TRAINING & REFERENCE

Morach

m urach's
MySQL 4th Edition

JOEL MURACH

MASTER THE SQL STATEMENTS

that ever}' application developer needs
tor retrieving and updating the data
m a MvSQI. database

DESIGN DATABASES LIKE A PRO

and code the SQL statements that create
databases, tables, indexes, and Mews

GAIN PROFESSIONAL SKILLS

like using transactions, stored procedures,
functions, triggers, and events

GET STARTED AS A DBA

by learning how to configure the server,
manage security, create backups,
and host a database with AVVS
 TRAINING & REFERENCE

m urach's
MySQL 4th Edition

Joel Murach

BBb Mikl Murach & Associates. Inc.

■ IP I 3730 W Swift Ave. • Fresno, CA 93722
www.murach.com • [email protected]
Editorial team
Author: Joel Murach
U riler/Editor: Anne Boehm
Editor: Lisa Cooper
t ontributing Writer: Scott McCoy
Editorial Support: Steven Mannion
Production: Juliette Bayion

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN: 978-1 943873-10-4
Contents
Introduction xiri

Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

Chapter I An introduction to relational databases 3
Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 35
Chapter 3 How to retrieve data from a single table 65
Chapter 4 How to retrieve data front two or more tables 105
Chapter 5 How to insert, update, and delete data 141

Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 161
Chapter 7 How to code subqueries 191
Chapter 8 How to work with data types 223
Chapter 9 How to use functions 249

Section 3 Database design and implementation

Chapter 10 How to design a database 297
Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 333
Chapter 12 How to create views 373

Section 4 Stored program development

Chapter 13 Language skills for w riting stored programs 393
Chapter 14 How to use transactions and locking 421
Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 437
Chapter 16 How to create triggers and events 469

Section 5 Database administration

Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 485
Chapter 18 How to secure a database 515
Chapter 19 How to backup and restore a database 553
Chapter 20 How to host a database w ith AWS 567

Appendixes
Appendix A How to set up Windows for this book 591
Appendix B How to set up inacOS for this book 601
 Expanded contents VII

Expanded contents
Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

Chapter 1 An introduction to relational databases

An introduction to client/server systems............. 4
The hardware components of a client/server system.............................................................. 4
The software components of a client/server system................................................................ 6
Other client/server architectures.................................................................................................. 8
An introduction to the relational database model..........................10
How a table is organized............................................................................................................... 10
Hou tables are related............. ...................................................................................................... 12
How columns are defined............................................................................................................. 14
How to read a database diagram..................................................................................................16
An introduction to SQL and SQL-based systems.... ..................... 18
A brief history of SQL................................................................................................................18
A comparison of four relational databases......................... 20
The SQL statements..........................................................................22
An introduction to the SQL statements...................................... 22
How to work with database objects........................................................................................... 24
How to query a single table.......................................................................................................... 26
How to join data from two or more tables.................. .................................... 28
How to add. update, and delete data in a table....................................................................... 30
SQL coding guidelines................................. ............................................................................... 32

Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench

and other development tools
An introduction to MySQL Workbench.......... 36
The Home page of MySQL Workbench................................................................................... 36
How to open a database connection........................................................................................... 38
How to view the status of the database server........................................................................ 40
How to navigate through the database objects....................................................................... 42
How to view and edit the data for a table............................................................................... 44
How to view and edit the column definitions for a table..................................... 46
How to use MySQL Workbench to run SQL statements...............48
How to enter and execute a SQL statement............................................................................. 48
How to handle syntax errors...................................................................................................... 50
How to open and save SQL scripts...........................................................................................52
How to enter and execute SQL scripts........................ „.......................................................... 54
How to use the MySQL Reference Manual..................................... 56
How to view the manual............................................................................................................... 56
How to look up information.........................................................................................................56
How to use the MySQL Command Line Cl ienL......................... 58
Hou to start and stop the MySQL Command Line Client....................... 58
How to use the MySQL Command Line Client to work with a database....................... 60
V111 Expanded contents

Chapter 3 How to retrieve data from a single table

An introduction to the SELECT statement...................66
The basic syntax of the SELECT statement........................................................................... 66
SELECT statement examples .............................................................................................. 68
How to code the SELECT clause............................ 70
Hou to code column specifications......................................................................................... 70
Hou to name the columns in a result set using aliases........................................................ 72
Hou to code arithmetic expressions.......................................................................................... 74
Hou to use the CONCAT function to join strings................................................................. 76
Hou to use functions with strings, dates, and numbers.......................................................78
Hou to test expressions by coding statements without FROM clauses........................... 80
Hou to eliminate duplicate rows................................................................................................82
How to code the WHERE clause.................................... ................. 84
Hou to use the comparison operators....................................................................................... 84
Hou to use the AND. OR. and NOT logical operators...................................... ..................86
Hou to use the IN operator.......................................................................................................... 88
How to use the BETWEEN operator........................................................................................ 90
Hou to use the LIKE and REGEXP operators......................................................................92
Hou to use the IS NULL clause.................................................................................................94
How to code the ORDER BY clause............ ................................. 96
Hou to sort by a column name................................................................................................... 96
Hou to sort by an alias, expression, or column number.......................................................98
How to code the LIMIT clause.................... 100
Hou to limit the number of rows.............................................................................................100
Hou to return a range of rows................................................................................................. 100

Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from two or more tables

How to work with inner joins.............................. 106
Hou to code an inner join...........................................................................................................106
Hou to use table aliases.............................................................................................................. 108
Hou to join to a table in another database............................................................................ 110
How to use compound join conditions.....................................................................................112
How to use a self-join................................................................................................................. 114
How to join more than two tables........................................................................................... 116
How to use the implicit inner join syntax............................................................................. 118
How to work with outer joins......... ................................................ 120
How to code an outer join......................................................................................................... 120
Outer join examples.................................................................................................................... 122
Other skills for working with joins....... ......................................... 126
How to join tables with the USING keyword...................................................................... 126
How to join tables with the NATURAL keyword.............................................................. 128
How to use cross joins................................................................................................................ 130
How to work with unions......... ................. ....................... 132
How to code a union.................................................................................................................... 132
A union that combines result sets from different tables..................................................... 132
A union that combines result sets from the same tables.................................................. 134
A union that simulates a full outer join.................................................................................. 136
 Expanded contents IX

Chapter 5 How to insert, update, and delete data

How to create test tables. 142
How to create the tables for this book................................................................................... 142
Hou to create a copy of a table................................................................................................ 142
How to insert new rows...... .............................................................144
Hou to insert a single row......................................................................................................... 144
How to insert multiple rows................................................................................................. 144
How to insert default values and null values.........................................................................146
How to use a subquery in an INSERT statement................................................................. 148
How to update existing rows...... .............. .................................... 150
How to update rows..................................................................................................................... 150
How to use a subquery in an UPDATE statement................................................................152
How to delete existing rows........................................................... 154
How to delete rows........................................................................................................................154
How to use a subquery in a DELETE statement..................................................................154

Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Chapter 6 How to code summary queries
How to work with aggregate functions......................... ................162
How to code aggregate functions.............................................................................................. 162
Queries that use aggregate functions.......................................................................................164
How to group and summarize data........................ 166
How to code the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses........................................................166
Queries that use the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses.................................................. 168
How the HAVING clause compares to the WHERE clause............................... .............. 170
How to code compound search conditions............................................................................. 172
Huw io use the WITH ROLLUP operator...................................................... 174
How to use the GROUPING function..................................................................................... 176
How to code aggregate window functions....... ....................... ....180
How the aggregate window functions work.......................................................................... 180
How to use frames........................................................................................................................ 182
How to use named windows..................................................... .................. .............................. 186

Chapter 7 How to code subquertes

An introduction to subqueries....... .. 192
W here to code subqueries......................................................................................................... 192
When to use subqueries.............................................................................................................194
How to code subqueries in the WHERE clause....... .................... 196
How to use the IN operator....................................................................................................... 196
How to use the comparison operators.................................................................................... 198
How to use the ALL keyword................................................................................................. 200
How to use the ANY and SOME keywords....................................................................... 202
How to code correlated subqueries..........................................................................................204
How to use the EXISTS operator.............................................................................. 206
How to code subqueries in other clauses..... ..............................208
How to code subqueries in the HAVING clause................................................................. 208
How to code subqueries in the SELECT clause.................................................................. 208
How to code subqueries in the FROM clause....................................................................... 210
How to work with complex queries......... ...................................... 212
A complex query that uses subqueries.................................................................................... 212
A procedure for building complex queries........................................................................... 214
X Expanded contents

How to work with common table expressions............. 216

How to code a CTE...................................................................................................................... 216
Hou to code a recursive CTE................................................................................................... 218

Chapter 8 How to work with data types

The data types__ _______________ —__________ ___ __ ...____ 224
Overview........................................................................................................................................ 224
The character types..................................................................................................................... 226
The integer types.......................................................................................................................... 228
The fixed-point and floating-point types............................................................................... 230
The date and time types............................................................................................................. 232
The ENUM and SET types....................................................................................................... 236
The binary types.......................................................................................................................... 238
The large object types................................................................................................................. 238
How to convert data ............ ......240
Hou implicit data conversion works....................................................................................... 240
Hou to convert data using the CAST and CONVERT functions.................................. 242
Hou to convert data using the FORMAT and CHAR functions................................... 244

Chapter 9 How to use functions

How to work with string data.......................................................... 250
A summary of the string functions..........................................................................................250
Examples that use string functions..........................................................................................252
Hou to sort by a string column that contains numbers......................................................254
Hou to parse a siring.................................................................................................................. 256
How to work with numeric data............. ....................... 258
Hou to use the numeric functions........................................................................................... 258
Hou to search for floating-point numbers.............................................................................260
How to work with dato'time data.......................... 262
Hou to get the current date and time...................................................................................... 262
Hou to parse dates and times with date/time functions.................................................. 264
How to parse dates and times with the EXTRACT function.......................................... 266
Hou to format dates and limes.................................................................................................268
Hou to perform calculations on dates and times................................................................ 270
Hou to search for a date.......................................................... ................................................. 272
How to search for a time............................................................................................................ 274
Other functions you should know about.... ..................................276
How to use the CASE function..................................................................................... ...........276
Hou to use the IF. IFNL’LL. and COALESCE functions............................................... 278
Hou to use the regular expressionfunctions........................................................................ 280
Hou to use the ranking functions...........................................................................................284
How to use the analytic functions...........................................................................................288

Section 3 Database design and implementation

Chapter 10 How to design a database

How to design a data structure........................................... 298
The basic steps for designing a data structure...................................................................... 298
Hou to identify the data elements......................................... „............................................... 300
Hou to subdivide the data elements...................................................................................... 302
Hou to identify the tables and assign columns................................................... 304
Hou to identify the primary and foreign keys.................................................................... 306
Hou to enforce the relationships between tables.............................................................. 308
How normalization works............................... ........................................................................... 310
Hou to identify the columns to be indexed........................................................................... 312
 Expanded contents XI

How to normalize a data structure....... .........................................314

The seven normal forms............................................................................................................. 314
Hou to apply the first normal form......................................................................................... 316
Hou to apply the second normal form.................................................................................... 318
Hou to apply the third normal form....................................................................................... 320
When and hou to denormalize a data structure.................................................................. 322
How to use MySQL Workbench for database design ................. 324
Hou to open an existing EER model...................................................................................... 324
Hou to create a neu EER model............................................................................................. 324
Hou to work with an EER model.............. ............................................................................. 326
Hou to work with an EER diagram........................................................................................ 328

Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes

How to work with databases............................... 334
Hou to create and drop a database.......................................................................................... 334
How to select a database............................................................................................................ 334
How to work with tables.......... ..............................336
Hou to create a table.................. ................................................................................................. 336
Hou to code a primary key constraint.................................................................................... 338
How to code a foreign key constraint..................................................................................... 340
How to alter the columns of a table.........................................................................................342
Hou to alter the constraints of a table.................................................................................... 344
Hou to rename, truncate, and drop a table............................................................................ 346
How to work with indexes.................... 348
Hou to create an index........... ......................................................................... ............. 348
How to drop an index.................................................................................................................. 348
A script that creates a database..... ............................................... 350
How to use MySQL Workbench...................................................... 354
Hou to work with the columns of a table........................... 354
How to work u ith the indexes of a table..... ........................................................................... 356
How to work w ith the foreign keys of a table....................................................................... 358
How to work with character sets and collations..........................360
An introduction to character sets and collations................................................................. 360
How to view character sets and collations.................... 362
Hou to specify a character set and a collation..................................................................... 364
How to work with storage engines.......... ......... 366
An introduction to storage engines............ ............................................................................. 366
How to view storage engines.................................................................................................... 366
How to specify a storage engine..... ...... ............................................................... 368

Chapter 12 How to create views

An introduction to views.........................................................374
How views work............................................................................................................................ 374
Benefits of using views............................................................................................................... 376
How to work with views......................................................... ....378
How to create a view................................................................................................................... 378
How to create an updatable view............... ............................................................................ 382
How to use the WITH CHECK OPTION clause............................................................... 384
How to insert or delete rows through a view.............................................. .......................... 386
Hou to alter or drop a view.......................................................................................................388
X11 Expanded contents

Section 4 Stored program development

Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs

An introduction to stored programs..................394
Four types of stored programs.................................................................................................. 394
A script that creates and calls a stored procedure............................................................... 394
A summary of statements for coding stored programs...................................................... 396
How to write procedural code........................................................ 398
Hou to display data...................................................................................................................... 398
How to declare and set variables............................................................................................. 400
How to code IF statements........................................................................................................ 402
Hou to code CASE statements........... ...... ................................................................... .......... 404
How to code loops........................................................................................................................ 406
Hou to use a cursor..................................................................................................................... 408
How to declare a condition handler............. ......................... ........................................ ....... 410
Hou to use a condition handler................................................................................................ 412
How to use multiple condition handlers...................................... 416

Chapter 14 How to use transactions and locking

How to work with transactions........................... 422
How to commit and rollback transactions............................................................................. 422
Hou to work with save points.................. ......... ............ ...................................................... ..424
How to work with concurrency and locking................. 426
Hou concurrency and locking are related........................................................................... .426
The four concurrency problems that locks can prevent..................................................... 428
Hou to set the transaction isolation level.............................................................................. 430
Hou to lock selected rows....................................................................................................... 432
Hou to prevent deadlocks.........................................................................................................434

Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions

How to code stored procedures......................... 438
Hou to create and call a stored procedure............... .................................... ..438
How to code input and output parameters.............................................................................440
How to set a default value for a parameter.......................................................................... .442
How to validate parameters and raise errors............................................................. 444
A stored procedure that inserts a row..................................................................................... 446
How to work with user variables............................................................................................. 450
How to work with prepared statements...... .................................................................. ....... 452
Hou to drop a stored procedure............................................................................................... 454
How to code stored functions....... ................................................ 456
How to create and call a function............................................................................................ 456
Hou to use function characteristics....... ...................... 458
A function that calculates balance due.................................................................................. 460
Hou to drop a function...............................................................................................................462
How to use Workbench with procedures and functions ............464
Hou to view and edit stored routines.....................................................................................464
How to create stored routines...................................................................................................464
How to drop stored routines............................................................................................ 464

