Assignment 1:

Chapter 1: Introduction to MATLAB

Q1: For the following program: Compound interest:

balance = 1000;
rate = 0.09;
interest = rate * balance;
balance = balance + interest;
disp( 'New balance:' );
disp( balance );

1. Run the compound interest program as it stands.

2. Change the first statement in the program to read balance = 2000;
Make sure that you understand what happens when the program runs.
3. Leave out the line
balance = balance + interest;
and rerun. Can you explain what happens?
4. Rewrite the program so that the original value of balance is not lost.

Q2:
2.1. Give values to variables a and b on the command line—for example, a=3 and b=5.
Write statements to find the sum, difference, product, and quotient of a and b.

2.2. Given a script for animating the Mexican hat problem.

[x y ] = meshgrid( -8 : 0.5 : 8);

r = sqrt(x.^2 + y.^2) + eps;
z = sin(r)./ r;
mesh(z);

Type this into the editor, save it, and execute it.

Q3:
3.1. Enter a statement like x = [1 3 0 –1 5]
Can you see that you have created a vector (list) with five elements?
Enter the command disp(x) to see how MATLAB displays a vector.
Enter the command whos (or look in the Workspace browser). Under the heading Size
you will see that x is 1 by 5, which means 1 row and 5 columns. You will also see that
the total number of elements is 5.
3.2 You can use commas instead of spaces between vector elements if you like.
Try this: a = [5,6,7]
3.3 You can use one vector in a list for another one. Type in the following:
a = [1 2 3];
b = [4 5];
c = [a –b];
Can you work out what c will look like before displaying it?
And what about this?
a = [1 3 7];
a = [a 0 –1];

3.4 Enter the following

x=[]
Note in the Workspace browser that the size of x is given as 0 by 0 because x is empty.
This means x is defined and can be used where an array is appropriate without causing
an error; however, it has no size or value.

Remember the following important rules:

■ Elements in the list must be enclosed in square brackets, not
parentheses.
■ Elements in the list must be separated either by spaces or by commas.
■ A subscript is indicated by parentheses.
■ A subscript may be a scalar or a vector.
■ In MATLAB subscripts always start at 1.
■ Fractional subscripts are not allowed.
Chapter 2:
Operators, Expressions, and Statements - Arrays, vectors and matrices

Real decimal numbers (double)

To deal with arrays on an element-by-element level we

need to use the following array or dot-operators:
.* , ./ and .^
Assignment 2:

Q1: Use MATLAB array operations to do the following:

1.1. Add 1 to each element of the vector [2 3 –1].

1.2. Multiply each element of the vector [1 4 8] by 3.

1.3. Find the array product of the two vectors [1 2 3] and [0 –1 1]. (Answer: [0 –2 3])
1.4. Square each element of the vector [2 3 1].

Q2:
2.1. Evaluate the following expressions yourself (before you use MATLAB to check).
The numerical answers are in parentheses.
(a) 2 / 2 * 3 (3)
(b) 2 / 3 ˆ 2 (2/9)
(c) (2 / 3) ˆ 2 (4/9)
(d) 2 + 3 * 4 – 4 (10)
(e) 2 ˆ 2 * 3 / 4 + 3 (6)
(f) 2 ˆ (2 * 3) / (4 + 3) (64/7)
(g) 2 * 3 + 4 (10)
(h) 2 ˆ 3 ˆ 2 (64)
(i) –4 ˆ 2 (–16; ˆ has higher precedence than –)

2.2. Use MATLAB to evaluate the following expressions. The answers are in
parentheses.
(a) (1.4142; use sqrt or ˆ0.5)
(b) (0.6364; use brackets)
(c) Find the sum of 5 and 3 divided by their product (0.5333)
(d) (512)
(e) Find the square of 2π (39.4784; use pi)
(f) (19.7392)

2.3. Try to avoid using unnecessary brackets in an expression. Can you spot the errors
in the following expression? (Test your corrected version with MATLAB.)
(2(3+4)/(5*(6+1))ˆ2

Note that the MATLAB Editor has two useful ways of dealing with the problem of
―unbalanced delimiters‖ (which you should know about if you have been working
through Help!):
■ When you type a closing delimiter, that is, a right ), ], or }, its matching
opening delimiter is briefly highlighted. So if you don’t see the highlighting
when you type a right delimiter, you immediately know you’ve got one too
many.
■ When you position the cursor anywhere inside a pair of delimiters and select
Text→Balance Delimiters (or press Ctrl+B), the characters inside the
delimiters are highlighted.
Q3:
3.1 Set up a vector n with elements 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Use MATLAB array operations on it to
set up the following four vectors, each with five elements:
(a) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
(b) 1/2, 1, 3/2, 2, 5/2
(c) 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5
(d) 1, 1/22, 1/32, 1/42, 1/52

