved, but may be converted from

one form to another
 Electrical energy – charge differentials – produced
from other forms of energy
 Generator – mechanical energy
 Battery – chemical energy

Electrical Generator

Mechanical Electrical
Energy In Energy Out

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 Electrical Energy
6

 Electrical energy can be converted into other

useful forms of energy
 Motor – mechanical energy
 Heater – thermal energy

 Charged battery – chemical energy

Electric Motor

Electrical Mechanical
Energy In Energy Out

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 Energy Transmission
7

 Electricity is an efficient means of energy

transmission
 Energy is transmitted broadly from a single power plant
 No longer need to grind our wheat at the windmill

 Imagine other modes of energy transmission

 Hydraulic, pneumatic, cables, rotating shafts
 Pneumatic was used in some European cities and was
proposed for transmission of energy from Niagara to
Buffalo in late 19th century

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 Relevance for ALL Engineers
8

 Energy
 Efficient means of transmission & distribution
 Efficient conversion
 Efficiency of motors vs. engines

 Very few engineered systems without electronics

 Aircraft, automobiles, robotics, etc.
 Instrumentation and measurement
 Allengineered products and systems must be tested,
measured, and evaluated
 Electronic measurements are fast, accurate, repeatable,
and can be automated
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 What is Electrical Engineering?
9

 Many categories of electrical engineers

 Most fall into one of two areas:
 Electronics
 Computers
 Communications
 Instrumentation and measurement
 Controls/robotics
 Energy systems

 Power systems
 Power generation, transmission, distribution, storage
 Electric drives
 Controls/robotics
 Energy systems

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10 Where We Are Going

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 ENGR 201/202
11

 ENGR 201 – Electrical Fundamentals I

 DC circuits

 ENGR 202 – Electrical Fundamentals II

 AC circuits

 Objectives of these courses:

 Develop an understanding of electrical circuit theory
 To prepare you for courses in:
 Energy conversion systems – ESE 450
 Electrical power systems – ESE 470
 Energy storage systems – ESE 471
 Electronics/circuit design
 System dynamics and Controls
 Robotics

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 ENGR 201 – Course Overview
12

 ENGR 201 – Electrical Fundamentals I

 DC circuit analysis

 Section 1: Electrical Fundamentals

 Section 2: Resistive Circuit Analysis I
 Fundamental laws
 Section 3: Resistive Circuit Analysis II
 Circuit analysis methods
 Section 4: Operational Amplifiers
 Section 5: Capacitance and Inductance

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 Electronic Photo Flash Circuit
13

 Electronic photo flash

circuit
 Simple, yet very interesting
circuit example
 Preview of what you will
learn in ENGR 201
 The problem:
 Use small, rechargeable battery to fire the camera flash
 The details:
 4 V battery – maximum output power: ~1 W
 Flash tube requires 100s of volts, ~1000 W

 By the end of ENGR 201, you’ll understand:

 How this works – how the required voltage and power are supplied
 How we determine the appropriate model for the battery
 How long the battery will last – how many flashes
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14 Electrical Fundamentals

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 Electrical Potential
15

 Potential or voltage or electromotive force (emf)

 A measure of electrical energy
 The energy required to move one unit of electrical charge
from one point to another
 Units of potential: volts (𝑉𝑉)
 Units of electrical charge: coulombs (𝐶𝐶)
 Units of energy: joules (𝐽𝐽)

𝐽𝐽
1𝑉𝑉 = 1
𝐶𝐶
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 Electrical Potential
16

 Electrical potential is a differential quantity

 Voltage between two points in a circuit
 Voltage between a point and a ground reference

 No such thing as an absolute voltage at a location, but…

 We do talk about node voltages
 Always referenced to ground
 For example,
 Node voltages:
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = 10 𝑉𝑉, 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 5 𝑉𝑉
 Differential voltage:
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 5 𝑉𝑉

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 Electric Field
17

 Electric field
 A field of force experienced by positively-charged particles
 Points from positive to negative charge (positive to negative
potential)
 Positive charge wants to move in the direction of the E-field,
toward negative charge
 Units: newtons per coulomb (N/C) or volts per meter (V/m)
 The negative gradient of the potential
 Electrical energy is stored in the electric field
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 Electrical Current
18

 Electrical current (I) is the flow of positive charge

 Voltage is the driving potential
 Units: amperes or amps (A) – coulombs per second (C/s)
 A rate of charge flow:
𝐶𝐶
1𝐴𝐴 = 1
𝑠𝑠
 Current wants to flow from high to low potential
 Analogous to fluid flow or heat flow
 Fluid flows from high to low pressure
 Heat flows from high to low temperature