Chapter 16 How to create triggers and events

How to work with triggers................ 170
How to create a BEFORE trigger....................................... ...470
Hou to use a trigger to enforce data consistency................................................................ 472
Hou to create an AFTER trigger............................................................................................ 474
Hou to view or drop triggers.................................................................................................... 476
 Expanded contents XIII

How to work with events............................. 478

Hou to turn the event scheduler on or off............................................................................. 478
Hou to create an event................................................................................................................ 478
Hou to view, alter, or drop events.................. 480

Section 5 Database administration

Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration
Database administration concepts................................ 486
Database administrator responsibilities................................................................................. 486
Types of database tiles................................................................................................................ 488
Types of log tiles.............. ........................ 488
How to monitor the server............__.......... .................................. 490
Hou to view the server status................................................................................................. 490
How to view and kill processes...................... 492
How to view the status variables............................................................................................494
How to view the system variables.......................................................................................... 496
How to configure the server................................... 498
How to set system variables using MySQL Workbench.................................................... 498
How to set system variables using a text editor................................................................... 500
Hou to set system variables using the SET statement........................................................ 502
How to work with logging........................................ 504
How to enable and disable logging..........................................................................................504
How to configure logging...................................................................................................... ...506
How to view text-based logs..................................................................................................... 508
How to manage logs..................................................................................................................... 510

Chapter 18 How to secure a database

An introduction to user accounts................................................. 516
An introduction to SQL statements for user accounts........................................................ 516
A summary' of privileges........................................................................................................ 518
The four privilege levels.................... ....................................................................................... 522
The grant tables in the mysql database................................................................................... 522
How to work with users and privileges........................................524
How to create, rename, and drop users...................................................................................524
How to specify user account names....................................................................................... 526
How to grant privileges............................................................................................................... 528
Hou to view privileges.................. ............................................................................................ 530
How to revoke privileges........................................................................................................... 532
Hou to change passwords.......................................................................................................... 534
A script that creates users.......................................................................................................... 536
How to work with roles....... .......... 538
How to create, manage, and drop roles................................................................................... 538
A script that creates users and roles....................................................................................... 542
How to use MySQL Workbench....... ............................................. 544
Hou to work with users and privileges................................................................................. 544
Hou to connect as a user for testing......................................................................................548

Chapter 19 How to backup and restore a database

How to back up and restore a database........................................554
Strategies for backing up and restoring databases.............................................................. 554
How to use Workbench to create a full backup.................................................................. 556
How to use Workbench to restore a full backup................................................................. 558
How to execute statements in the binary log........................................................................ 560
XiV Expanded contents

How to use Workbench to export and import data...................... 562

Hou to export data to a file...................................................................................................... 562
Hou to import data from a file............................................................................................... 564

Chapter 20 How to host a database with AWS

How to create and configure a MySQL RDS instance.™............568
The AWS Management Console............................................................................................. 568
The Amazon RDS Databases page........................................................................................ 568
Hou to create a MySQL RDS instance..................................................................................570
Hou to modify an RDS instance so it's publicly accessible............................................ 572
Hou to add a firewall rule for your IP address..................................................................... 574
How to use MySQL Workbench with an RDS instance...............576
Hou to connect to an RDS instance........................................................................................576
Hou to run scripts and SQL statements against an RDS database................................. 578
How to backup and restore a database instance..... .................. 580
How to work with the built-in backup.................................................................................... 580
Hou to create a backup plan..................................................................................................... 580
Hou to work with snapshots......................................................................................................582
Hou to restore a database instance.......................................................................................... 582
More skills for working with RDS.......... .............. ......................... 584
Hou to check the AWS Billing Dashboard...........................................................................584
Hou to delete an RDS database...................................................................................... 586

Appendix A How to set up Windows for this book

Hou- to install MySQL Community Server..................................................... ..................... 592
Hou to start and stop the MySQL sever........................... 592
Hou to install MySQL Workbench......................................................................................... 594
Hou to download the files for this book................................................................................ 596
Hou to create the databases for this book............................................................................. 598
Hou to restore the databases.................................................................................................... 598

Appendix B How to set up macOS for this book

Hou to install MySQL Community Server.......................................................................... 602
Hou to start and stop the MySQL sever................................................................................ 602
Hou to install MySQL Workbench........................................................................................ 604
Hou to dow nload the files for this book................................................................................ 606
Hou to create the databases for this book....................................................... 608
Hou to restore the databases.................................................................................................... 608
Introduction
Since its release in 2(MN). MySQL has become the world’s most popular open­
source database. It has been used by everyone from hobbyists to the world’s
largest companies to deliver cost-effective, high-performance, scalable database
applications, the type of applications that the web is built on. So knowing
MySQI. is a plus for any developer today.

Who this book is for

This book is designed for developers who are new to MySQL, as well as
developers who have been using MySQL tor years but still aren’t getting the
most from it I: shows how to code all the SQL statements that developers need
for their applications, and it shows how to code these statements so they run
efficiently.
This book is also a good choice for anyone who wants to learn standard
SQL. Since SQL is a standard language for accessing database data, most of
the SQL statements in this book will work with any relational database. As a
result, once you use this book to learn how to use SQL to work with a MySQL
database, you can transfer most of w hat you have learned to another database
such as Oracle or SQL Server.
This book is also the right first book for anyone who wants to become a
database administrator. Although this book doesn’t present all of the advanced
skills that are needed by a DBA. it will get you started. Then, when you complete
this book, you’ll be prepared for more advanced books on the subject

5 reasons why you’ll learn faster with this book

• This book starts by showing you how to query an existing database rather
than how to create a new database. Why? Because that’s what you’re most
likely to need to do first on the job.
XVI Introduction

• It has hundreds of examples that range from the simple to the complex. That
way, you can quickly get the idea of how a feature works from the simple
examples and also see how the feature is used in the real world from the
more complex ones.
• The exercises at the end of each chapter provide a way for you to gain
valuable hands-on experience without extra busy work.
• All of the information is presented in paired pages, w uh the essential
syntax, guidelines, and examples on the right page and clear explanations on
the left page. This helps you learn faster by reading less.
• The paired-pages format is ideal for reference when you need to refresh
your memory about how to do something.

What you’ll learn in this book

In section 1. you'll learn the concepts and terms you need for working
with any database. You’ll learn how to use MySQL Workbench to work wnth
a database and run SQL statements. You'll also leam all the SQL skills tor
retrieving data from a database and for adding, updating, and deleting that data.
These skills are the critical SQL skills that you'll need to get started.
In section 2, you can learn more SQL skills as you need them. You can
learn how to summarize the data that you retrieve. You can learn how to code
subqueries. You can learn about the types of data that MySQL supports. And you
can leam how to use MySQL functions in your SQL statements. These advanced
skills are sure to raise your expertise even if you already have SQL experience.
In section 3, you'll learn how to design a database. This includes learning
how to use MySQL Workbench to create an EER (enhanced entity-relationship)
model for your database. Then, you'll learn how to implement that design by
using the DDL (Data Definition Language) statements that are a part of SQL.
When you’re done, you’ll be able to design and implement your own database.
In addition, you’ll gain valuable perspective that will make you a better SQL
programmer, even if you never need to design a database.
In section 4, you’ll leam how to use MySQL to create stored procedures,
functions, triggers, and events. In addition, you’ll learn how to manage
transactions and locking. These features allow you to store multiple SQL
statements in the database and access them as needed, either to run on their own
or to use in application programs. So, once you master these features, you'll have
a powerful set of MySQL skills.
In section 5. you'll learn a starting set of skills for becoming a database
administrator ( DBA). These skills include how to secure a database, how to back
up a database, and howr to restore a database. To start, this section shows how to
implement these skills on a local database. 1 hen. it shows how to use Amazon
Web Services (AWS) to host a MySQL database in the cloud. This can make
your database more affordable, flexible, and scalable.
 In! reduction X VI i

What software you need for this book

Although you should be able to use this book with most versions of MySQL,
we recommend that you use:
• MySQL Community Server 8.0 or higher
• MySQL Workbench 8.0 or higher
This software can be downloaded for free from MySQL’s website. And
appendixes A (Windows) and B (macOS) provide complete instructions for
installing it.
The SQL. statements presented in this book have been tested against MySQL
Community Server 8.0 and 8.1. As a result, if you’re using one of these versions,
the SQL. statements in this book should work exactly as described. Since MySQL
is backwards compatible, these SQL statements should also work with future
versions of MySQL. In addition, most statements presented in this book work
w ith earlier versions of MySQL, and we have done our best to identify any
statements that don't.
If you use MySQL. Workbench 8.0. all of the skills presented in this book
should work exactly as described. However, when a new' version of Workbench
becomes available, you should be able to use it with this book In that case, the
skills presented in this book may not work exactly as described, but they should
work similarly.

What you can download from our website

You can download all the files for this book from our website. These files
inJude:

• A script that creates the three databases used by this book

• The SQL statements for all examples in this book
• Solutions for the exercises at the end of each chapter
Again, appendixes A (Windows) and B (macOS) provide complete instructions
for installing these items on your computer.

Support materials for trainers and instructors

if you’re a corporate trainer or a college instructor who would like to use
this book for a course, we offer support materials that will help you set up and
lun your course as effectively as possible. These materials include instructional
objectives, test banks, additional exercises, and PowerPoint slides.
To learn more, please go to our website at vvw w.murachloi mstructors.com
if y«>u're an instructor. If you’re a trainer, please go to w vvw.murach.com and
click on the Courseware for Trainers link, or contact Kelly at 1-800-221-5528 or
kellv (g murach.com.
X V111 Introduction

Please let me know how this book works for you

When I started writing the I4 edition of book, 1 had two goals. First, 1
wanted to show you how to get started with MySQL as quickly and easily
as possible. Second, i wanted to raise your database development skills to a
professional level.
For the 4,h edition of this book, our editorial team worked hard to update and
streamline this book to make it easier than ever to get started w ith MySQL. This
included adding a new chapter on hosting a MySQL database on AWS. Now. I
wish you all the best with learning MySQL. It you have any comments about this
book. I’d love to hear from you.

ioel<rt murach.com
Section 1

An introduction to MySQL
Before you learn to code MySQL statements, you need to understand some
concepts and terms related to SQL and relational databases. So, that's
what you'll learn in chapter I In addition, you II need to know how to use
the tools for working with a MySQL database. That’s what you'll learn in
chapter 2.
After that, you'll be ready to learn how to code basic SQL statements.
In chapter 3, you’ll learn how to code SELECT statements to retrieve data
from a single table. In chapter 4, you'll learn how to retrieve data from
two or more tables. And in chapter 5, you’ll learn how to add, update, and
delete rows from a table.
Once you're done reading the chapters in this section, you 11 have all
of the basic skills you need to use MySQL. Then, you can leam more SQL
skills by reading the chapters in section 2.
 1
An introduction
to relational databases
This chapter introduces the concepts and terms that you need to know before
you learn how to use SQL to work with a relational database such as MySQL.
If you've never worked with relational databases before, this chapter will teach
you what they are and how they work. It also shows you some examples of
SQL statements that you'll be able to code yourself after completing section L

An introduction to client/server systems............................... 4

The hardware components of a client/server system................................ ....... 4
The software components of a client/server system.......... ........ ........................6
Other client/server architectures.................................................. ........................ 8
An introduction to the relational database model............. 10
How a table is organized..................................................................................... 10
How tables are related....................................... ............ .......... .......................... 12
How columns are de lined.................................................................................... 14
How to read a database diagram......................................................................... 16
An introduction to SQL and SQL-based systems.............. 18
A brief history of SQL........................................ ................................................. 18
A comparison of four relational databases....................................................... 20
The SQL statements............................... ..............22
An introduction to the SQL statements............................................................. 22
How to work with database objects................................................................... 24
How to query a single table.............................................................................. 26
How to join data from two or more tables.......................................................28
How to add. update, and delete data in a table....................... ......................... 30
SQL coding guidelines........................................................................................32
Perspective..................... .... ...... .................................. ........... 34
4 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

An introduction
to client/server systems
If this is your In st time working with client/server systems, the topics
that follow introduce you to their essential hardware and software components.
When you use SQL to access a MySQL database, that system is most often a
client/server system.

The hardware components

of a client/server system
Figure 1-1 presents the three main hardware components of a client/server
system: the clients, the network, and the server The clients are usually personal
computers or mobile devices, but they may be any device that sends information
to or requests information from the server.
The network is the cabling, communication lines, network interface cards,
hubs, routers, and other components that connect the clients and the server.
Because you don't need to understand how it works to use it, most diagrams use
a cloud symbol to represent the network
The server is a computer that has enough processor speed, memory, and disk
storage to store the tiles and databases of the system and provide services to the
clients of the system. When its primary purpose is to store databases, the server
is often referred to as a database server.
In a simple client/server system, the clients and the server may be part of
a local area network (LAN) that connects computers that are near each other.
However, two or more LANs that reside at separate geographical locations may
be connected as part of a larger network such as a wide area network (WAN). In
addition, individual systems or networks can be connected over the internet.
When a server is available from the internet, it's known as being in the
cloud. Today, many companies offer servers that you can use to host your server­
side data and run services from almost anywhere in the world. 1'hese are known
as cloud computing platforms. With this approach, you use an online interface to
interact with servers that are maintained by another company. Two of the biggest
cloud computing platforms are Amazon Web Services and Microsoft Azure.
You'll leam more about Amazon’s platform and some of the services it provides
in chapter 20.
When a client/server system consists of private networks and servers,
often spread throughout the country or world, it is commonly referred to as an
enterprise system. Enterprise systems can consist of on-site resources, cloud
resources, or a combination of the two.
 Chapter 1 An introduction to relational databases 5

A simple client/server system

Client

The three hardware components of a client/server system

• The clients arc the computers or mobile devices of the system.
• The server is a specialized computer that stores the files and databases of the
system and provides services to the clients. When it is primarily used to store
databases, it’s often referred to as a database server.
• The network consists of the cabling, communication lines, routers, and other
components that connect the clients and servers of the system. In diagrams, it is
usually represented by a cloud to indicate the unknown nature of the network.

Client/server system i mplementations

• A simple client/server system like the one shown above may use a local area network
(LAN), which is a network that directly connects computers that are near each other.
• Individual systems and LANs can be connected and share data over large private
networks, such as a wide area network t ILLV). or over a public network like the
internet.
• When a server is available from the internet, it is known as being in the cloud.
A server in the cloud may be distributed across multiple computers or share a
computer with other servers.
• A server can be available from a cloud computing platform. With this approach, you
use an online interface to interact with servers that are maintained by another company.
• When a system consists of a private network and servers over a wide area, it is
commonly called an enterprise system.