3.2. Suppose vectors a and b are defined as follows:

a = [2 –1 5 0];
b = [3 2 –1 4];
Evaluate by hand the vector c in the following statements. Check your answers with MATLAB.
(a) c = a – b;
(b) c = b + a – 3;
(c) c = 2 * a + a .ˆ b;
(d) c = b ./ a;
(e) c = b . a;
(f) c = a .ˆ b;
(g) c = 2.ˆb+a;
(h) c = 2*b/3.*a;
(i) c = b*2.*a;

3.3. Water freezes at 32◦ and boils at 212◦ on the Fahrenheit scale. If C and F are
Celsius and Fahrenheit temperatures, the formula
F = 9/5C + 32
converts from one to the other. Use the MATLAB command line to convert Celsius 37 ◦
(normal human temperature) to Fahrenheit (98.6◦).

C = 37;
F = C*9/5 + 32;
disp(F);
Assignment 3:
Chapter 2: Arrays: vectors and matrices - Repeating with for loop

Q1: Vertical motion under gravity problem:

If a stone is thrown vertically upward with an initial speed u, its vertical displacement s
after an elapsed time t is given by the formula s = ut − gt2/2, where g is the acceleration
due to gravity. Air resistance is ignored. We would like to compute the value of s over a
period of about 12.3 seconds at intervals of 0.1 seconds, and plot the distance–time
graph over this period.
Solution:
The structure plan for this problem is as follows:
1. Assign the data (g, u, and t) to MATLAB variables
2. Calculate the value of s according to the formula
3. Plot the graph of s against t
4. Stop

% Vertical motion under gravity

g = 9.81; % acceleration due to gravity
u = 60; % initial velocity in m/sec
t = 0 : 0.1 : 12.3; % time in seconds
s = u * t – g / 2 * t .^ 2; % vertical displacement in meters
plot(t, s), title( ‘Vertical motion under gravity’ )
xlabel( ‘time’ ), ylabel( ‘vertical displacement’ )
grid
disp( [t’ s’] ) % display a table
Q2- Linear equations
Solve a system of linear equations: x + 2y = 4
2x – y = 3
1- Using matrix notation:
a = [1 2; 2 –1];
b = [4; 3];
x = a\b
2- Using solve command:
[x,y] = solve(’x+2*y=4’,’2*x–y=3’)
whos
x = double(x), y=double(y)
whos

Q3: OUTPUT
3.1. The disp statement:
General form of disp for a numerical variable is:
disp (variable)
To display a message and a value on the same line, use the following trick:
x = 2;
disp( [’The answer is ’, num2str(x)] );
The output should be
The answer is 2

3.2. The format command:

3.3 fprintf statement:

Used to exactly control the output format. For example:
* fprintf(’%s %4.0f\n’, name, mark)
The basic for construct

for index = j:k for index = j:m:k

statements statements
end end

If the for construct has the form:

for k = first : increment : last
The number of times the loop is executed may be calculated from the
following equation:

where the MATLAB function floor(x) rounds x down toward −∞.

This value is called the iteration or trip count.

Q4: Factorials!
Run the following program to generate a list of n and n! (―n factorial,‖ or ―n shriek‖),
where
n! = 1 × 2 × 3 × . . . × (n − 1) × n
n = 10;
fact = 1;
for k = 1:n
fact = k * fact;
disp( [k fact] )
end
Experiment to find the largest value of n for which MATLAB can find the n factorial.