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 Current – what’s really flowing?
19

 Current is defined as the flow of positive charge

 Really, current is the flow of negatively-charged
electrons in the opposite direction
 Electrons flow from low potential to high potential
 Negative charge flow in one direction is equivalent to
positive charge flow in the opposite direction

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 Conductors and Insulators
20

 Electrical current flows more easily in some

materials (conductors) than in others (insulators)
 Good conductors:
 Copper

 Aluminum

 Gold

 Silver
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 All have a single valence electron

 Easy for electrons to move from one atom to the next
 Good insulators have full valence bands
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 Electrical-Mechanical Analogies
21

 Electrical systems are analogous to:

 Fluid systems
 Thermal systems

Domain Driving potential Flowing quantity Flow (units)

Electrical Voltage Positive charge Current (A)

Fluid Pressure Fluid Flow rate (m3/s)

Thermal Temperature Heat Heat flux (W)

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22 Electrical Circuits

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 Electrical Networks – Schematics
23

 Electrical circuits represented graphically with schematics

 Schematic symbols represent circuit elements
 Schematics detail connections between circuit elements
 Schematics describe paths for the flow of electrical current
 Some examples:

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 Electrical Networks – Branches & Nodes
24

 Nodes
 Connection points for
circuit elements
 Node voltages given
with respect to a
reference node (0 V,
ground)
 E.g. V3 = 0 V, here
 Current flows into and
out of nodes
 Branches
 Paths for current to flow
 Connections between nodes
 Branches are the components that comprise the circuit
 Voltage across a branch is the difference between node voltages
at either end
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25 Electrical Signals & Waveforms

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 Electrical Signals
26

 Voltage and current are the two properties of electrical

circuits that we are most often concerned with
 Voltages and currents may be constant as functions of time
 Direct current, DC
 Or they may be time-varying
 Alternating current, AC
 We can refer to these quantities as electrical signals
 They carry information
 More appropriate terminology in the world of electronics than
power systems

 Voltages and currents can be plotted as functions of

time – waveforms

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 DC vs. AC
27

 DC (direct current) electrical signals (voltages, currents) are time-

invariant
 In ENGR 201, we will primarily focus on DC signals

 AC (alternating current) electrical signals are time-varying

 Possibly periodic

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 Some Typical Waveforms
28

Sinusoid: Square wave:

Triangle wave: Noise:

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 Sinusoidal Signals
29

 In ENGR 202, we will see that sinusoidal signals are of

particular interest in the field of electrical engineering

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 cos( 2𝜋𝜋 ⋅ 𝑓𝑓 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙)

 Sinusoidal signals defined by three parameters:

 Amplitude: 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
 Frequency: 𝜔𝜔 or 𝑓𝑓
 Phase: 𝜙𝜙

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 Amplitude
30

 Amplitude of a
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 � sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 � sin 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 𝜙𝜙
sinusoid is its peak
voltage, 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
 Peak-to-peak voltage,
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 , is twice the 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 = 170 𝑉𝑉
amplitude

𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 340 𝑉𝑉
 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 2𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Frequency
31

 Period (𝑇𝑇)
 Duration of one cycle
 Frequency (𝑓𝑓)
 Number of periods per second
1
𝑓𝑓 =
𝑇𝑇
 Ordinary frequency, 𝑓𝑓
 Units: hertz (Hz), sec-1, cycles/sec
 Angular frequency, 𝜔𝜔
 Units: rad/sec
𝜔𝜔 𝑇𝑇 = 16 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋, 𝑓𝑓 =
2𝜋𝜋

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Phase
32

 Phase
 Angular constant in signal expression, 𝜙𝜙
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙
 Requires a time reference
 Interested in relative, not
absolute, phase
 Here,
 𝑣𝑣1 𝑡𝑡 leads 𝑣𝑣2 𝑡𝑡
 𝑣𝑣2 𝑡𝑡 lags 𝑣𝑣1 𝑡𝑡
 Units: radians
 Not technically correct, but OK
to express in degrees, e.g.:
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 170 𝑉𝑉 sin 2𝜋𝜋 ⋅ 60𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡 + 34°
K. Webb ENGR 201
 RMS Value
33

 Root mean square (rms) 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 = 1 𝑉𝑉

voltage/current
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 707 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 Square root of the time average
of the voltage/current squared
 AC voltage applied across a
resistor results in same power
dissipation as a DC voltage where
𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

 For sinusoids:
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
2
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 2 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙

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34 Electrical Energy & Power

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 Energy and Power
35

 True understanding of electrical systems comes from understanding

how they behave in terms of energy
 True for dynamic systems in any domain – mechanical, electrical, etc.
 Electrical components can do one of four things:
 Supply energy
 Store energy
 Dissipate energy
 Transform/transmit/convert energy