Figure 1 -1 The hardware components of a client/server system

6 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

The software components

of a client/server system
Figure 1-2 presents the software components of a typical client/server
system that uses a database server. In addition to a network operating system that
manages the functions of the network, the server requires a database manage­
ment system tDBMS) like MySQL. This DBMS manages the databases that are
stored on the server.
In contrast to a server, each client requires application software to perform
useful work. This can be a purchased software package like a financial
accounting package, or it can be custom software that's developed for a specific
application.
Although the application software runs on the client, it uses data that’s stored
on the server. To do that, it uses a data access API (application programming
interface). Since the technique you use to work with an API depends on both the
programming language and API you're using, this book doesn't show how to do
that. Instead, it show's how to use a standard language called SQL (Structured
Query Language) that lets any application communicate with any DBMS. In
conversation. SQL is pronounced as either “S-Q-L - or “sequel”.
Once the software for the clients and the server has been installed, the clients
communicate with the server via SQL queries (or just queries) that are sent to the
DBMS through the API. After a client sends a query' to the DBMS, the DBMS
processes the query and sends the results back to the client. This processing is
typically referred to as back-end processing, and the database server is referred
to as the back end. Conversely, processing done by the clients is called front-end
processing.
The processing done by a client/server system is divided betwreen the clients
and the server. In this figure, the DBMS on the server is processing requests
made by the application running on the client. This balances the workload
between the clients and the server so the system works more efficiently.
 Chapter 1 An introduction to relational databases 7

Client software, server software, and the SQL interface

Client Database Server

Application software Database management system
Data access API Database

Server software
• To store and manage the databases of the client/server system, each server requires
a database management system (DBMS) like MySQL.
• The processing that’s done by the DBMS is typically referred to as back-end
processing, and the database server is referred to as the back end.

Client software
• The application software does the work that the user wants to do. I his type of
software can be purchased or developed.
• The data access API (application programming interface) provides the interface
between the application program and the DBMS. For example, for Java applica­
tions, the most common data access API for MySQL is JDBC (Java Database
Connectivity).
• The processing that’s done by the client software is typically referred to as front­
end processing, and the chent is typically referred to as the front end.

The SQL interface

• SQL stands for Structured Query Language, which is the standard language for
working with a relational database.
• The application software communicates with the DBMS by sending SQL queries
through the data access API. When the DBMS receives a query' that requests data, it
processes the query and returns the requested data (the query results) to the client.

Figure 1 -2 The software components of a client/server system

8 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

Other client/server architectures

In its simplest form, a client/server system consists of a single database
server and one or more clients. However, many client/server systems include
additional servers. For example, figure 1-3 presents two diagrams that show how
an additional server can be used between the clients and a database server.
The first diagram is for an application that runs on a simple networked
system. With this system, the user interface for the application runs on the client.
However, the processing that's done by the application takes place on the appli­
cation server. Then, if the application server needs to access the database, it uses
SQL to query' the database server. Next, the database server sends the results of
the query back to the application server. At this point, the application server may
further process the results and send an appropriate response back to the client, or
it may send another query to the database.
A web-based system like the one shown in the second diagram works
similarly. In this diagram, the client, which is typically a web browser such as
Chrome, uses a protocol know n as HTTP t Hypertext Transfer Protocol ) to send a
request to a web server that's typically running somewhere on the internet; Then,
if the web server needs to access data from the database, it uses SQL to send a
request for that data to the database server. Next, the database server sends the
results of the query back to the w eb server. At this point, the web server may
do additional processing, send another query to the database server, or send a
response back to the web browser.
Although this figure should give you an idea of how client/server systems
can be configured, these systems can be much more complicated than what's
shown here. For example, it's common for a web server to send requests to one
or more application servers that in tum send requests to one or more database
servers. In most cases, though, it's not necessary for you to know how a system
is configured to use SQL.
 Chapter 1 An introduction to relational databases 9

A networked system that uses an application server

Client Application Server Database Server

User interface DBMS
Database

A simple web-based system

Client Web Server Database Server

Web browser DBMS
Database

Description
• In addition to a database server, a client/server system can include additional
servers, such as application servers and web servers.
• An application server handles the processing for an application and uses SQL to
communicate with the database server.
• A web server uses a protocol known as HTTP (I lypertexi Transfer Protocol) to
communicate with the client It can also use SQL to communicate with the database
server.
• In a web-based system, it's common for the client to use a web browser to commu­
nicate with a web server that's running somewhere on the internet.
• Complex system architectures can include many application servers, web servers,
and database servers.

Figure 1-3 Other client/server architectures

10 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

An introduction
to the relational database model
In 1970. Dr. E. F. Codd developed a model tor a new type of database called
a relational database. This type of database eliminated some of the problems
that were associated with standard tiles and other database designs. By using the
relational model, you can reduce data redundancy, which saves disk storage and
leads to efficient data retrieval. You can also view and manipulate data in a way
that is both intuitive and efficient. Today, relational databases are the standard
for database applications.

How a table is organized

A relational database stores data in one or more fables. Each table can be
viewed as a two-dimensional matrix consisting of rows and columns. This is
illustrated by the table in figure 1-4. Each row m this table contains information
about a single vendor.
In practice, the rows and columns of a relational database table are often
referred to by the more traditional terms, records and fields. Some software
packages use one set of terms, some use the other, and some use a combination.
In this book. I use the terms rows and columns because those are the terms used
by MySQL, and because they make the structure of a table easy to visualize.
In general, each table is modeled after a real-world entity such as a vendor
or an invoice. Then, the columns of the table represent the attributes of the entity
such as name, address, and phone number. Each row of the table represents one
instance of the entity. A value stored at the intersection of each row and column
is sometimes called a cell.
If a table contains a column that uniquely identifies each row in the table,
you can define this column as the primary key of the table. For instance, the
primary key ot die Vendors table in this figure is the vendor_id column. A
primary key can also consist of two or more columns that together uniquely
identify a row. In that case, the key is called a composite primary key.
In addition to primary keys, some database management systems let you
define additional keys that uniquely identify each row m a table. If, for example,
the vendor_name column in the Vendors table contains unique data, it can be
defined as a non-primary key. In MySQL, this is called a unique key.
Indexes provide an efficient way of accessing the rows in a table based on
the values in one or more columns. Because applications typically access the
rows in a table by referring to their key values, an index is automatically created
for each key you define. However, you can define indexes for other columns as
well. It. for example, you frequently need to sort the Vendor row s by zip code,
you can set up an index for that column. Like a key, an index can consist of one
or more columns.
 Chapter 1 An introduction to relational databases 11

The Vendors table in an Accounts Payable database

Primary key Columns

vendor jd vendor name vendor .adckesEl vendor address2 vendor „aty A

► 1 US Postal Service Attn: Wndow Services POBox 7005

ffTW
Madson
2 National information Data Ctr PO Box 96621 Washington
3 Regs ter of Copyn^its Llrary Of Congress Wadungton
4 Jobtrak 1990 Westwood Blvd Ste 260 L3JI Los Angeles
czo Waffling ton
5 Newbnge Book Ccbs 3000 Cndei Owe
6 Caifome Chamber Of Commerce 32S5 Ramos Cr Sacramerto
Towne Advertiser s Maling Svcs Kevin Mnder 3441 W Macarthur Blvd
- Rows
7 Santa Ana
IS
ran
BFI Industries PO Box 9369 Fresno
Pacific Gas & Bectnc Elill
9 Box 52001 SanFrandSCC
LJ.ll
10 Robbins Mobie Lock And Key 4669 N Fresno Fresno
11 Ed Marwi Bectnc Inc 4583 E Home ESI F’esno
12 Qty Of Fresno PO Box 2069 Fresno *
< >

Description
• A relational database consists of tables. Tables consist of rows and columns, which
can also be referred to as records and fields.
• A table is typically modeled after a real-world entity, such as an invoice or a
vendor.
• A column represents some attribute of the entity, such as the amount of an invoice
or a vendor’s address.
• A row contains a set of values for a single instance of the entity, such as one invoice
or one vendor.
• The intersection of a row and a column is sometimes called a cell. A cell stores a
single value.
• Most tables have a primary key that uniquely identifies each row in the table. The
primary key is usually a single column, but it can also consist of two or more
columns. If a primary key uses two or more columns, it’s called a composite
primary' key.
• In addition to primary keys, some database management systems let you define one
or more non-primary keys. In MySQL, these keys are called unique keys. Like a
primary key. a non-primary key uniquely identifies each row in the table.
• A table can also be defined with one or more indexes. An index provides an
efficient way to access data from a table based on the values in specific columns.
An index is automatically created for a table's primary and non-primary keys.

Figure 1 -4 How a database table is organized

12 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How tables are related

The tables in a relational database can be related to other tables by values
in specific columns. The two tables shown in figure 1-5 illustrate this concept.
Here, each row in the Vendors table can be related to one or more rows in the
Invoices table. 'Hus is called a one-to-many relationship. That’s because one
vendor can be related to many invoices, but each invoice can only be related to
one vendor.
Typically, relationships exist between the primary key in one table and a
foreign key in another table. A foreign key is one or more columns in a table that
refer to a primary key in another table. In this figure, for example, the vendor_id
column in the Invoices column is a foreign key that refers to the primary key of
the Vendors table.
Although one-to-many relationships are the most common, two tables can
also have a one-to-one or many-to-many relationship. If a table has a one-to-one
relationship with another table, the data in the two tables could be stored in a
single table. However, it’s often useful to store large objects such as images,
sound, and videos in a separate table. Then, you can join the two tables with the
one-to-one relationship only when the large objects are needed.
In contrast, a many-to-many relationship is usually implemented by using
an intermediate table that has a one-to-many relationship with the two tables in
the many-to-many relationship. In other words, a many-to-many relationship can
usually be broken down into two one-to-many relationships.
 Chapter 1 An introduction to relational databases 13

The relationship between the Vendors and Invoices tables in the database
Primary key

vendor jd n.«Ke_i^te r.oKetotd MV<nen*jD«d credt*.‘j tBl-Sjd r»vace _d *

. -- 3-- 123 963253245 2022-06-10 40.75 40.75 002 3 2022-07-1
56 66 36744? 2022-06 11 2433.00 243100 0.00 1 2022-06-:
57 IS3 75C-90227 2022-06-11 1367.50 1367.50 IOC 5 2022-07-3
— 123 963253256 2022-06-11 53.25 5125 0.00 3 2022-07 1
—-
60 122 969319-497 2022-06-12 2312.20 2312 20 OK 3 2022-07-1
61 115 24946731 2022-06-15 25.67 25.67 0.00 4 2022-07-2
------- --------------- 123 963253269 2022-06-15 26.75 26 ’S 0 00 3 2022-0?-!
63 122 969319 427 2022-06-16 2115.81 2115.81 0.00 3 2022-07 1
---------- -n — 123 963253267 2022-06-17 23.50 23 50 0.00 3 2022-07-1
65 99 5C9786 2022-06-18 6940.25 6940.25 0.00 3 2022-07-1 v
<
4----- >

Foreign key

Description
• The tables in a relational database are related to each other through then key
columns. For example, the vendor _id column is used to relate the Vendors and
Invoices tables.
• The vendor_id column in the Invoices table is called a foreign key because it identi­
fies a related row in the Vendors table. A table may contain one or more foreign
keys.
• The relationships between the tables in a database correspond to the relationships
between the entities they represent. The most common type of relationship is
a one-to-many relationship as illustrated by the Vendors and Invoices tables. A
table can also have a one-to-one relationship or a many -to-many relationship with
another table.

Figure 1-5 How tables are related

14 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How columns are defined

When you create a table, you must define the table’s columns. To do that,
you assign properties to each column as indicated by the design of the Invoices
table in figure 1-6.
The most important property for a column is its data type, which determines
the type of information that can be stored in the column. With MySQL, you can
use one of the basic data types listed in this figure, as well as others. In most
cases, it's best to assign a data type that minimizes disk storage because that will
improve the performance of the queries.
In addition to a data type, you must identify whether a column can store null
values (or just nulls). Null represents a value that's unknown, unavailable, or not
applicable. In this figure, the columns that have the NN (not null) box checked
don't allow null values. If you don't allow null values for a column, the column
must store a value or its row' can't be stored in the table. That's the case for all of
the columns of the Invoices table except for the paymcnt_date column.
You can also assign a default value to each column. Then, that value is
assigned to the column if another value isn't provided when you create a new
row. Three of the columns of the Invoices table have a default value.
Each table can also contain a numeric column whose value is generated
automatically by the DBMS. In MySQL, this kind of column is called an auto
increment column. In the Invoices table, the invoice_id column is an auto incre­
ment column.
 Chapter 1 An introduction to relational databases 15

The columns of the Invoices table

Catan Name Datatype PK NN UQ 3 UN Al G Defadt^xpretsion
tn»o:ce_3 □ □ □ □

♦ »erdor_d wnu) □ □ □ □
invoice_number VAftCHARflO) □ □ □ □
<9. mvc:ce_date DATE □ □ □ □ □
■u invc!ce_totd dk:mal(U) □ □ □ □ □ □
* p«yment_totai decimalcu) □ □ □ □ D-M'
cred1_tot« decimal^J) □ □ □ D.M‘
♦ terms jd wniD □ □ □ □
<? invo-ce_due_date DATE □ □ □ □
\j t>ayment_d«te CATE □ □ □ NULL
□ □
Co'u-i- Data Type:

Oartet/Colttion: Def**:

Comments: Star age: Stored

Prtrry Key Not IM

Unagned Zerofil

Auto Ina ement Senersted

Common MySQL data types

Type Description
CHAR VARCKAR A string of letters, symbols, and numbers.
INT DECIMAL Integer and decimal numbers that contain an exact value.
FLOAT Floating-point numbers that contain an approximate value.
DATE Dates and times.

Description
• The data type that's assigned to a column determines die type of information that
can be stored in the column.
• Each column definition indicates whether or not it can contain null values. A null
value indicates that a value is unknown, unavailable, or not applicable.
• A column can be defined with a default value. Then, that value is used if a value
isn’t provided when a row is added to the table.
• A column can also be defined as an auto increment column. An auto increment
column is a numeric column whose value is generated automatically when a row is
added to the table.