Q5: Series with alternating sign:

Find the sum of the first 99 terms of the following series with a for loop:

sign = -1;
s = 0;
for n = 1:99
sign = -sign;
s = s + sign / n;
end
Homework:
Write MATLAB programs to find the following sums with for loops and by vectorization.
 12 + 22 + 32 +· · ·+10002

 1-
 Sum the left-hand side of the series:

(sum is 0.1169 - with 500 terms)

Solution:
 12 + 22 + 32 +· · ·+10002 (sum is 333 833 500)
s = 0; % with for loop
for i = 1:1000
s = s + i^2;
end
disp(s);

a = 1:1000; % by vectorization
s = sum(a.^2);

 1- (0.7849)
sign = -1; % with for loop
s = 0;
for i = 1:2:1003
sign = -sign;
s = s + sign/i;
end
disp(s);

a = 1:4:1001; % by vectorization
b = 3:4:1003;
s = sum(a.\1) - sum(b.\1);

 (-0.1169 with 500 terms)

s = 0; % with for loop
for i = 1:2:501
s = s + 1/(i^2-(i+2)^2);
end
disp(s);
Assignment 4:
Chapter 2
Decisions – Structure plan

If statement

if condition statement, end

if condition statementA, else statementB, end

if condition1
statementsA
elseif condition2
statementsB
elseif condition3
statementsC Logical operators
... More complicated logical expressions
can be constructed using the three
else
logical operators:
statementsE & (and), | (or), and ˜ (not).
end

Q1: The quadratic equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0

if (b ˆ 2 - 4*a*c == 0) & (a ∼= 0)
x = –b / (2*a);
end

d = bˆ 2 – 4*a*c;
if a ∼= 0
if d < 0
disp( ’Complex roots’ )
else
x1 = (–b + sqrt( d )) / (2*a);
x2 = (–b – sqrt( d )) / (2*a);
end % first end ««««««
end
Q2: switch – case statement:

d = floor(3*rand) + 1
switch d
case 1
disp( ’That’’s a 1!’ );
case 2
disp( ’That’’s a 2!’ );
otherwise
disp( ’Must be 3!’ );
end

Multiple expressions can be handled in a single case statement by enclosing the case
expression in a cell array
d = floor(10*rand);
switch d
case {2, 4, 6, 8}
disp( ’Even’ );
case {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
disp( ’Odd’ );
otherwise
disp( ’Zero’ );
end
Chapter 3: Program Design and Algorithm Development:
Review of basic elements:
- Input
Initialize, define, request, or assign numerical values to variables.
- Set of commands
Operations applied to input variables that lead to the desired result.
- Output
Display (graphically or numerically) result.

Structure plan examples:

1- Write a script to convert a temperature on the Fahrenheit scale (where water
freezes and boils at 32◦ and 212◦, respectively) to the Celsius scale.
1. Initialize Fahrenheit temperature
2. Calculate and display Celsius temperature
3. Stop

%
F = input(‘Temperature in degrees F: ‘);
C = (F-32)*5/9;
disp([ ‘Temperature in degrees C = ‘,num2str(C)])
% STOP

2- Quadratic Equation: ax2 + bx + c = 0

A structure plan of the complete algorithm for finding the solution(s) x, given any values
of a, b, and c
1. Input the data
2. Find and display the solution(s)
3. Stop

% Step 1: Start
format compact
disp(' ')
disp(' Quadratic roots finder ')
disp(' ')
% Step 2: Input data
A = input(' Specify coefficients as follows: [a, b, c] = ');
a = A(1);b = A(2);c = A(3);
% Step 3: Evaluation of roots
if a==0 & b==0 & c==0
disp(' Solution is indeterminate ')
elseif a==0 & b==0
disp(' There is no solution ')
elseif a==0
x = -c/b
disp(' Only one root: equation is linear.')
elseif b^2 - 4*a*c < 0
disp(' Complex roots')
elseif b^2 - 4*a*c == 0
x = -b/(2*a)
disp(' Equal roots')
elseif b^2 - 4*a*c > 0
x1 = (-b + sqrt(b.^2-4.*a.*c) )./(2.*a);
x2 = (-b - sqrt(b.^2-4.*a.*c) )./(2.*a);
disp(' x1,x2 the two distinct roots')
disp([x1 x2])
end
format
% Step 4: Stop
Chapter 4: MATLAB Functions and Data Import–Export
Utilities:
1- Common functions:

Note that if the argument of a function is an array, the function is applied element by
element to all the values in the array.
For example, sqrt([1 2 3 4])
returns 1.0000 1.4142 1.7321 2.0000

To examine these functions plot them.

x = –1:.1:1; <Enter> plot(x,abs(x),’o’) <Enter> % abs(x) absolute value of x.
2- Importing and Exporting data: The load and save commands
To export (save) the array in ―delimited‖ ASCII format in the file myData.txt,
A=1 2 3
4 5 6

use the command

save myData.txt A –ascii

If you view myData.txt in a text editor (or type it in the Command Window)
it looks like this:
1.0000000e+000 2.0000000e+000 3.0000000e+000
4.0000000e+000 5.0000000e+000 6.0000000e+000

Importing text (ASCII) data

A = load(’myData.txt’)
Chapter 5: Logical Vectors:
Examples:
- If you enter
r = 1:5;
r <= 3
the logical expressionr <= 3(where r is a vector) returns a vector
1 1 1 0 0

- To compare vectors with vectors in logical expressions:

a = 1:5;
b = [0 2 3 5 6];
a == b % no semi-colon!
The logical expression a == b returns the logical vector
0 1 1 0 0
because it is evaluated element by element; that is, a(1) is compared with b(1),
a(2) with b(2), and so forth.