 We’re also concerned with the rate at which energy is supplied,

stored, dissipated, or transformed
 Power is the rate of energy flow
 Unit of energy: joule (𝐽𝐽)
𝐽𝐽
 Unit of power: watt (𝑊𝑊), 1 𝑊𝑊 = 1
𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Energy and Power
36

 Power is the rate of energy flow

 The time derivative of energy
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐽𝐽
𝑊𝑊 =
𝑠𝑠
 Similarly, energy is given by the integral of power
𝐸𝐸 = ∫ 𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 For constant power, this simplifies to the product of power and time
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑃𝑃 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡
𝐽𝐽
𝐽𝐽 = ⋅ 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Electrical Energy
37

 The power utility company charges us for energy, not

power
 Units: watt-hours (Wh or kWh)
 For example: $0.12/kWh

 One watt-hour (1 Wh):

 Quantity of energy equivalent to the consumption of 1 W
for 1 hour
𝐽𝐽 𝐽𝐽 3600 𝑠𝑠
1 𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 1 ⋅ 1 ℎ = 1 ⋅ 1 ℎ ⋅ = 3600 𝐽𝐽
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟𝑟
1 𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 3.6 × 103 𝐽𝐽 = 3.6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 3.6 × 106 𝐽𝐽 = 3.6 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

K. Webb ENGR 201
 Electrical Power
38

 A circuit component will have voltage across it and current

flowing through it
 In general, both are functions of time: 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 and 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡

 Power flowing to/from that component is

given by the product of voltage and current

𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡

 Instantaneous power
 A function of time
 If 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 and 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 are constant (DC) then 𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 is constant as
well
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Power – Passive Sign Convention
39

 Power can be supplied or absorbed by electrical

components
 For any component, power is given by
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡

 Use the passive sign convention to determine if power is

supplied or absorbed:

 Positive current flows into the positive voltage

terminal
 Positive power (𝑝𝑝 > 0) indicates power absorbed
 Negative power (𝑝𝑝 < 0) indicates power supplied

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Electrical Energy - Batteries
40

 Batteries store electrochemical energy

 Amount of energy stored is capacity
 Typically specified in units of ampere-hours (Ah)

 For example, a 90 Ah battery could supply the

equivalent of 90 A for 1 hour
C 3600 𝑠𝑠
90 𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 90 𝐴𝐴 ⋅ 1 ℎ = 90 ⋅ 1 ℎ ⋅ = 324 × 103 𝐶𝐶
s 1ℎ
 Or, 1 A for 90 hours (or any other equivalent combination)
C 3600 𝑠𝑠
90 𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1 𝐴𝐴 ⋅ 90 ℎ = 1 ⋅ 90 ℎ ⋅ = 324 × 103 𝐶𝐶
s 1ℎ

 Clearly, this is a quantity of charge, not energy

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 Electrical Energy - Batteries
41

 To relate capacity in Ah to energy storage, we must know

the battery’s voltage
 For example, consider a 90 Ah, 12 V battery
 If discharging at 1 A, for example, the power supplied is

𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼 = 12 𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 1 𝐴𝐴 = 12 𝑊𝑊

 At this rate the battery can discharge for 90 h, so the total stored
energy is
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑃𝑃 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡 = 12 𝑊𝑊 ⋅ 90 ℎ = 1080 𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 1.08 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

 Energy capacity in Wh is given by the product of capacity in Ah

and the battery voltage

𝐸𝐸 = (capacity in Ah) ⋅ (battery voltage)

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42 Example Problems

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 How much charge is stored in an 80 Ah battery?

43 K. Webb ENGR 201

 A 24 V battery pack will be used to power a 100 W load for 3 hours.
What is the required battery capacity in Ah? In Wh? In J?

44 K. Webb ENGR 201

 A daily load profile for a
building is shown. How much
energy is consumed each day?
If the cost of electricity is
$0.11/kWh, what is the daily
cost of electricity? What is the
yearly cost?

45 K. Webb ENGR 201

46 K. Webb ENGR 201
 A typical 9 V battery has a capacity of 170 mAh. How many batteries would
have to be connected in parallel to drive an 80 W load for 2 hours?

47 K. Webb ENGR 201

 Determine the power for the
source and for each branch
element in the following circuit.
Show that power is conserved.