Figure 1-6 How columns are defined

16 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to read a database diagram

W hen working with relational databases, you can use an enhanced entity-
relafionship tEERi diagram to show how the tables in a database are defined
and related. In figure 1-7, for example, you can see an EER diagram for the AP
(Accounts Payable) database that's used throughout this book. This diagram
shows that the database contains five related tables: Vendors, Terms, Invoices,
lnvoice_Line_Items, and General_Ledger_Accounts.
For each table, this diagram show s how the columns are defined. For
example, it shows that the Vendors table has 12 columns. It shows the name and
data type for each column. It uses a yellow' key icon to show that the primary
key for this table is the vendor_id column. And it uses a pink diamond icon to
show that the table has two columns that are foreign keys: default_teims_id and
default_account_number.
This diagram also shows how the tables are related. To do that, it places
connectors between the tables with symbols at the endpoints that identify the
type of relationship. The two most common symbols are shown in the table in
this figure. These symbols identify the “one” and “many” sides of a relationship.
For example, the connector between the Vendors and Invoices table shows
that these tables have a one-to-many relationship. The symbol on the endpoint
closest to the Invoices table indicates that many invoices can exist for each
vendor, and the symbol on the endpoint closest to the Vendors table indicates
that only one vendor can exist for each invoice In tins case, these tables are
related by the primary' key of the Vendors table ( the vendor_id column ) and a
foreign key of the Invoices table (also the vendor_id column).
Similarly, this diagram shows that there's a one-to-many relationship
between the Terms and Vendors tables. In other words, each terms of payment
can have many vendors, but each vendor can only have one default terms of
payment. These tables are related by the primary key of the Terms table (the
terms_id column) and a foreign key of the Vendors table (the default_terms_id
column).
Note that, unlike the other tables, the primary key for the Invoice_Line_
Items table consists of two columns: invoice_id and invoice_sequence. Since
the Invoice_Line_Items table can contain more than one row for each row in the
Invoices table, the invoice_id column alone doesn't uniquely identify a line item.
So. the invoice_sequence column must also be included in the primary key.
In chapter 10, you’ll learn how to use MySQL Workbench to create and
work with EER diagrams. For now. you just need to understand how to read the
diagram presented in this figure so you can understand the relationships between
the tables in the AP database.
 Chapter 1 An introduction to relational databases 17

An EER diagram for the AP (Accounts Payable) database

invoices
invoice jd INT

> vendorjd INT

, mvotce.number VARCHAR(SO)

> invoice.date DATE

> inwice .total DCCIMAL(9 J)

v payment.totd DECIMAL(9,2)

credit-total DE<TMAL(9,2)
I
I tennsjd INT

invoice.due.date DATE
_ yeiM»Ml_l«igw_accounts v payment-date DATE
account.number P<T

account.descnptian VAROAR(SO)

►
T I wok e_l I ne_i terns
I
invoice Jd INT
I
invoice-Sequence INT
I
i__________ * account.number INT

ine.ltern.arrount DECIMAL(9,2)

I me J tern .desai pt on V ARCHAR (100)

Common relationship symbols

Description
• An enhanced entity-relationship (EER) diagram can be used to show how the
tables in a database are defined and related.

Figure 1 -7 How to read a database diagram

18 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

An introduction to SQL
and SQL-based systems
In the topics that follow, you’il learn how SQL and SQL-based database
management systems evolved. In addition, you II learn how four of the most
popular SQL-based systems compare.

A brief history off SQL

Prior to the release of the first relational database management system
tRDBMS), each database had a unique physical structure and a unique program­
ming language that the programmer had to understand. That all changed with the
advent of SQL and the relational database management system.
Figure 1-8 lists the important events in the history of SQL. In 1970. Dr. E.
F. Codd published an article that described the relational database model he
had been working on with a research team at IBM. By 1978. the IBM team had
developed a database system based on this model, called System/R. along with a
query language called SEQUEL (Structured English Quen Language). Although
the database and query language were never officially released IBM remained
committed to the relational model.
The following year. Relational Software. Inc. released the first relational
database management system, called Oracle. This RDBMS ran on a minicom­
puter and used SQL as its query language. This product was widely successful,
and the company later changed its name to Oracle to reflect that success.
During the 1980s, other SQL-based database systems, including DB2 and
SQL Server, were developed. Although each of these systems used SQL as its
query language, each implementation was unique. That began to change in 1989,
when the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) published its first set of
standards for a database query language. These standards have been revised a
few times since then, most recently in 2019. As each database manufacturer has
attempted to comply with these standards, their implementations of SQL have
become more similar. However, each database still has its own dialect of SQL
that includes additions, or extensions, to the standards.
Although you should be awaie ot the SQL standards, they will have little
effect on your job as a MySQL programmer. The main benefit of the standards
is that the basic SQL statements are the same in each dialect. As a result, once
you've learned one dialect, it's relatively easy to learn another. On the other
hand, porting applications that use SQL from one type of database to another
often requires substantial changes.
MySQL was first released in 1995 and was used internally by the company
that developed it, MySQL AB. Then, in 2000. MySQL became an open­
source database. Since that lime. MySQL has become one of the most popular
databases, especially for web applications. In 2008. MySQL was acquired by
Sun Microsystems, and in 2010. Oracle acquired Sun.
Soon after Oracle's acquisition of My SQL, many of the original developers
of MySQL left and began working on a fork of the open-source code named
 Chapter / An introduction to relational databases 19

Important events in the history of SQL

Year Event
1970 Dr. E. F. Codd develops the relational database model.
1978 IBM develops the predecessor to SQL. called Structured English Query’ Language
(SEQUEL).
1979 Relational Software. Inc. (later renamed Oracle) releases the first relational database.
Oracle.
1985 IBM releases DB2 (Database 2).
1987 Microsoft releases SQL Server.
1989 The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) publishes the first set of standards
for a database query language, called ANSI/1SO SQL-89, or SQL 1.
1992 ANSI publishes revised standards (ANSVISO SQL-92, or SQL 2) that are more
stringent than SQL 1. These standards introduce levels of conformance that indicate
the extent to which a dialect meets the standards.
1995 My SQL AB releases MySQL for internal use.
1999 ANSI publishes SQL 3 (ANS1/ISO SQL: 1999). which replaces levels of conformance
with a core specification along with specifications for nine additional packages.
2000 MySQL is released as an open-source database.
2003 ANSI publishes SQL:2OO3.
2006 ANSI publishes SQL:2006.
2008 ANSI publishes SQL:2008.
Sun Microsystems acquires MySQL.
2010 Oracle acquires Sun Microsystems and MySQL.
Many of the original developers of MySQL leave and begin working on a fork of the
open-source code named MariaDB.
2011 ANSI publishes SQL:2011.
2016 ANSI publishes SQL:2016.
2019 ANSI publishes SQL:2019.

Description
• Although SQL is a standard language, each vendor has its own SQL dialect, or
variant, that may include extensions to the standards.

How knowing “standard SQL” helps you

• The most basic SQL statements are the same for all SQL dialects.
• Once you have learned one SQL dialect, you can easily learn other dialects.

How knowing “standard SQL” does not help you

• Any non-trivial application will require modification to the SQL statements when
moved from one relational database to another.

Figure 1 -8 A bnef history of SQL

20 Section I An introduction to MySQL

MariaDB. One of MariaDB’s stated goals is to remain free and open-source

while maintaining high compatibility with MySQL so it can be used as a drop-in
replacement for MySQL, As a result, most of the SQL statements for working
with MySQL work the same for MariaDB.

A comparison of four relational databases

Although this book is about MySQL, you may want to know about some
of the other SQL-based relational database management systems. Figure
1-9 compares MySQL with three other popular databases: Oracle, DB2, and
Microsoft (MS) SQL Server.
Oracle has a huge installed base of customers and continues to dominate the
marketplace, especially for servers tunning the Unix or Linux operating system.
Oracle works well for large systems and has a reputation for being extremely
reliable.
DB2 was originally designed to run on IBM mainframe systems and
continues to be the premier database for those systems Ii also dominates in
hybrid environments where IBM mainframes and newer servers must coexist.
Although it is expensive, it also has a reputation for being reliable and easy to
use.
SQL Server was designed by Microsoft to run on Window s and is widely
used for both small and medium-sized systems. SQL Server 2017 and later also
run on Linux. SQL Server has a reputation for being inexpensive and easy to use.
MySQL runs on all major operating systems and is widely used for web
applications. MySQL is an open-source database. wrhich means that any devel­
oper can view and modify its source code. In addition, the MySQL Community
Server is free for most users, although Oracle also sells other editions of MySQL
that include customer support and advanced features.
Dozens of other relational database products are also available from various
vendors. These include proprietary databases like Amazon Aurora, as well as
open-source databases like PostgreSQL. SQLiite. and MariaDB. In addition,
you'll find that most of these databases are offered as a service from various
cloud computing platforms. This is know n as DBaaS (database as a sen ice).
Today. Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and Oracle Cloud are
among the top DBaaS providers.
 Chapter / An introduction to relational databases 21

Oracle
• Released in 1979.
• Runs on Unix, z/OS. Windows, Linux, and macOS.
• Typically used for large, mission-critical systems that run on one or more Unix
servers.

DB2
• Released in 1985.
• Runs on OS/390. z/OS, AIX, Unix, Windows, Linux, and macOS.
• Typically used for large, mission-critical systems that run on legacy IBM
mainframe systems using the z/OS or OS/390 operating system.

SQL Server
» Released in 1987.
• Runs on Windows and Linux.
• Typically used for small- to medium-sized systems that run on one or more
Windows or Linux servers.

MySQL
• Released in 2000.
• Runs on Unix. Linux. Windows, and macOS.
• A popular open-source database that runs on all major operating systems and is
commonly used tor web applications.

Description
• Unix is a family of proprietary operating systems. It was originally developed by
Bell Labs in 1969.
• Linux is a family of open-source operating systems. It was originally released by
Linus Torvalds m 1991. Since Linux was originally based on Unix, a’s known as a
Unix-like operating system.
• MySQL is a popular open-source database that runs on all major operating systems
and is commonly used for web applications.
• These are just four of the most popular relational databases. Many other relational
databases exist.
• Some databases are offered by cloud providers as services, so you don't have to
handle setup or maintenance yourself. This is knowm as DBaaS (database as a
service).

Figure 1 -9 A comparison of four relational databases

22 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

The SQL statements

In the topics that follow, you’ll learn about some of the SQL. statements
provided by MySQL. You can use some of these statements to manipulate
the data in a database, and you can use others to work with database objects.
Although you may not feel comfortable coding these statements on your own
after reading these figures, you should have a good idea of what they can do.
Then, you'll be better prepared to learn the details of coding these statements
when they’re presented later in this book.

An introduction to the SQL statements

Figure 1-10 summarizes some of the most common SQL statements. These
statements can be divided into two categories. The statements that work with
the data in a database are called the data manipulation language (DML). T hese
statements are presented in the first table in this figure, and they're the ones that
application programmers use the most.
The statements that create and work with database objects are called the data
definition language (DDL). On large systems, these statements are used exclu­
sively by database administrators (DBAs). It's a DBA’s job to maintain existing
databases, fine-tune them tor faster performance, and create new databases.
On smaller systems, though, a SQL programmer may also use some of these
statements.
 Chapter 1 An introduction to relational databases 23

SQL statements used to work with data (DML)

Statement Description
SELECT Retrieves data from one or more tables.
INSERT Adds new rows to a table.
UPDATE Changes existing rows in a table.
DELETE Deletes existing rows from a table.

SQL statements used to work with database objects (DDL)

Statement Description
CREATE DATABASE Creates a new database on the server.
CREATE TABLE Creates a new table in a database.
CREATE INDEX Creates a new index for a table.

ALTER TABLE Changes the definition of an existing table.

ALTER INDEX Changes the structure of an existing index.

DROP DATABASE Deletes an existing database.

DROP TABLE Deletes an existing table.
DROP INDEX Deletes an existing index.

Description
• Data manipulation language (DML) statements let you work with the data in a
database.
• Data definition language (DDL) statements let you work with the objects in the
database.
• SQL programmers typically work with DML statements, while database adminis­
trators (DBAs) use the DDL statements.

Figure 1-10 An introduction to the SQL statements

24 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to work with database objects

To give you an idea of how you use the DDL statements shown in the
previous figure, figure 1-11 presents some examples. The first statement creates
an accounts payable database named AP. This is die database that's used in many
of the examples throughout this book. Then, the second example selects that
database. As a result the rest of the statements in this figure are run against the
AP database.
The third example creates the Invoices table that's used throughout this
chapter. If you don’t understand all of this code right now. don’t worry. For now.
just realize that this statement defines each column in the table, including its data
type, whether or not it allows null values, and its default value if it has one. In
addition, it defines an auto increment column, a primary key column, and two
foreign key columns.
The fourth example changes the Invoices table by adding a column to it.
Like the statement that created the table, this statement specifies the attributes of
the new column. Then, the fifth example deletes the column that was just added.
The sixth example creates an index on the Invoices table. In this case, the
index is for the vendor_id column, which is used frequently to access the table.
Then, the last example deletes the index that was just added.
 Chapter / An introduction to relational databases 25

A statement that creates a new database

CREATE DATABASE ap

A statement that selects the current database

USE ap

A statement that creates a new table

CREATE TABLE invoices
(
invoice id INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO INCREMENT,
vendor_id INT NOT NULL,
invoice number VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
invoice date DATE NOT NULL,
invoicetotal DECIMAL!9, 2) NOT NULL,
payment _t ot al DECIMAL (9,2) DEFAULT 0,
credit_tctal DECIMAL(9,2) DEFAULT 0,
terms id INT NOT NULL,
invoicedue date DATE NOT NULL,
payment _ dat e DATE.
CONSTRAINT invoices £k vendors
FOREIGN KEY (vendor id)
REFERENCES vendors (vendor id),
CONSTRAINT involcig fk tcm,
FOREIGN KEY (terns id)
REFERENCES terns (ternsid)
)

A statement that adds a new column to a table

ALTER TABLE invoices
ADD balance due DECIMAL!9,2)

A statement that deletes the new column

ALTER TABLE invoices
DROP COLUMN balancedue

A statement that creates an index on the table

CREATE INDEX invoice8_vendor_id index
ON invoices (vendor id)

A statement that deletes the new index

DROP INDEX invoices vendor id index
ON invoices

Figure 1 -11 Typical statements for working with database objects

26 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to query a single table

Figure 1-12 shows how to use a SELECT statement to query a single table
in a database. To start, this figure shows some of the columns and rows of the
Invoices table. Then, in the SELECT statement that follows, the SELECT clause
names the columns to be retrieved, and the EROM clause names the table that
contains the columns, called the base table. In this case, six columns will be
retrieved from the Invoices table.
Note that the last column, balance_due, is calculated from three other
columns in the table. In other words, a column by the name of balance_due
doesn't exist in the table. This type of column is called a calculated value, and it
exists only in the results of the query.
In addition to the SELECT and FROM clauses, this SELECT statement
includes a WHERE clause and an ORDER BY clause. The W HERE clause gives
the criteria for the rows to be selected. In this case, a row is selected only if it has
a balance due that's greater than zero. And the ORDER BY clause sorts the rows
by the invoice_date column.
This figure also shows the result set lor result tablei that's returned by the
SELECT statement. A result set is a logical table that's created temporarily
w ithin the database. When an application requests data from a database, it
receives a result set.
 Chapter / An introduction to relational databases 27

The Invoices base table

rhifMejd vendor jd in voice -number invoice _date invoice _totai payment _total credit_totai terTns_d fn voce _d A

» 1 122 989319-457 2022-04-08 3813.33 3813.33 0.00 3 2022-05-01

2 123 263253241 2022-04-10 40.20 40.20 0.00 3 2022-05-11
3 123 963253234 2022-04-13 138.75 138.75 0.00 3 2022-05-1
4 123 2-000-2993 2022-04-16 144.70 144.70 0.00 3 3)22-05-11
5 123 963253251 2022-04-16 15=50 15.50 0.00 3 2022-05-li
6 123 963253261 202204-16 42.75 42.75 0.00 3 2022-05-If
7 123 963253237 202204-21 172.50 172.50 0.00 3 2022-05-2
la
89 125520-1 202204 24 95.00 95.00 0.00 1 2022-05-0- v
< >

A SELECT statement that retrieves and sorts selected columns and rows
from the Invoices table
SELECT invoice number, invoice date, invoicetotal,
paymenttotal, credittotal,
invoice^total - payment—total - credit-total AS balance due
FROM invoices
WHERE invoicetotal - payment_total - credit-total > 0
ORDER BY invoice date

The result set defined by the SELECT statement

invoice _nmnber RV0KB_da» nvoce _total payment-total cred t_ to tai balance _due A

» 39104 2022-07-10 85.31 0.00 0.00 85.31

963253264 2022-07-18 52.25 0.00 0.00 52.25
31361833 2022-07-21 579.42 0.00 0.00 579.42
263253268 2022-07-21 59.97 0.00 0.00 59.97
263253270 2022-07-22 67.92 0.00 0.00 67.92
263253273 2022-07-22 30.75 0.00 0.00 30.75
o-osca 2022-07-23 20551.18 0.00 1200.00 19351.18
9982771 2022-07-24 503.20 0.00 0.00 503.20
134116 2077-07-21 000 0 00 90 36 V

Description
• You use a SELECT statement to retrieve selected columns and rows from a table,
called the base table. The result of a SELECT statement is a result table, or result
set.
• A result set can include calculated values that are calculated from columns in the
table.
• A SELECT statement is commonly referred to as a query-.