1- Logical Operators:

Example,
˜0 & 0 returns 0 (false), whereas
˜(0 & 0) returns 1 (true).
Some more examples:
(b * (b == 4) * a * c) & (a ˜= 0)
(final >= 60) & (final < 70)
(a ˜= 0) | (b ˜= 0) | (c != 0)
˜((a == 0) & (b == 0) & (c == 0))

Note: The expression 0 < r < 1

is coded as (0 < r) & (r < 1)
Exercise:
Work out the results of the following expressions before checking them at the
command line:
a = [–1 0 3];
b = [0 3 1];
~a ans= 0 1 0
a&b ans= 0 0 1
a|b ans= 1 1 1
xor(a, b) ans= 1 1 0
a>0&b>0 ans= 0 0 1
a>0|b>0 ans= 0 1 1
~a > 0 ans= 0 1 0
a + (~b) ans= 0 0 3
a > ~b ans= 0 0 1
~a>b ans= 0 0 0
~ (a > b) ans= 1 1 0

2- Subscripting with logical vectors

Examples:
* a = [–2 0 1 5 9];
a([5 1 3]) returns 9 –2 1

* a(logical([0 1 0 1 0])) returns 0 5

* a = a(a > 0) removes all the nonpositive elements from a because

a > 0 returns the logical vector [0 0 1 1 1].
* islogical(a > 0) returns 1, because a>0 is a logical vector

3- Logical Functions:
any(x) returns the scalar 1 (true) if any element of x is nonzero (true).
all(x) returns the scalar 1 if all elements of x are nonzero.
* Because any and all with vector arguments return scalars, they are
particularly useful in if statements.
* if all(a >= 1) if any(a ˜= b)
do something do something
end end
exist(’a’) returns 1 if a is a workspace variable.
find(x) returns a vector containing the subscripts of the nonzero (true) elements of x.
* a = a( find(a) ) removes all zero elements from a.
* x = [8 1 –4 8 6];
find(x >= max(x)) returns the vector [1 4], which comprises the subscripts
of the largest element.
isempty(x) returns 1 if x is an empty array and 0 otherwise
isinf(x) returns 1s for the elements of x that are +Inf or –Inf, and 0’s otherwise.
isnan(x) returns 1s where the elements of x are NaN, and 0’s otherwise.
ischar() returns 1 if () contains character data
isnumeric() returns 1 if () contains numeric data

Exercise:

% Income tax the old-fashioned way

inc = [5000 10000 15000 30000 50000];
for ti = inc
if ti < 10000
tax = 0.1 * ti;
elseif ti < 20000
tax = 1000 + 0.2 * (ti – 10000);
else
tax = 3000 + 0.5 * (ti – 20000);
end;
disp( [ti tax] )
end;

Now, using the logical way:

% Income tax the logical way
inc = [5000 10000 15000 30000 50000];
tax = 0.1 * inc .* (inc <= 10000);
tax = tax + (inc > 10000 & inc <= 20000) .* (0.2 * (inc–10000) + 1000);
tax = tax + (inc > 20000) .* (0.5 * (inc–20000) + 3000);
disp( [inc’ tax’] );

Taxable income Income tax

5000.00 500.00
10000.00 1000.00
15000.00 2000.00
30000.00 8000.00
50000.00 18000.00
Examples:
1- Discontinuous graphs
One very useful application of logical vectors is in plotting discontinuities. The following script
plots the graph, defined by:

over the range 0 to 3π:

x = 0 : pi/20 : 3 * pi;
y = sin(x);
y = y .* (y > 0); % set negative values of sin(x) to zero
plot(x, y)

2- Avoiding division by zero

Suppose you want to plot the graph of sin(x)/x over the range −4π to 4π. The most
convenient way to set up a vector of the x coordinates is
x = –4*pi : pi / 20 : 4*pi;
But then, when you try
y = sin(x) ./ x;
you get the Divide by zero warning because one of the elements of x is exactly zero.
The following script plots the graph correctly—without a missing segment at x = 0.

x = –4*pi : pi/20 : 4*pi;

x = x + (x == 0)*eps; % adjust x = 0 to x = eps
y = sin(x) ./ x;
plot(x, y)

When x has the value eps, the value of sin(eps)/eps has the correct limiting
value of 1 (check it) instead of NaN (Not-a-Number) resulting from a division
by zero.