48 K. Webb ENGR 201

 How much energy is delivered by a 20 hp motor in 15 minutes?
If the motor is 92% efficient, how much energy is consumed by the
motor during that time? (1 hp = 746 W)

49 K. Webb ENGR 201

50 Electrical Circuit Components

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 Circuit Components
51

 Independent voltage source

 Schematic symbol:

 Description:
 Generates a fixed voltage between its terminals
 DC or AC
 Units: volts (V)

 Independent current source

 Schematic symbol:

 Description:
 Generates a fixed current
 DC or AC
 Current flows in one terminal and out the other
 Units: amperes (A)

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 Circuit Components
52

 Dependent voltage source

 Schematic symbol:

2⋅V4

 Description:
 Generates a voltage that is a function of another voltage or current in the circuit
 Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) or current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
 Units: volts (V)

 Dependent current source

 Schematic symbol:

0.6⋅ia

 Description:
 Generates a current that is a function of another current or voltage in the circuit
 Current-controlled current source (CCCS) or voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
 Units: amperes (A)
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 Circuit Components
53

 Resistor
 Schematic symbol:

 Description:
 Circuit element that resists the flow of electrical current
 Intentional or parasitic resistance (even wires are resistive)
 Units: ohms (Ω)

 Ground
 Schematic symbol:

 Description:
 Voltage reference for a circuit
 Ground node
 Potential of 0 V

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 Circuit Components
54

 Capacitor
 Schematic symbol:

 Description:
 Stores energy in an electric field
 Two electrodes separated by a dielectric
 Stores a charge differential between the two electrodes
 Units: farads (F)

 Inductor
 Schematic symbol:

 Description:
 Stores energy in a magnetic field
 A coil of wire
 Units: henries (H)

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 Circuit Components
55

 Switch
 Schematic symbol: SPST SPDT

 Description:
 Controls connections between multiple nodes in a circuit
 Single-pole single-throw (SPST) switch makes/breaks connection
between two nodes
 Single-pole double-throw (SPDT) switch connects one node to one of
two other nodes
 Many other configurations, e.g. DPDT, 3PDT, 6P3T, etc.

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 Circuit Components
56

 Diode
 Schematic symbol:
anode cathode
 Description:
 Two-terminal semiconductor device
 Junction of p-type and n-type semiconductor – a p-n junction
 Allows current to flow in one direction only (anode to cathode)
 Analogous to a check valve

 Light-emitting diode (LED)

 Schematic symbol:

 Description:
 Diode that emits photons in response to current flowing through it
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 Circuit Components
57

 Transistor NPN PNP NMOS PMOS

 Schematic symbol:

 Description:
 Three-terminal semiconductor device
 Small voltage on/current into one terminal controls current flow
between the other two terminals
 Primary building block of integrated circuits
 Can be used as switches or amplifiers
 Analogous to valves:

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 Short Circuits & Open Circuits
58

 Short circuit
 Direct connection between multiple nodes in a circuit
 A direct path for current to flow
 Often refers to an unintentional connection

 Open circuit
 Lack of any electrical connection between two nodes in a circuit
 No path for current to flow
 Again, often used to refer to an unintended condition
open circuit

short circuit

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 Complete Circuits
59

 Electrical current always flows in a complete circuit

A return current path must always exist for current to
flow
 Consider a simple lamp:
 Two-conductor cord – line and neutral
 Current flows from socket, down one conductor – line
 Current flows through the bulb
 Current returns back along the neutral conductor to the
wall, and, ultimately, to the power plant

 Ladder on a power line vs. bird on power line

K. Webb ENGR 201

60 Miscellany

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Problem Solving
61

 Engineering is all about solving problems, e.g.:

 Designing complex systems to solve problems
 Troubleshooting malfunctioning prototypes
 Solving homework/exam problems as a student

 All engineering problems are different, but we can apply a similar

general process to all problem solving:
1. Carefully define the problem
2. Present everything you know about the problem
3. Establish a list of alternative approaches to solving the problem and
select the “best” approach
4. Attempt to solve the problem
5. Evaluate the solution and check for accuracy
6. If the problem is solved, you’re done, if not, go to step 3

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Problem Solving
62

 In flowchart form:
1. Carefully define the problem
2. Present everything you know
about the problem
3. Establish a list of alternative
approaches to solving the
problem and select the “best”
approach
4. Attempt to solve the problem
5. Evaluate the solution and
check for accuracy
6. If the problem is solved, you’re
done, if not, go to step 3

K. Webb ENGR 201

 SI Prefixes
63

 Use SI prefixes for unit scaling whenever possible

 Simplifies notation
 Makes quantities easier to read and prevents errors
 For example: 18 psec vs. 0.000000000018 sec

Multiplier Prefix Symbol

1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo K
10−3 milli m
10−6 micro 𝜇𝜇
10−9 nano n
10−12 pico p
10−15 femto f
10−18 atto a
K. Webb ENGR 201