Figure 1-12 How to query a single table

28 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to join data from two or more tables

Figure 1-13 presents a SELECT statement that retrieves data from two tables.
This type of operation is called a join because the data from the two tables is
joined together into a single result set. For example, the SELECT statement in this
figure joins data from the Vendors and Invoices tables.
An inner join is the most common type of SQL join. When you use an inner
join, rows from the two tables in the join are included in the result table only if
their related columns match. These matching columns are specified in the FROM
clause of the SELECT statement. In the SELECT statement in this figure, for
example, rows from the Vendors and Invoices tables are included only if the value
of the vendor_id column in the Vendors table matches the value of the vendor jd
column in one or more rows in the Invoices table. If there aren't any invoices for a
particular vendor, that vendor won't be included in the result set.
Although this figure shows how to join data from two tables, you can extend
this syntax to join data from three or more tables. If. for example, you want to
include line item data from a table named Invoice„Lme_Items in the results
shown in this figure, you can code the FROM clause ot the SELECT statement
like this:
FP.CM vendors
INNER JOli: invoices
ON vendors.vendor id ■ invoices.vendor.id
INNER JOIN invoice line items
ON invoices.invoiceid ■ invoice_line.items.invoice id
Then, in the SELECT clause, you can include any of the columns in the Invoice_
Line_Items table.
In addition to inner joins, most relational databases including MySQL support
other types of joins such as outer joins. An outer join lets you include all rows
from a table even if the other table doesn't have a matching row.
 Chapter 1 An introduction to relational databases 29

A SELECT statement that joins data from the Vendors and Invoices tables
SELECT vendor_name( invoice number, invoice date, invoice total
FROM vendors
INNER JOIN invoices
ON vendors.vendor_id = invoices.vendor id
WHERE invoicetotal >■ 500
ORDER BY vendor name, invoicetotal DESC

The result set defined by the SELECT statement

A
vendor _name nvttce_rvmber rvo»ce_date rivacejDtai

Bertelsmann Indus by Svcs. Inc 509786 2022-06-18 6940.25

Cahners Putrfurtng Company 587056 2022-06-30 2184.50
Computer world 367447 2022-06-11 2433.00
Data Reproductions Corp 0318 2022-06-01 21842.00
Dean Witter Reynolds 75C-90227 2022-06-11 1367,50
Dpitai Drearnworis P02-3772 2022-05-21 7125.34
Federal Express Corporation 963253230 2022-07-07 739.20
Ford Motor Credt Company 9982771 2022-07-24 503.20
foartj R*R-72-3662-X 2022-05-25

Description
• A join lets you combine data from two or more tables into a single result set.
• I’he most common type of join in SQL is an inner join. Illis type of join returns
rows from both tables only if their related columns match.
• An outer join returns rows from one table in the join even if the other table doesn't
contain a matching row.

Figure 1 -13 How to join data from two or more tables

30 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to add, update, and delete data in a table

Figure 1-14 shows how you can use the INSER T. UPDATE, and DELETE
statements to modify the data in a table. In this figure, for example, the first
statement is an INSERT statement that adds a row to the Invoices table. To do
that, the INSERT clause names the columns whose values are supplied in the
VALUES clause.
The two UPDATE statements in this figure show howr to change the data in
one or more rows of a table. The first statement, for example, assigns a value of
35.89 to the credit_total column of the invoice in the Invoices table w ith invoice
number 367447. The second statement adds 30 days to the invoice due date for
each row in the Invoices table whose tennsjd column has a value of 4.
To delete rows from a table, you use the DELETE statement. For example,
the first DELETE statement in this figure deletes the invoice with invoice
number 4-342-8069 from the Invoices table. The second DELE TE statement
deletes all invoices with a balance due of zero.
 Chapter 1 An introduction to relational databases 31

A statement that adds a row to the Invoices table

INSERT INTO invoices
(vendor id, invoice number, invoice, date,
invoice total, terras id, invoice due date)
VALUES
(12, *3289175', '2022-07-18', 165, 3, '2022-08-17')

A statement that changes the value of the crediCtotal column

for a selected row in the Invoices table
UPDATE invoices
SET credit-total ■ 35.89
WHERE invoice number ■ *367447*

A statement that changes the values in the invoice due date column
for all invoices with the specified termsjd
UPDATE invoices
SET invoice due data - DATE ADD(invoice, duedate, INTERVAL 30 DAY)
WHERE terms id ■ 4

A statement that deletes a selected invoice from the Invoices table

DELETE FROM invoices
WHERE invoice number ■ *4-342-8069*

A statement that deletes all paid invoices from the Invoices table
DELETE FROM invoices
WHERE invoice-total - paymenttotal - credittotal ■ 0

Description
• You use an INSERT statement to add rows to a table.
• You use an UPDATE statement to change the values in one or more rows of a table
based on the condition you specify.
• You use a DELETE statement to delete one or more rows from a table based on the
condition you specify.

Warning
• If you're new to SQL. don't execute the statements above until you understand the
effect that they can have on the database.

Figure 1-14 How to add, update, and delete data in a table

32 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

SQL coding guidelines

SQL is a freeform language. That means that you can include line breaks,
spaces, and indentation without affecting the way the database interprets the
code. In addition. SQL is not case-sensitive like some languages. That means
that you can use uppercase or lowercase letters or a combination of the two
w ithout affecting the way the database interprets the code.
Although you can code SQL statements with a freeform style. 1 suggest that
you follow the coding recommendations presented in figure 1-15. The examples
in this figure illustrate the value of these coding recommendations. The first
example presents an unformatted SELECT statement that's difficult to read. In
contrast, this statement is much easier to read after our coding recommendations
are applied, as shown in the second example.
The thud and fourth examples show how to use comments in your code. The
third example illustrates how to code a block comment. A block comment begins
with /♦ and ends with ♦/. Any text inside the comment isn’t executed by the
system. This type of comment is typically coded at the beginning of a group of
statements and is used to document the entire group. Block comments can also
be used within a statement to describe blocks of code, but that’s not common.
The fourth example includes a single-line comment. A single-line comment
starts with — and can be coded on a separate line as shown in this example, or it
can be coded at the end of a line of code. In either case, the comment ends at the
end of the line.
Although many programmers sprinkle their code with comments, that
shouldn't be necessary if you write your code so it’s easy to read and understand.
Instead, you should use comments only to clarify portions of code that are hard
to understand. Then, if you change the code, you should be sure to change the
comments too. That way, the comments will accurately represent what the code
does.
 Chapter 1 An introduction to relational databases 33

A SELECT statement that’s difficult to read

select invoice number, invoicedate, invoicetotal,
paymenttotal, credit_total, invoicetotal - payment total -
credittotal as balance due from invoices where invoicetotal -
payment total - credit—total > 0 order by invoice date

A SELECT statement that's coded with a readable style

SELECT invoice number, invoicedate, invoicetotal,
payment-total, credittotal,
invoice_total - paymenttotal - credit-total AS balance due
FROM invoices
WHERE invoicetotal - payment-total - credit-total > 0
ORDER BY invoice date

A SELECT statement with a block comment

/*
Author: Joel Murach
Date: 8/22/2023
*/
SELECT invoice number, invoice.date, invoicetotal,
invoice.total - payment total - credit-total AS balance due
FROM invoices

A SELECT statement with a single-line comment

-- The fourth column calculates the balance due
SELECT invoice number, invoice-date, invoice total,
invoice_total - payment-total - credit-total AS balance_due
FROM invoices

Coding recommendations
• Capitalize all keywords, and use lowercase for the other code in a SQL statement.
• Separate the words in names with underscores, as in invoice_number.
• Start each clause on a new line.
• Break long clauses into multiple lines and indent continued lines.
• L'se comments to document code that is difficult to understand.

How to code a comment

• To code a block comment, ty pe /* at the start of the block and */ at the end.
• To code a single-line comment, type — followed by the comment.

Description
• I inc breaks, white space, indentation, and capitalization have no effect on how
MySQL processes statements.
• Comments can be used to document what a statement does or what specific parts of
the code do. They are not executed by the system.

Figure 1 -15 SQL coding guidelines

34 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

To help you understand how SQL is used, this chapter has introduced
you to the hardware and software components of a client/server system. It has
also described how relational databases are organized and how you use some
SQL statements to work with the data in a relational database. With that as
background, you’re now ready to start using MySQL.

Terms
client one-to-many relationship
server one-to-one relationship
database sen er many-to-many relationship
network data type
client/sener system null value
local area network (LAN) default value
wide area netw ork (WAN) auto increment column
cloud enhanced entity-relationship (EER)
cloud computing platform diagram
enterprise system relational database management
database management system (DBMS) system (RDBMS)
back end American National Standards Institute
application software (ANSI)
data access API (application Oracle
programming interface) DB2
front end SQL Server
SQL (Structured Query Language) database as a senice (DBaaS)
query SQL dialect
query results SQL extension
network operating system open-source database
application server data manipulation language (DML)
web server data definition language (DDL)
relational database database administrator (DBA)
table base table
row result table
column result set
record calculated value
field join
cell inner join
primary key outer join
composite primary key comment
non-primary key block comment
unique key single-line comment
index
foreign key
 2
How to use
MySQL Workbench
and other development tools
In the last chapter, you learned about some of the SQL statements that you can
use to work with the data in a relational database. Before you learn the details
of coding these statements, however, you need to learn how to use MySQL
Workbench to enter and execute SQL statements. In addition, you should leam
how to use the MySQL Reference Manual, and you should at least be familiar
wuh the MySQL Command I .me Client

An introduction to MySQL Workbench__ __________...__ 36

The Home page of MySQL Workbench............................................................36
How to open a database connection.................................................................. 38
How to view the status of the database server.................................................. 40
Hou to navigate through the database objects.................................................42
How to view and edit the data for a table............ 44
How to view and edit the column definitions for a table................................ 46
How to use MySQL Workbench to run SQL statements ..48
Hou to enter and execute a SQL statement...................................................... 48
Hou to handle syntax errors............................................................................... 50
Hou to open and save SQL scripts.................................................................... 52
How to enter and execute SQL scripts.............. _............................................ 54
How to use the MySQL Reference Manual....._______ ......56
Hou to view the manual............................................ ..................... 56
How to look up information............................................................................... 56
How to use the MySQL Command Line Client................... 58
Hou to start and stop the MySQL Command Line Client............ ................. 58
How to use the MySQL Command Line Client to work with a database.... 60
Perspective................................................................................... .62
36 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

An introduction to MySQL Workbench

MySQL Workbench is a free graphical tool that makes it easy to work with
MySQL. We recommend using Workbench as you work through this book. This
chapter shows how to use version 8.0 of MySQL Workbench. However, with
some minor variations, the skills presented in this chapter should work for later
versions as well.

The Home page of MySQL Workbench

When you start MySQL Workbench, it displays its Home page as shown
in figure 2-1. This page is divided into three tabs: Connections. Models, and
Migration.
The Connections tab contains links that you can use to open a connection to
a MySQL server. Then, you can use that connection to code and run SQL state­
ments. If you installed MySQL Community Server as described in appendix A or
B. this tab will contain one connection that allows you to connect as the root user
to a local instance of MySQL Server that’s running on your computer. However,
if necessary, you can click the ® icon to the right of MySQL Connections to
create other connections.
The Connections tab also contains links to MySQL Workbench documenta­
tion. blogs, and forums. This book doesn't show how to use these links, but
you may find them useful, especially after you have learned the basic skills for
working with MySQL that are described in this book.
The Models tab contains links that let you create database diagrams from a
type of data model known as an EER model. You can also use this tab to open
existing EER models or to create new ones. Then, you can work u i th EER
diagrams that correspond to these models. To learn more about EER models and
diagrams, you can read chapter 10.
Once you connect to a MySQL server, you can use Workbench to work with
that server and the databases on the server. Then, if you need to return to the
Home page, you can do that by clicking on the tab with the house icon on it near
the top left of the Workbench window. In this figure, the Home tab is the only
tab that's shown, but you'll see some other tabs in the next few figures.
 Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 37

The Home page of MySQL Workbench

■ MySQL Mortfcanch - O X

A t

Eai OMtas* Toata Sen pong Hdp

RM Welcome to MySQL Workbench

MySQL Workbench is the official graphical user interlace 'GUI) tool for MySQL It allows you to design,
create and browse youi database schemas, wort with database objects and insert data as well as
design and run SQL queries to work with stored data You can also migrate schemas and data from other
database vendors to your MySQL database

Browse Documentation * Read the Blog > Discuss on the Forums >

MySQL Connections ®® ct Filter connections

Local instance MySQL 80

1 rtXM
: WcrtwASJOG
____________________ I

Description
• The Home page of MySQL Workbench is divided into the three tabs displayed at
the left side of the window: Connections. Models, and Migration.
• You can use the Connections tab to code and run SQL statements.
• You can use the Models tab to create and work with EER models.
• You can use the Migration tab to migrate other databases to MySQL and to copy a
database from one instance of MySQL to another.
• The Home page also includes links that you can use to view the documentation for
using MySQL Workbench, view the MySQL Workbench blog, and view and join in
the MySQL Workbench forum.
• You can return to the Home page by clicking the tab with the house icon. This tab
is always displayed in the top left corner of the Workbench window.