3- Counting random numbers

The function rand returns a (pseudo-) random number in the interval [0, 1); rand(1, n)
returns a row vector of n such numbers.
Work out the following problem on the command line:

1. Set up a vector r with seven random elements

r = rand(1,7) % no semi-colon

2. Check that the logical expression r < 0.5 gives the correct logical vector. Using the
function sum on the logical expression r < 0.5 will effectively count how many elements
of r are less than 0.5. Try it and check your answer against the values displayed for r:
sum( r < 0.5 )

4- Rolling dice
When a fair die is rolled, the number uppermost is equally likely to be any integer from 1
to 6. Thus, if rand is a random number in the range [0, 1), 6 * rand will be in the range 0,
6) and 6 * rand + 1 will be in the range [1, 7), that is, between 1 and 6.9999. Discarding
the decimal part of this expression with floor gives an integer in the required range.

Try the following:

Generate a vector d of 20 random integers in the range 1 to 6: Count the number of
―sixes‖ thrown. Verify your result by displaying d. Estimate the probability of throwing a
six by dividing the number of sixes thrown by 20.
Repeat with more random numbers in the vector d. The more you have, the closer the
proportion of sixes gets to the theoretical expected value of 0.1667 (i.e., 1/6).

d = floor(6 * rand(1, 2000)) + 1 % Generate a random vector d in the range 1 to 6

n = sum( d == 6) % Count the number of “sixes” thrown
p = n/2000 % Estimate the probability of throwing a six

Homework
5.1. Determine the values of the following expressions yourself before checking your
answers using MATLAB. You may need to consult Table 5.3.
(a) 1 & –1
(b) 13 & ˜(–6)
(c) 0 < –2|0
(d) ˜[1 0 2] * 3
(e) 0 <= 0.2 <= 0.4
(f) 5 > 4 > 3
(g) 2 > 3 & 1

5.2. Given that a = [1 0 2] and b = [0 2 2], determine the values of the following
expressions. Check your answers with MATLAB.
(a) a ˜= b
(b) a < b
(c) a < b < a
(d) a < b < b
(e) a | (˜a)
(f) b & (˜b)
(g) a|(˜(˜b))
Chapter 6: Matrices of numbers and arrays of strings:
Learning objectives:
■ Creating and manipulating matrices
■ Introduction to matrix operations
■ Introduction to character strings and facilities for handling them

6.1 MATRICES
Example: Transportation problem:
Transportation costs Supply-Demand

To calculate the total transportation in MATLAB, enter C and X as matrices from the
commands:
C = [3 12 10; 17 18 35; 7 10 24];
X = [4 0 0; 6 6 0; 0 3 5];
and then find the array product of C and X:
total = C .* X
which gives
12 0 0
102 108 0
0 30 120
The command
sum(total)
then returns a vector where each element is the sum of each column of total:
114 138 120
Summing this in turn—that is,
sum(sum( total )) —gives the final answer of
372.

Creating matrices
Bigger matrices can be constructed from smaller ones; for example, the statements
a = [1 2; 3 4]; a= 1 2
x = [5 6]; 3 4
a = [a; x] 5 6

Subscripting:
For the above example:
a(3,2) returns 6 a(5) returns 4
a(3,3) = 7; will add a third column to a with 0s everywhere except at a(3,3).
The transpose operator (’)
a = [1:3; 4:6]
b = a’
result in
a=
1 2 3
4 5 6
b=
1 4
2 5
3 6
The colon operator (:)
For example, if a is the matrix
a=
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
the statement
a(2:3,1:2)
results in
4 5
7 8
The statement
a(3,:)
results in
7 8 9
Finally, the statement
a(1:2,2:3) = ones(2)
results in
a=
1 1 1
4 1 1
7 8 9

You can use vector subscripts to get more complicated effects.

For example,
a(:,[1 3]) = b(:,[4 2])
replaces the first and third columns of a by the fourth and second columns of b

Example: Elementary row operations in Gauss reduction.

For example, if a is the matrix
a=
1 –1 2
2 1 –1
3 0 1

the statement
a(2,:) = a(2,:) – a(2,1)*a(1,:)
subtracts the first row multiplied by the first element in the second row from the second
row, resulting in
a=
1 –1 2
0 3 –5
3 0 1

The keyword end refers to the last row or column of an array. For example, if r is a row
vector, the statement
sum(r(3:end))
returns the sum of all the elements of r from the third one to the last one.

The colon operator may also be used as a single subscript, on the right-hand side, a(:)
gives all the elements in one long column vector. Thus, if
a=
1 2
3 4
the statement
b = a(:)
results in
b=
1
3
2
4

However, on the left-hand side of an assignment, a(:) reshapes a matrix that already
exists, i.e., the matrix on the right-hand side is reshaped into the shape of a on the left-
hand side. If
b=
1 2 3
4 5 6 and
 a=
0 0
0 0
0 0
the statement
a(:) = b
results in
a=
1 5
4 3
2 6
a(:) = 1:6
(with a as above) results in
a=
1 4
2 5
3 6
a(:) = –1
replaces all the elements of a matrix with a scalar:

Deleting rows and columns

Use the colon operator and the empty array to delete entire rows or columns.
For example,
a(:,2) = [ ]
deletes the second column of a.
However, using single-subscript notation you can delete a sequence of elements and
reshape the remaining elements into a row vector.
You can use logical vectors to extract a selection of rows or columns from a matrix, if
a=
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
the statement
a(:, logical([1 0 1]))
results in
ans =
1 3
4 6
7 9 (i.e., first and third columns extracted).
The same effect is achieved with a(:, [1 3])
Using MATLAB functions with matrices
Some MATLAB functions operate on matrices column by column, so if
a=
1 0 1
1 1 1
0 0 1
the statement
all(a)
results in ans =
0 0 1
However, the statement
any(a)
returns ans =
1 1 1

Manipulating matrices
Here are some functions for manipulating matrices (See Help for details):
■ diag extracts or creates a diagonal.
■ fliplr flips from left to right.
■ flipud flips from top to bottom.
■ rot90 rotates.
■ tril extracts the lower triangular part
■ triu extracts the upper triangular part.

Array (element-by-element) operations on matrices

All of the array operations discussed in Chapter 2 apply to matrices as well as vectors.
For example, if a is a matrix, a * 2 multiplies each of its elements by 2, and if
a=
1 2 3
4 5 6
the statement a .ˆ 2 results in
ans =
1 4 9
16 25 36
Matrices and for
In the most general form of the for statement, if
a=
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
the statements
for v = a
disp(v’)
end
result in
1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 9
The index v takes on the value of each column of the matrix a in turn. This provides a
way of processing all the columns of a matrix. You can do the same with the rows if you
transpose a, so, for example, the statements
for v = a’
disp(v’)
end
display the rows of a one at a time.

6.2 MATRIX OPERATIONS

Multiplication
The * operator is used for matrix multiplication. For example, if
a=
1 2
3 4
and
b=
5 6
0 –1
the statement
c=a*b
results in
c=
5 4
15 14
Exponentiation
The matrix operation A2 means A × A, where A must be a square matrix. The
operator ˆ is used for matrix exponentiation, so, for example, if
a=
1 2
3 4
the statement
aˆ2
results in
ans =
7 10
15 22

6.3 OTHER MATRIX FUNCTIONS

det determinant.
eig eigenvalue decomposition.
expm matrix exponential (i.e., eA, where A is a matrix). The matrix exponential may be
used to evaluate analytical solutions of linear ordinary differential equations with
constant coefficients.
inv inverse.

6.4 STRINGS
Strings may be assigned to variables by enclosing them in apostrophes:
s = ’Hi there’;
If an apostrophe is part of the string, it must be repeated:
s = ’o’’clock’;

Input
Strings may be entered in response to the input statement in two ways:
■ Enclose the string in apostrophes when you enter it.
■ Use an additional argument ’s’ with input
name = input( ’Enter your surname: ’, ’s’ );

Strings as arrays
A MATLAB string is actually an array, with each element representing one character.
For example, if
s = ’Napoleon’
whos reveals that s is 1 by 8. The statement
s(8:–1:1)
will therefore display the string Napoleon backwards.
The following code will remove all the blanks from the string s.
s = ’Twas brillig and the slithy toves’;
nonblanks = s ˜= ’ ’;
s(nonblanks)
nonblanks is a logical vector with 0s corresponding to the positions of the blanks. Using
nonblanks as a subscript removes the blanks.