Figure 2-1 The Home page of MySQL Workbench

38 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to open a database connection

Before you cun work with a database. you need to connect to the server
that hosts that database. When you start MySQL Workbench, the MySQL
Connections tab displays a list of saved connections.
By default, MySQL Workbench has one saved connection in this list. Here,
the connection is named “Local instance MySQLSO”, and it connects as the root
user to a MySQL server that’s running on port 3306 of the local host computer.
This assumes that you’re using MySQL version 8.0 and that you’ve followed the
instructions for installing the instance as described in appendix A (Windows) or
appendix B imacOS). If you want to rename the connection, you can do that by
editing the connection parameters as described in figure 2-2.
Since you typically want to connect as the root user when you're first getting
started, you typically use this default connection to connect to the server. To
do that, click the connection and enter the password for the root user if you’re
prompted for it. This is the password that you created when installing the
MySQL Server.
This figure shows the dialog box that MySQL Workbench displays to prompt
for a password. This dialog box shows that n's attempting to use the root user to
connect to a MySQL server running on port 3306 of the local host. In addition
to entering a password in this dialog box, you can select the “Save password in
vault” option to save the password so you don't have to enter it every time you
connect to this server. Then, if you ever want to clear the password from the
vault, you can right-click the connection, select Edit Connection, and click the
Clear button.
In some cases, you may need to connect as another user or connect to a
MySQL server running on a different computer. To do that, you can use the
Manage Server Connections dialog box to edit die parameters for a connection
as described in this figure. This dialog box lets you specify the parameters for
the connection such as the connection name, username, hostname, and port
number.
If you want to add a new connection to the Connections tab. you can click
the © icon to the right of MySQL Connections, enter a name for the connection,
and specify the parameters for the connection. Then, this connection appears in
the list of connections, and you can click on it to use it.
 Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 39

The dialog box for opening database connections

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• To connect as the root user to an instance of MySQL that's running on the local
host computer, click the stored connection for the local instance and enter the
password for the root user if prompted.
• To save the password for a connection so you don’t have to enter it every time,
check tire "‘Save password in vault ’ option when you’re prompted for your
password.
• To clear the password from the vault so you are prompted for your password,
right-click the connection, select Edit Connection, click the Clear button for the
password and click the Close button.
• To edit the connection parameters for a connection, right-click the connection and
select Edit Connection to display the Manage Server Connections dialog box. Then,
enter the connection parameters and click the Close button. This lets you specify
the connectton name, the username, the hostname, the port number, and other
connection parameters.
• To add a connection to another MySQL server, click the © icon to the right of
MySQL Connections, enter the connection parameters, and click the OK button.
Then, the connection appears in the list of connections.
• If you get a warning that MySQL Workbench is incompatible with the server
version and that some features may not work properly, don’t be alarmed. You can
click Continue Anyway and the features described in this book should still work.

Figure 2-2 How to open a database connection

40 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to view the status of the database server

If you installed MySQL on your computer as described in appendix A
( Windows) or B (macOS), the database server should start automatically when
you start your computer. 11ns piece of software is sometimes referred to as the
database service or database engine. It receives SQL statements that are passed
to it, processes them, and returns the results.
To check whether the MySQL database server is running on your computer,
you can display the Server Status tab of MySQL Workbench as shown in figure
2-3. Then, if the server isn’t already running, you can use the Services app for
Windows or the System Preferences dialog box for macOS to start it. For more
information, see figure A-l in appendix A (Window's) or figure B-l in appendix
B (macOS).
 Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 41

The Server Status option of MySQL Workbench

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How to view the status of the database server

I. Display the Connections tab of the MySQL Workbench Home page.
2. Click the connection to the local server. This should connect you to the local
MySQL server as the root user. It necessary, enter the password for the root user.
3. If the Administration tab of the Navigator window isn't displayed, click on it to
display it. Then, select the Server Status option from the Management category.
This will display information about the database server, including whether it is
running.

Description
• After you install MySQL, the database server usually starts automatically each
time you stair your computer. You can confirm that’s it’s running by displaying the
Server Status tab.
• The database server can also be referred to as the database service or the database
engine.
• If you need to start or stop the database server, appendix A provides instructions for
Windows, and appendix B provides instructions for macOS.

Figure 2-3 How to view the status of the database server

42 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to navigate through the database objects

After you connect to a database server, you can use the Schemas category of
the Navigator window to navigate through the database objects in the databases
on the server, as shown tn figure 2-4. As you can see. these objects include
tables, views, stored procedures, and functions. For this chapter, however, you
can focus on the tables. Later in this book, you'll learn more about views, stored
procedures, and functions.
In this figure. I double-clicked the node for the AP database (schema) in the
Schemas tab of the Navigator wrindow to select it and view the database objects
it contains (tables, views, stored procedures, and functions). I hen. I expanded
the Tables node to view all of the tables in the AP database.
To work with a node or an object, you can nght-click it to display a context­
sensitive menu. Then, you can select an item from that menu. For example, you
can right-click the node for the AP database to display a list of items for working
with that database.
 Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 43

The tables available for the AP database

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• Each database (or schema) pros ides access to the database objects that are
available. These database objects include tables, views, stored procedures, and
functions.
• On some systems, the Navigator window provides Administration and Schemas
tabs that you can use to display the Administration and Schemas categories. On
other systems, the Navigator window displays the Administration category above
the Schemas category.
• To display the databases for the current connection, you can use the Navigator
window to view the Schemas category.
• To navigate through the database objects for a database, click the arrows to the left
of each of the nodes in the Navigator window to expand or collapse the node.
• To work with a node or an object, right-click the node or object and select an item
from the resulting menu.

Figure 2-4 How to navigate through the database objects

44 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to view and edit the data for a table

To view the data for a table, you can right-click the table name and select
Select Rows - Limit HMM) In figure 2-5. for example. 1 selected this command
for the Invoices table. This displayed the data for the table in a Result grid. In
addition, it displayed information about the SELECT statement that was used to
retrieve the data in the Output tab.
To insert, edit, and delete the rows in the table, you can use the buttons at
the top of the Result grid. Then, to apply the changes to the table, you can click
the Apply button at the bottom of the Result grid. Or. if you want to cancel the
changes, you can click the Revert button.
 Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 45

The data for the Invoices table displayed in the Result grid
Resu t grid

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Description
• To view the data for a table, right-click the table in the Navigator window and
select Select Rows - Limit 1 (XX) to display it in a Result grid.
• To edit the data for a table, view the data. Then, you can use the buttons at the top
of the Result grid to insert, update, and delete rows.
• To apply the changes to the table, click the Apply button at the bottom of the tab.
To cancel the changes, click the Revert button.

Figure 2-5 How to view and edit the data tor a table
46 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to view and edit the column definitions

for a table
If you want to view or edit the column definitions for a table, you can use
the techniques described in figure 2-6. In this figure, for example, the column
definitions for the Vendors table are displayed. At this point, you can view
information about each column of the table such as its name and data type. You
can also select a column to display the information about that column in the
Columns tab at the bottom of the window.
Once you display the column definitions for a table, you can add a column,
delete one or more columns, or modify a column. To add a new column, you
enter its information in the row at the bottom of the list. To delete one or more
columns, you select the columns using standard techniques, and then right-click
on one of the selected columns and select the Delete Selected command. To
change the name of a column, you select the column and then click on the name
and edit it. To change the data type of a column, you select the column and then
click on its data type and select another data type from the drop-down list that
appears. And so on.
Most of the time, you won't want to use MySQL Workbench to edit the
column definitions for a table. Instead, you'll want to edit the scripts that create
the database so you can easily recreate the database later, hi chapter 11, you'll
learn more about creating and modifying the column definitions for a table using
both techniques.
 Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 47

The column definitions for the Vendors table

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Description
• To view the column definitions for a table, right-click the table name in the
Navigator window and select Alter Table.
• To edit the column definitions for a table, view the column definitions. Then, you
can use the resulting window to add new columns and modify and delete existing
columns.

Figure 2-6 How to view and edit the column definitions for a table
48 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use MySQL Workbench

to run SQL statements
Although you can use MySQL Workbench to view and edit the column
definitions and data in a database, it’s most useful for running SQL statements
against a database. This topic presents the basic skills you need to do that.

How to enter and execute a SQL statement

When you first connect to a MySQL server in MySQL Workbench, a SQL
Editor tab with the name ‘ Query 1” is automatically opened. Figure 2-7 shows
how to use this tab to enter and execute a SQL statement. If necessary, you
can also open additional SQL Editor tabs by clicking the Create New SQL Tab
button in the SQL Editor toolbar or pressing Ctrl+T.
You can enter or edit a SQL statement in any open SQL tab. As you enter
statements, you’ll notice that MySQL Workbench automatically applies colors
to various elements. For example, it displays keywords in blue. This makes your
statements easier to read and can help you identify coding errors.
To execute a single SQL statement like the one in this figure, you can press
Ctrl+Enter or click the Execute Statement button in the SQL Editor toolbar.
If the statement returns data, that data is displayed below the SQI editor in a
corresponding Result grid. In this figure, for example, the result set returned by
the SELECT statement is displayed. If necessary, you can adjust the lieight of
the Result grid by dragging the bar that separates the SQL Editor tab from the
Result grid.
Before you execute a SQL statement, make sure you've selected a database
by double-clicking the database in the Navigator window. Otherwise, you’ll get
an error message like this:
Error Coda: 1046. No selected
Similarly, if you haven’t selected the correct database, you’ll get an error
message that says the table doesn’t exist. For example, if the EX database is
selected when you attempt to retrieve data from the Vendors table in the AP
database, you'll get an error message like this:
Error Code: 1146. Table 'ex.vendors1 doesn't exist
To fix this, you can double-click the AP database to select it.
 Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 49

A SELECT statement and its results

Create New Execute Statement SQL Result
SQL Tab button button editor grid
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Description
• To open a new SQL tab. press Ctrl+T or click the Create New SQL Tab button ( ®)
in the SQL Editor toolbar.
• To select the current database, double-click its name in the Schemas tab of the
Navigator window. This displays the database in bold.
• To enter a SQL statement, type it into the SQL editor.
• As you enter the text for a statement, the SQL editor applies color to various
elements, such as SQL keywords, to make them easy to identify.
• To execute a SQL statement, press Ctrl+Enter or click the Execute Statement button
( H ) in the SQL Editor toolbar. If the statement retrieves data, the data is displayed
in a Result grid below the SQL Editor tab.

Figure 2-7 How to enter and execute a SQL statement

50 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to handle syntax errors

If an error occurs during the execution of a SQL statement MySQL
Workbench displays a message that includes the error number and a brief
description of the error. In figure 2-8, for example, the message displays an error
number of 1146 and a brief description that says “Table ap.vendor doesn’t exist.”
In this example, the problem is that a table named Vendor doesn't exist in
the AP database. To fix this problem, you need to edit the SQL statement so the
table is Vendors instead of Vendor. Then, you should be able to successfully run
the SQL statement.
This figure also lists some other common causes of errors. As you can see,
most errors are caused by incorrect syntax. However, it’s also common to get an
error if you have selected the wrong database. If. for example, you have selected
the EX database and you try to run a statement that refers to tables in the AP
database, you will get an error. Regardless of what’s causing the problem, you
can usually identify and correct the problem without much trouble. In some
cases, though, it may be difficult to figure out the cause of an error. Then, you
can usually get more information about the error by searching the internet or by
searching the MySQL Reference Manual as described later in this chapter.
 Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 51

How to handle syntax errors

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• Having the wrong database selected
• Misspelling the name of a table or column
• Misspelling a keyword
• Omitting the closing quotation mark for a character string

Description
• If an error occurs during the execution of a SQL statement. MySQI. Workbench
displays a message in the Output tab that includes an error code and a brief descrip­
tion of the error.
• Most errors are caused by incorrect syntax and can be corrected without any
additional assistance Otherwise, you can usually get more information about
an error by searching for the error code or description in the MySQL Reference
Manual or on the internet.

Figure 2-8 How to handle syntax errors

52 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to open and save SQL scripts

In MySQL, a script is a file that contains one or more SQL statements. To
create a script, you enter the statements you want it to include into a SQL Editor
tab as shown in the next figure. Then, you can click the Save button or press
Ctrl+S to save the script as described in figure 2-9.
Once you’ve saved a script, you can open it again later. To do that, you can
click the Open SQL Script File button in the SQL Editor toolbar, or you can
press Ctrl+Shift+O to display the Open SQL Script dialog box. In this figure, the
dialog box that's displayed shows the script files that have been saved for chapter
2. These files are created u hen you download and install the source code for
this book. Note that the names of these files have the .sql extension. (If you're
using Windows and the file extensions aren't displayed, you can display them by
opening the File Explorer, displaying the View tab. and selecting the “File name
extensions" option in the Show/hide group.)
Once you open a script, you can run it as shown in the next figure. You can
also use it as the basis for a new SQL script. To do that, just modify it any way
you want. Then, you can save it as a new script by pressing the Ctrl+Shift+S
keys or selecting File->Save Script As.
The screen in this figure shows the tabs for two script files that have been
opened. After you open two or more scripts, you can switch between them by
clicking on the appropriate tab. Then, you can cut. copy, and paste code from
one script to another.
 Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 53

The Open SQL Script dialog box

Open SQL Script
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Description
• A SOL script is a file that contains one or more SQL statements.
• To open a SQL script, click the Open SQL Script File button in the SQL Editor
toolbar or press Ctrl+Shift+O. Then, use the Open SQL Script dialog box to locate
and open the SQL script.
• When you open a SQL script. MySQL Workbench displays it in its own SQL
Editor tab. To switch between open scripts, select the appropriate tab.
• To cut. copy, and paste code from one SQL script to another, use the standard
techniques.
• To save a SQL statement to a script file, click the Save button in the SQL Editor
toolbar or press Ctrl+S. Then, use the Save SQL Script dialog box that’s displayed
to specify a location and name for the file.
• To save a script you’ve modified to a new file, press Ctrl+Shift+S or select
File-^Save Script As.

Figure 2-9 How to open and save SQL scripts

54 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to enter and execute SQL scripts

In the last topic, you saw a SQL script that contained a single SQL state­
ment. However, a SQL script typically contains multiple statements. Figure 2-10
shows how to enter and execute scripts like that.
When you code multiple SQL statements within a script, you must code a
semicolon at the end of each statement. For example, this figure shows a script
that contains two SELECT statements. To execute both of these statements, you
can press the Ctrl+Shift+Enter keys, or you can click the Execute Script button
in the SQL Editor toolbar. When you do, the results of each script are displayed
in a separate Result grid. To switch between Result grids, you can click on the
tabs that are displayed below the current Result grid.
If you want to execute a single SQL statement that's stored within a script,
you can do that by moving the insertion point into the statement and pressing the
Ctrl-Enter keys or clicking the Execute Statement button. Then, if the statement
retrieves data, the data is displayed in a single Result grid.
If you need to, you can also execute two or more statements in a script. To
do that, you select the statements and then press the Ctrl+Shift+Enter keys or
click tiie Execute Script button. This is useful if a script contains many state­
ments and you just want to execute some of them.
 Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 55

A SQL script and its results

Execute Script
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Description
• When you code a script that contains more than one statement, you must code a
semicolon at the end of each statement.
• To run an entire SQL script, press Ctrl+Shirt+Enter or click the Execute Script
button ( ) that's located just to the left of the Execute Statement button in the SQL
Editor toolbar.
• When you run a SQL script, the results of each statement that returns data are
displayed in a separate Result grid. To switch between these Result grids, you can
click on the tabs that are displayed below the current Result grid.
• To execute one SQL statement within a script, move the insertion point into that
statement and press Ctrl+Enter orclick the Execute Statement button ( 5 ). If the
statement retrieves data, the data is displayed in a Result grid.
• To execute two or more statements within a script, select them iti the editor and
then press Ctrl+Shift+Enter or click the Execute Script button.