String concatenation
Because strings are vectors, they may be concatenated (joined) with square brackets:
king = ’Henry’;
king = [king, ’ VIII’]

ASCII codes: double and char

A MATLAB character is represented internally by a 16-bit numerical value. For example,
the ASCII codes for the letters A through Z are the consecutive integers from 65 to 90,
while the codes for a through z run from 97 to 122.

You can see that the ASCII codes for a string with double:
double(’Napoleon’)
return
78 97 112 111 108 101 111 110

Conversely, using char:

char(65:70)
returns a string from the ASCII codes
ABCDEF
String display with fprintf
Strings may be displayed with fprintf using the %s format specifier. They can
be right- or left-justified and truncated. The statements
fprintf( ’%8sVIII\n’, ’Henry’ )
fprintf( ’%-8sVIII\n’, ’Henry’ )
fprintf( ’%.3sVIII\n’, ’Henry’ )
result in
HenryVIII
HenryVIII
HenVIII
To display single characters with fprintf, use the %c format specifier.
Comparing strings
Try out the following statements:
s1 = ’ann’;
s2 = ’ban’;
s1 < s2
You should get the logical vector
100
because the logical expression s1 < s2 compares the ASCII codes of the two strings
element by element (the strings must have the same length). This is the basis of
alphabetical sorting.
The function strcmp(s1, s2) compares the two strings s1 and s2, returning 1 if they are
identical and 0 otherwise. (The strings do not have to be the same length.)

Other string functions

blanks generates a string of blanks.
int2str, num2str convert their numeric arguments to strings.
ischar returns 1 if its argument is a string and 0 otherwise.
lower, upper convert strings to lowercase and uppercase, respectively.
sprintf works like fprintf, except that it returns a string according to the format
specification:
s = sprintf( ’Value of K: %g’, K )
returns the string Value of K: 0.015 in s if K has the value 0.015.

6.5 TWO-DIMENSIONAL STRINGS

For example,
nameAndAddress = [’Adam B Carr ’; ’21 Barkly Ave’; ’Discovery ’]
results in
nameAndAddress =
Adam B Carr
21 Barkly Ave
Discovery
An easier way to create two-dimensional strings is to use the char function:
nameAndAddress = char(’Adam B Carr’, ’21 Barkly Ave’, ’Discovery’)
Exercises:
6.1. Set up any 3 × 3 matrix a. Write some command-line statements to perform the
following operations:151
a = [1 2 3;4 5 6;7 8 9]
results in
a=
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
(a) Interchange columns 2 and 3.
a(:,[2 3]) = a(:,[3 2]) results in a=
1 3 2
4 6 5
7 9 8
(b) Add a fourth column (of 0s).
a(3,4) = 0
results in
a=
1 3 2 0
4 6 5 0
7 9 8 0
(c) Insert a row of 1s as the new second row (i.e., move the current second and third
rows down).
a([3 4],:) = a([2 3],:);
a(2,:) = ones results in a=
1 3 2 0
1 1 1 1
4 6 5 0
7 9 8 0
(d) Remove the second column.
a(:,2) = [ ] results in a=
1 2 0
1 1 1
4 5 0
7 8 0
6.2. Write a function deblank(s) that removes all blanks from the string s.
>> s = 'I am a student in King Saud University';
>> deblanks = s ~= ' ';
>> s(deblanks)
6.3. Write a function toupper(s) that translates lowercase letters in the string s to
uppercase.
>> upper(s)
Simulation:
RANDOM NUMBER GENERATION
Random events are easily simulated in MATLAB with the function rand.

Example: FLIPPING COINS

When a fair (unbiased) coin is flipped, the probability of getting heads or tails
is 0.5 (50%). Since a value returned by rand is equally likely to be anywhere in
the interval [0, 1), we can represent heads with a value less than 0.5 and tails
otherwise.

Suppose an experiment calls for a coin to be flipped 50 times and the results to
be recorded. In real life you may need to repeat such an experiment a number
of times; this is where computer simulation is handy.

The following script simulates flipping a coin 50 times:

for i = 1:50
r = rand;
if r < 0.5
fprintf( ’H’ )
else
fprintf( ’T’ )
end
end
fprintf( ’\n’ ) % newline

Here is the output from two sample runs:

THHTTHHHHTTTTTHTHTTTHHTHTTTHHTTTTHTTHHTHHHHHHTTHTT
THTHHHTHTHHTTHTHTTTHHTTTTTTTHHHTTTHTHHTHHHHTTHTHTT

ROLLING DICE
When a fair die is rolled, the number uppermost is equally likely to be any
integer from 1 to 6. The following statement generates a vector with 10 random integers
in the range 1–6:
d = floor( 6 * rand(1,10) + 1 )
Here are the results of two such simulations:
2155634511
4513135466

We can do statistics on our simulated experiment, just as if it were a real one.

For example, we can estimate the mean of the number obtained when the die
is rolled 100 times and the probability of getting a 6.
Chapter 7: Introduction to Graphics:
BASIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS
The most common form of plot is plot(x, y), where x and y are vectors of the same
length.
Another common form of plot function us:
x = 0:pi/40:4*pi;
plot(x, sin(x))

The easy-to-use form of plot is ezplot:

ezplot(’tan(x)’)

EXERCISES
1. Draw lines joining the following points: (0, 1), (4, 3), (2, 0), and (5,−2).
plot([0 4 2 5], [1 3 0 -2])

2. Draw a “house” similar to the one depicted

in Figure.
plot([0 1 1 2 3 3 4], [0 0 2 3 2 0 0])

Labels:
grid adds/removes grid lines to/from the current graph.
text(x, y, ’text’) writes text in the graphics window at the point specified by x and y.
title(’text’) writes the text as a title at the top of the graph.
xlabel(’horizontal’) labels the x-axis.
ylabel(’vertical’) labels the y-axis.

Multiple plots on the same axes

Use plot with multiple arguments. For example, plot(x1, y1, x2, y2, x3, y3, ... )
plots the (vector) pairs (x1, y1), (x2, y2), and so on. The advantage of this method is
that the vector pairs may have different lengths. MATLAB automatically selects a
different color for each pair.

If you are plotting two graphs on the same axes, you may find plotyy useful—it allows
you to have independent y-axis labels on the left and the right:
plotyy(x,sin(x), x, 10*cos(x))
Line styles, markers, and color
For example,
plot(x, y, ’--’) joins the plotted points with dashed lines, whereas plot(x, y, ’o’) draws
circles at the data points with no lines joining them.
You can specify all three properties:
plot(x,sin(x), x, cos(x), ’om--’)
which plots sin(x) in the default style and color and cos(x) with circles joined by dashes
in magenta. The available colors are denoted by the symbols c, m, y, k, r, g, b, w.

Axis limits
Whenever you draw a graph, MATLAB automatically scales the axis limits to fit
the data. You can override this with
axis( [xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax] ) which sets the scaling on the current plot.

THREE-DIMENSIONAL PLOTS
The plot3 function
The function plot3 is the 3D version of plot. The command
plot3(x, y, z)
draws a 2D projection of a line in 3D through the points whose coordinates are the
elements of the vectors x, y, and z

Example:

t = 0:pi/50:10*pi;
plot3(exp(–0.02*t).*sin(t), exp(–0.02*t).*cos(t),t)
xlabel(’x-axis’), ylabel(’y-axis’), zlabel(’z-axis’)
Chapter 8: LOOPS:
DETERMINATE REPETITION WITH for

Example1: Binomial coefficient

ncr = 1;
n = 10;
r = 3;
for k=1:r
ncr = ncr*(n-k+1)/k;
end
disp (ncr)
120

INDETERMINATE REPETITION WITH while

The while statement
In general the while statement looks like this:
while condition
statements
end

Example: A guessing game

MATLAB generates one at random an integer between 1 and 10. You have to guess it.
If your guess is too high or too low, the script must say so. If your guess is correct, a
message of congratulations must be displayed.

A structure plan might be helpful:

1. Generate random integer
2. Ask user for guess
3. While guess is wrong:
If guess is too low Tell her it is too low
Otherwise Tell her it is too high
Ask user for new guess
4. Polite congratulations
5. Stop

Here is the script:

num = floor(10 * rand + 1);
guess = input( 'Your guess please: ' );
load splat
while guess ~= num
sound(y, Fs)
if guess > num
disp( 'Too high' )
else
disp( 'Too low' )
end;
guess = input( 'Your next guess please: ' );
end
disp( 'At last!' )
load handel
sound(y, Fs) % hallelujah!

Try it out a few times. Note that the while loop repeats as long as num is not equal to
guess.