Figure 2-10 How to enter and execute SQL scripts

56 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use the MySQL Reference

Manual
Figure 2-11 shows how to use another useful tool for working with MySQL:
the MySQL Reference Manual In most cases. you II use a web browser to
view this manual directly from the internet. That way. you can be sure that the
information is always up to date. However, you can also dow nload this manual
and save it on your hard drive. Either way. you can use the MySQL Reference
Manual to quickly look up detailed technical information about the MySQL
database, including information about SQL statements and functions.

How to view the manual

You can view the MySQL Reference Manual by using a web browser to go
to the web address shown at the top of this figure. Here, the Reference Manual
for version 8.0 of MySQL is displayed. However, you can easily select another
version by selecting it from the drop-down list at the right side of the page.

How to look up information

Once you’ve navigated to the correct version of the MySQL Reference
Manual, it's easy to look up information. To do that, you can use the table of
contents in the left sidebar to drill down to the information that you're looking
for. When you find the topic you want, you can click it to display it in the main
part of the w indow. Then, if you want to navigate back up the hierarchy of
information, you can use the breadcrumb links across the top of the page. In
this figure, for example, you can click the “MySQL 8.0 Reference Manual”
link to return to the Home page for the manual. Or. you can click the "General
Information” link to navigate to that page.
Another easy way to look up information is to search for a specific word
or phrase. To do that, you can use the search bar near the top of the left sidebar.
When you do. the search results are displayed in the main window. Then, you
can click any of the links in the results to view information about the search
terms.
 Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 57

The web address for the MySQL 8.0 Reference Manual

https:7/dev .xysqu. com/doc / re ir.ur./S . 0 2 eg/

A web page from the MySQL Reference Manual

H 'A/SQU MySQL 14 Mtcnci * +
v - □ x

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MySQL MYSQLCOM DOWNLOADS DOCUMENTATION DEVELOPER ZONE

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MySQL ao Rafwwxv Man W I Ganard infc ititon I About

TN1 Maul

1.1 About This Manual

W Documtrtition “oms

This is the Reference Manual for the MySQL Database System, version
MySQL 8.0 Reference Manual
8.0. through release 8.0.34. Differences tet.rcen m«w versions of
• Preface end Legal Notices
MySQL 8j0 are noted in the present text with reference to release
» elien: infcrrrotkn
numbers (8.0.Ftx license information, see the Legal Notices.
• About This Manual
> Overview qf the MySQL Database Th a manual is not intended for use with cider versions of the MySQL
Management System
softwa’e due to the many funchrnal and ether deferences brv.ee"
. S New in MySQi. a.0
MySQL 8.0 and previous versions if you are using an earlier release of
• Serve* ard Status Variables ar>"1
the MySQL software, pease refer to the appropriate manual. For
Options Added. tes 'e . ‘ed, o»
Removed in MySQ. CO erampie. MySQL 5.7 neftrence Manual covers die 5.7 series of MySQL
• HeM to Report Bugs cr Problems softwa e releases.

Description
• To view the MySQL Reference Manual, go to the MySQL website and select the
correct version of the manual.
• To view a topic, click on it in the table of contents in the left sidebar.
• To return to the Home page for the manual, click the Start icon i l for the manual
that's displayed at the top of the left sidebar.
• To search for a particular word or phrase, use the search bar near the top of the left
sidebar. Then, you can scroll through the results that are displayed and click any
link to get more infonnation.
• You can also download the MySQL Reference Manual for ottline use by clicking
on one of the links below the table of contents. However, it typically makes sense to
use the manual online.

Figure 2-11 How to use the MySQL Reference Manual

58 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use the MySQL Command Line

Client
Before MySQL Workbench was available, programmers used a command­
line tool known as the MySQL Command Line Client to connect to a MySQL
server and work with it. This tool is also known as the MySQL command line.
Although you may never need this tool, you should at least be aware that it
exists. This tool is installed with MySQL, and it can be useful if MySQL
Workbench isn't installed on the system that you're using.

How to start and stop the MySQL Command Line

Client
Figure 2-12 shows how to start and stop the MySQL Command Line Client
in Windows and macOS. At the top of this figure, you can see the Command
Prompt window that the MySQL Command Line Client uses on Windows. On
macOS, you use the Terminal window instead.
When you use Windows, there's an easy way to start the MySQL Command
Line Client if you want to log in as the root user for the database server that’s
running on the local computer. To do that, you just click the button for the Start
menu, type “mysql 8.0 command”, and then click Open. Then, die MySQL
Command Line Client starts and prompts you for a password. If you enter the
password correctly, you will be logged on to the database server as the root user.
In some cases, you 11 need to use a command line to stall the MySQL
Command Lme Client instead of using the Start menu. For example, you may
need to do that if you want to log into a database that's running on a different
computer or if you want to log in as a user other than the root user. You also
need to do that if you're using another operating system such as macOS. In those
cases, you can open a command line and change the directory to the bin direc­
tory for the MySQL installation. Then, you can execute the mysql command and
supply the parameters that are needed to connect to the database server.
If the MySQL server is located on a remote computer, you can specify
-h. followed by the host name of the computer, and -u, followed by a valid
username. In addition, you specify -p so MySQL prompts you for a valid
password. Although it can take some experimentation to get these connection
parameters right, you only need to figure this out once.
Once you enter a valid password for the specified usemame. the MySQI.
Command Line Client displays a welcome message and a command line that
looks like this:
mysql>
From this prompt, you can enter any statement that works with MySQL. When
you’re done, you can exit the MySQL Command Lme Client by entering “exit”
or “quit” followed by a semicolon.
 Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 59

The MySQL Command Line Client displayed by Windows

□d ComriMnd Prompt - myiql -u rod -p — □ X

C:\Program Files\MySQL\My5QL Server 8.0\bin>nysql -u root -p

Enter password: ••••••••
Welcome to the MySQL nonItor. Cowwands end with ; or \g.
vour MySQL connection Id is 9
Server version: 8.0.33 MySQL Coamunity Server - GPL

Copyright (c> 2080, 2023, Oracle and/or its affiliates.

Oracle is a registered trademark of Oracle Corporation and/or its

affiliates. Other Maes may be trademarks of their respective
owners.

Type ‘help;’ or *\h‘ for help. Type *\c* to clear the current Input statement.

mysql>

How to start the MySQL Command Line Client from the command line
For Windows
cd \Program Files\MySQL\MySQL Server 8.0\bin
mysql -u root -p

For macOS
cd /uar/local/mysql/bin
./mysql -u root -p

How the mysql command works

The syntax
mysql -h hostname -u usernaafl -p

Examples
mysql -u aptester -p
mysql -h loc&lhost -u root -p
mysql -h murach.com -u aptester -p

How to exit from the MySQL Command Line Client

mysql> exit;

Description
• MySQL provides a command-line client program called the MySQL Command
Line Client that lets you enter SQL statements that work with MySQL databases.
This program is also known as the MySQL command line.
• For Windows, the easiest way to start the MySQL Command Line Client is to
display the Start menu, enter “mysql 8.0 command”, and click Open. However, you
can also use a Command Prompt window to start the MySQL Command Line Client.
• For macOS. use a Terminal window' to start the MySQL Command Line Client.
• To stop the MySQL Command Line Client, enter “exit” or “quit" at the command
line, followed by a semicolon.
• MySQL 8.0 also includes a Unicode version of the command-line client program.
For more information on this program, you can refer to section 4.5.1.6.2 of the
reference manual.
Figure 2-12 How to start and stop the MySQL Command Line Client
60 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use the MySQL Command Line Client

to work with a database
Once the MySQL Command Line Client is connected to a database server,
you can use it to run SQL statements that work with the databases that are
available from that server. When you enter a statement, you must end it with a
semicolon. Otherwise, the mysql command line displays a second line when you
press the Enter key like this:
mysql> show databases
->
This shows that the MySQL Command Line Client is waiting for you to finish
your statement. To finish a statement and execute it, lust type a semicolon and
press the Enter key.
Figure 2-13 shows how to execute three SQL statements. Here. I entered all
three of these statements in lowercase letters. That’s because SQL isn’t case­
sensitive. and lowercase letters are easier to type.
To list the names of the databases stored on a server, you use the SHOW
DATABASES statement as illustrated by the first example. Here, the “ap”, “ex”,
and “om" databases are the databases that are created when you install our
downloadable databases as described in appendixes A and B. The “information­
schema”, “performance_schema”. and “mysql” databases are internal databases
that are used by the MySQL server. And the “sys” database is a database that
comes with MySQL and can be used to interpret data in the “performance­
schema” database.
To select the database that you want to work with, you can enter a USE
statement as illustrated by the second example. Here, the AP database is
selected, and the message after this statement says “Database changed” to
indicate that the statement was successful. After you select a database, the
commands and statements that you enter will work with that database.
lb retrieve data from the database, you use a SELECT statement as illus­
trated by the third example. Here, the vendor_name column from the Vendors
table is displayed. Note, however, that the result set is limited to the first five
rows. When you successfully execute a SELECT statement, the MySQL
Command Line Client displays a message giving the number of rows that are
included in the result set and the amount of time it took to run the query. In this
case, it took less than 1/100 of a second to run the query.
 Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 61

How to list the names of nil databases managed by the server

mysql> show databases;
♦--------------------------------- ♦
| Database

ap
ex
information schema
nrysql
can
pe r f o man c e _s c hexna
sys

7 rows in set (0.00 sec)

How to select a database for use

mysql> use ap;
Database changed

How to select data from a database

mysql> select vendor name from vendors limit 5;
-------------------------------4-
| vendor name
♦------------------------------------------------------+
| Abbey Office Furnishings
| American Booksellers Assoc
| American Express
| ABC Signs
| Ascom Hasler Mailing Systems |
♦ -------- ---------------------- ------------
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Description
• You can use the MySQL Command Lme Client to work with any of the databases
running on the database server. To do that, you can use any SQL statement that
works with a MySQL database.
• To execute a SQL statement, type the statement on the command line, followed by
a semicolon. Then, press Enter.
• To show a list of all available databases, you can use the SHOW DATABASES
statement.
• To select the database that you want to work with. you can use the USE statement.
• SQL statements aren’t case-sensitive. As a result, when using the MySQL
Command Lme Client, most programmers enter their statements in lowercase
letters because they’re easier to type.

Figure 2-13 How to use the MySQL Command Line Client to work with a database
62 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

In this chapter, you learned how to use MySQL Workbench to start and
stop a MySQL server, enter and execute SQL statements, and work with SQL
scripts. With that as background, you're ready to go on to the next chapter,
where you'll start learning the details of coding your own SQL statements.

Terms
MySQL Workbench
database server
database service
database engine
database object
schema
SQL script
MySQL. Reference Manual
MySQL Command Line Client

Before you start the exercises...

Before you start die exercises for this chapter, you need to install MySQL
Server and MySQL Workbench. In addition, you need to download and install
the source files for this book, and you need to create the databases and tables
for this book. The procedures for doing these tasks are provided in appendix A
(Windows) and appendix B (macOS).

Exercises
In these exercises, you’ll use MySQL Workbench to review the tables in the AP
database. In addition, you'll use MySQL Workbench to enter SQL statements
and run them against these tables.

Make sure the MySQL server isi running

1. Start MySQL Workbench and open a connection for the root user.
2. Check whether the MySQL server is tunning. If it isn't, use the procedure in
figure A-l of appendix A (Windows) or figure B-l of appendix B (macOS) to
start it.

Use MySQL Workbench to review the Accounts Payable (APi database

3. In the Schemas tab of the Navigator window, expand the node for the AP
database so you can see all of the database objects it contains.
4. View the data for the Vendors and Invoices tables.
5. Navigate through the database objects and view the column definitions for at
least the Vendors and Invoices tables.
 Chapter 2 How to use MySQL Workbench and other development tools 63

Use MySQL Workbench to enter ant! run SQL statements

6. Double-click, the AP database to select it. When you do that. MySQL
Workbench should display the database in bold.
7. Open a SQL Editor tab. Then, enter and run this SQL statement:
SELECT vendor name FROM vendors

8. Delete the e at the end of vendor _name and run the statement again. Note the
error number and the description of the error.
9. Open another SQL Editor tab. Then, enter and run this statement:
SELECT COUNT(*) AS number of-invoicesf
SUM(invoicetotal) AS grand invoicetotal
FROM invoices

Use MySQL Workbench to open and run scripts

10. Open the select_vendor_city_state script that's in the murach/mysql/book_
scripts/ch()2 directory. Note that this script contains just one SQL statement.
Then, run the statement.
11. Open the select_vendor_total_due script that's in the ch02 directory. Note that
this opens another SQL Editor tab.
12. Open the select_vendor_information script that’s in the ch02 directory. Notice
that this script contains two SQL statements that end with semicolons (scroll
down if you need to).
13. Press the Ctrl+Shift+Enter keys or click the Execute SQL Script button to run
both of the statements in this script. Note that this displays the results in two
Result grids. Make sure to view the results of both SELECT statements.
14. Move the insertion point into the first statement and press Ctrl+Enter to run
just that statement.
15. Move the insertion point into the second statement and press Ctrl+Enter to run
just that statement.
16. Exit from MySQL Workbench.
 3
How to retrieve data
from a single table
In this chapter, you’ll learn how to code SELECT statements that retrieve data
from a single table. The skills covered here are the essential ones that apply to
any SELECT statement you code, no matter how many tables it operates on,
no matter how complex the retrieval. So you’ll want to be sure you have a good
understanding of the material in this chapter before you go on to the chapters
that follow.

An introduction to the SELECT statement.................... .....66

The basic syntax of the SELECT statement..................................................... 66
SELECT statement examples.............................................................................68
How to code the SELECT clause...... ............ .... ...................70
How to code column specifications............................................. -................... 70
How to name the columns in a result set using aliases......... .......................... 72
How to code arithmetic expressions.................................................................. 74
How to use the CONCAT function to join strings......................................... 76
How to use functions with strings, dates, and numbers................................ 78
How to test expressions by coding statements without FROM clauses...... 80
How to eliminate duplicate rows...................................................................... 82
How to code the WHERE clause................ ............... 84
How to use the comparison operators..................... ........... -...... ................ ... 84
How to use the AND. OR. and NOT logical operators.............................. 86
How to use the IN operator................................................................................. 88
How to use the BETWEEN operator.............................................................. 90
How to use the LIKE and REGEXP operators............................................. 92
How to use the IS NULL clause...................................................................... 94
How to code the ORDER BY clause.... ................... ..............96
How to sort by a column name..................................................... -............... 96
How to sort by an alias, expression, or column number............................ -..98
How to code the LIMIT clause................. ...............................100
How to limit the number of rows..................................................................... 100
How to return a range of rows......................................................................... 100
Pe rs pec t i ve..............M........... .................... 102
66 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

An introduction
to the SELECT statement
To get you started quickly, this chapter begins by presenting tire basic syntax
of the SELECT statement. Then, it presents several examples that should give
you an overview of how this statement works.

The basic syntax of the SELECT statement

Figure 3-1 presents the basic syntax of the SELECT statement The syntax
summary at the top of this figure uses conventions that are similar to those used
in other programming manuals. Capitalized words are keywords that you have
to type exactly as shown. In contrast, you have to provide replacements for
the lowercase words. For example, you can enter a list of columns in place of
select_list, and you can enter a table name in place of table_source.
Beyond that, you can omit die clauses enclosed in brackets ( [ ] ), and you
can choose between the items enclosed in braces ( { ) ) and separated by pipes
(I). If you have a choice between two or more optional items, the default item
is underlined. And if an element can be coded multiple times in a statement, it’s
followed by an ellipsis (...).
This syntax summary has been simplified so you can focus on the five main
clauses of the SELECT statement: SELECT. FROM. WHERE. ORDER BY.
and LIMIT. Most SELECT statements contain the first four of these clauses.
However, only the SELECT clause is required.
The SELECT clause is always the first clause in a SELECT statement. It
identifies the columns in the result set. These columns are retrieved from the
base tables named in the FROM clause. Since this chapter focuses on retrieving
data from a single table, the examples in this chapter use FROM clauses that
name a single base table. In the next chapter, though, you'll learn how to retiieve
data from two or more tables.
The WHERE. ORDER BY. and LIMIT clauses are optional. The
ORDER BY clause determines how the rows in the result set are sorted, and
the WHERE clause detenmnes which rows in the base table are included in the
result set. The WHERE clause specifies a search condition that’s used to filter
the rows in the base table. When this condition is true, the row is included in the
result set.
fhe LIMIT clause limits the number of rows in the result set. In contrast to
the WHERE clause, which uses a search condition, the LIMIT clause simply
returns a specified number of rows, regardless ot the size of the full result set. Of
course, if the result set has fewer rows than are specified by the LIMIT clause,
all the rows in the result set are returned.
 Chapter J How to retrieve data from a single table 67

The syntax used in this book

Syntax Meaning
KEYWORD Keywords have each letter capitalized.
element name Words in lowercase should be replaced with the appropriate element,
such as a list or columns or the name of a table.
<a|b|c) Choose only one of the elements in the brackets separated by the pipes.
(A] The element in brackets is optional.
DEFAULT Default elements are underlined.
... More elements can be added to the clause.

The basic syntax of the SELECT statement

SELECT select_lifit
[PROM tabla_source]
[WHERE saajrch_condition]
[ORDER BY order by list]
[LIMIT row limit]

The five clauses of the basic SELECT statement

Clause Description
SELECT Describes the columns in the result set.
FROM Names the base table from which the query retrieves the data.
WHERE Specifies the conditions for a row to be included in the result set.
ORDER BY Specifies how to sort the rows in the result set.
LIMIT Specifies the number of rows to return.

Description
• The SELECT statement retrieves the columns specified in the SELECT clause from
the base table specified in the FROM clause and stores them in a result set.
• The WHERE clause is used to filter the rows in the base table so that only those
rows that match the search condition are included in the result set. If you omit the
WHERE clause, all of the rows in the base table are included.
• The search condition of a WHERE clause consists of one or more Boolean expressions
that result in a true, false, or null value. If the combination of all the expressions is a
true value, the row being tested is included in the result set. Otherwise, it's not.
• If you include the ORDER BY clause, the rows in the result set are sorted in the
specified sequence. Otherw ise, the sequence of the rows is not guaranteed by MySQL.
• If you include the LIMIT clause, the result set that's retrieved is limited to a speci­
fied number of rows. It you omit this clause, all rows that match are returned.
• You must code the clauses in the order shown or you’ll get a syntax error.

Note
• The syntax shown above does not include all of the clauses of the SELECT state­
ment. You'll learn about the other clauses later in this book.
Figure 3-1 The basic syntax of the SELECT statement
68 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

SELECT statement examples

Figure 3-2 presents five SELECT statement examples. All of these state­
ments retrieve data from the Invoices table in the AP database that you experi­
mented with in the last chapter. After each statement, you can see its result set
as displayed by MySQL Workbench. In these examples, a horizontal or vertical
scroll bar indicates that the result set contains more rows or columns than can be
displayed at one time.
The first statement in this figure retrieves all of the rows and columns from
the Invoices table. Here, an asterisk (*) indicates that all of the columns should
be retrieved, and the W HERE and I .IM1T clauses are omitted so all of the rows
in the table are retrieved. In addition, this statement doesn't include an ORDER
BY clause, so the rows are in primary key sequence.
The second statement retrieves selected columns from the Invoices table.
These columns are listed in the SELECT clause. Like the first statement, this
statement doesn't include a WHERE or a LIMIT clause, so all the rows are
relieved. Then, the ORDER BY clause causes the rows to be sorted by the
invoice_total column in descending order, from largest to smallest.
The third statement also lists the columns to be retrieved. In this case,
though, the last column is calculated from two columns in the base table.
credit_total and payment_total. and the resulting column is given the name
total_credits. In addition, the WHERE clause specifies that only the invoice
whose invoice_id column has a value of 17 should be retrieved.
The fourth SELECT statement includes a W HERE clause whose condition
specifies a range of values. In this case, only invoices with invoice dates between
06/01/2022 and 06/30/2022 are retrieved. In addition, the rows in the result set
are sorted by invoice date.
The last statement in this figure shows another example of the WHERE
clause. In this case, only those rows with invoice totals greater than 50.000 are
retrieved. Since none of the rows in the Invoices table satisfy this condition, the
result set is empty.
 Chapter J How to retrieve data from a single table 69

Retrieve all rows and columns from the Invoices table

SELECT * FROM invoices
nvacejd vendorjd motDeniLTber nvace_date m/Ottetata payment_tntai a-edt_total terms jd rvoteji A

» 1 122 939319-457 2022-04-03 3813.33 3813.33 0.00 3 2022-05-0

2 123 263253241 2022-04-10 40.20 40.20 0.00 3 2022-05-1!
3 113 963253234 2022-04-13 138.75 128.75 0.00 3 2022-05-1
4 123 2-000-2993 2022-04-16 144.70 144.70 0.00 3 2022-05-1* v
< >

(114 rows)

Retrieve three columns and sort the rows by invoice total

SELECT invoice number, invoice date, invoice_total
FROM invoices
ORDER BY invoice total DESC
inwoce_ronber nvoce_date moce _total A

► 0-2058 2022-05-28 37966.19

P-0259 2022-07-19 26881.40
0-2060 2022-07-24 23517.58
40318 2022-06-01 21842.00
P-0608 2022-07-23 20551.18 V

(114 rows)

Retrieve two columns and a calculated value for one row

SELECT invoice id, invoice_total,
credittotal ♦ paymenttotal AS total credits
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice id - 17
evocejd nvocejotai totai_aedts I
17 10.00 10.00
--------------- 1
Retrieve three columns for rows between given dates
SELECT invoice number, invoice_date, invoicetotal
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_date BETWEEN '2022-06-01 ’ AND ■2022-06-30*
ORDER BY invoice, date
rvoce^njnber rvocedate mvace_totai

» 989319-437 2022-06-01 2765.36

111-9 2R-10094 2022-06-01 19.67
40318 2022-06-01 21842.00
1-202-2978 2022-06-03 33.00
31359783 2022-06-03 1575.00

(37 rows)

A SELECT statement that returns an empty result set

SELECT invoice number, invoice date, invoice_total
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice total > 50000
ntfoce_rwiber invoice-date nvocejotal

Figure 3-2 SELECT statement examples

70 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to code the SELECT clause

Now that you have a general idea of how the main clauses of a SELECT
statement work, you're ready to learn the details for coding the first clause, the
SELECT clause. You can use this clause to specify the columns for a result set.

How to code column specifications

Figure 3-3 begins by presenting a more detailed syntax for the SELECT
clause. Then, it continues by summarizing four techniques you can use to
specify the columns for a result set. First, you can code an asterisk in the
SELECT clause to retrieve all of the columns in the base table. When you use
this technique. MySQL returns the columns in the order that they are defined in
the base table.
Second, you can code a list of column names from the base table separated
by commas. In this figure, for instance, the second example specifies three
columns that are in the Vendors table.
Third, you can code an expression that uses arithmetic operators. The result
of an expression is a single value. In this figure, for instance, the third example
uses an expression to subtract the payment_total and credit_total columns from
the invoice_total column and return the balance due.
Fourth, you can code an expression that uses functions. In this figure, for
instance, the fourth example uses the CONCAT function to join a column named
first_name, a space, and a column named last_name. Here, two single quotes are
used to identify the literal value for the space.
When you code the SELECT clause, you should include only the columns
you need. For example, you shouldif t code an asterisk to retrieve all the columns
unless you need all the columns. That's because the amount of data that's
retrieved can affect system performance. This is particularly important if you’re
developing SQL statements that will be used by application programs.
For now. don’t worry if you don’t completely understand all four techniques.
In the next four figures, you’ll learn more about how they work.
 Chapter J How to retrieve datafrom a single table 71

The expanded syntax of the SELECT clause

SELECT [ALL|DISTINCT]
column specification [[AS] resultcolumn]
[, column specification [ [AS] r«flult_column] ] .. .

Four ways to code column specifications

Source Option Syntax
Base table value AU columns *
Column name columnname
Calculated value Result of a calculation Arithmetic expressions (see figure 3-5)
Result of a function Functions (see figures 3-6 and 3-7)

Column specifications that use base table values

Retrieve all columns
SELECT •

Retrieve specific columns

SELECT vendor name, vendorcity, vendor state

Column specifications that use calculated values

An arithmetic expression that calculates the balance due
SELECT invoice total - payment total - cradittotal AS balance due

A function that returns the full name

SELECT CONCAT(first name# 1 *, last name) AS full, name

Description
• L'se SELECT * only when you need to retrieve all of the columns from a table.
Otherwise, list the names of the columns you need.
• An expression is a combination of column names and operators that evaluate to a
single value. In the SELECT clause, you can code expressions that include one or
more arithmetic operators and expressions that include one or more functions.
• After each column specification, you can code an AS clause to specify* the name for
the column in the result set. See figure 3-4 for details.

Note
• The ALL and DISTINCT keywords specify whether or not duplicate rows are
returned. See figure 3-9 for details.

Figure 3-3 How to code column specifications

72 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to name the columns

in a result set using aliases
By default, MySQL gives a column in a result set the same name as the
column in the base table. If the column is based on a calculated value, it s
assigned a name based on the expression for the value. However, whenever you
want, you can specify a different name known as a column alias as shown in
figure 3-4.
To assign a column alias, you code the column specification followed by
the AS keyword and the new name as shown by the first example in this figure.
Here, the statement creates an alias of “Invoice Number” for the invoice_number
column. “Date” for the invoice_date column, and “Total” for the invoice_total
column. To include a space in the alias for the first column, this statement
encloses that alias in double quotes ( " ).
The second example in this figure shows what happens when you don't
assign an alias to a calculated column. In that case, MySQL automatically
assigns the column an alias that's the same as the column's expression. Since the
expressions for many calculated values are cumbersome, you typically assign a
shorter alias for calculated values as shown throughout the rest of this chapter.
 Chapter J How to retrieve data from a single table 73

A SELECT statement that renames the columns in the result set

SELECT invoice number AS "Invoice Number", invoicedate AS Date,
invoicetotal AS Total
FROM invoices
Invoke
Date Total
‘kcrber

► 989319-457 2022-04-08 3813.33

263253241 2022-04-10 40.20
963253234 2022-04-13 138.75
2-000-2993 2022-04-16 144.70

(114 rows)

A SELECT statement that doesn't name a calculated column

SELECT invoice number, invoice date, invoice total,
invoicetotal - paymenttotal - credit_total
FROM invoices
invoce jotai - payment jotal -
rrvoc£_rurnbe< rrvatt_date rtvoce_toial
credit_totai

► 989319^457 2022-04-08 3813.33 0.00

263253241 2022-04-10 40.20 0.00
963253234 2022-04-13 138.75 0.00
2-000 2993 2022-04-16 144.70 0.00

(114 rows)

Description
• By default, a column in the result set is given the same name as the column in
the base table If that's not what you want, you can specify a substitute name, or
column alias, for the column.
• To specify an alias for a column, use the AS phrase. Although the AS keyword is
optional. I recommend you code it for readability.
• If you don't specify an alias for a column that’s based on a calculated value,
MySQL uses the expression for the calculated value as the column name.
• To include spaces or special characters in an alias, enclose the alias in double
quotes ( " ) or single quotes (').

Figure 3-4 How to name the columns in a result set using aliases
74 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to code arithmetic expressions

Figure 3-5 shows how to code arithmetic expressions. To start, it summarizes
the arithmetic operators you can use in this type of expression. Then, it presents
three examples that show how you use these operators.
The SELECT statement in the first example includes an arithmetic expres­
sion that calculates the balance due for an invoice. This expression subtracts
the pay inenttotal and credit_total columns from the invoice_total column The
resulting column is given an alias of balance_due.
When MySQL evaluates an arithmetic expression, it performs the operations
from left to right based on the order of precedence. To start. MySQL performs
multiplication, division, and modulo operations. Then, it performs addition and
subtraction operations.
If that's not what you want, you can use parentheses to specify how an
expression is evaluated. Then. MySQL evaluates the expressions in the inner­
most sets of parentheses first, followed by the expressions in outer sets of
parentheses. Within each set of parentheses. MySQL evaluates the expression
from left to right in the order of precedence.
If you want, you can also use parentheses to clarify an expression even if
they’re not needed for the expression to be evaluated properly. However, you
should avoid cluttering your SQL statements with unnecessary parentheses.
To show how parentheses and the order of precedence affect the evaluation
of an expression, consider the second example in this figure. Here, the expres­
sions in the second and thud columns both perform the same operations. These
expressions use one column name (invoice_id) that returns a number and two
literal values for numbers (7 and 3). When you code a literal value for a number,
you don’t need to enclose it in quotes.
When MySQL evaluates the expression in the second column, it performs
the multiplication operation before the addition operation because multiplica­
tion comes before addition in the order of precedence. When MySQL evaluates
the expression in the third column, though, it performs the addition operation
first because it's enclosed in parentheses. Because of this, these two expressions
return different values as shown in the result set.
Although you’re probably familiar with the addition, subtraction, multipli­
cation, and division operators, you may not be familiar w ith the MOD (%) or
DIV operators. MOD returns the remainder of a division of two integers, and
DIV returns the integer quotient of two numbers. These are shown in the third
example in this figure. Here, the second column contains the quotient of the
two numbers, which MySQL automatically converts from an integer value to a
decimal value. Then, the third column uses the DIV operator to return the integer
quotient of the same division operation. The fourth column uses the modulo
operator to return the remainder of the division operation.
Before going on. you should notice that the second and third SELECT
statements include an ORDER BY clause that sorts the result set in ascending
sequence by the invoiceid column. Although you might think that this would
be the default, that's not the case with MySQL. Instead, the rows in a result set
are returned in the most efficient way. If you want the rows returned in a specific
sequence, then, you need to include the ORDER BY clause.
 Chapter J How to retrieve data from a single table 75

The arithmetic operators in order of precedence

Operator Name Order of precedence
* Multiplication 1
/ Division 1
DIV Integer division 1
X (MOD) Modulo (remainder) 1
♦ Addition 2
- Subtraction 2

A SELECT statement that calculates the balance due

SELECT invoicetotal, paymenttotal, credittotal,
invoicetotal - payment total - credittotal AS balance due
FROM invoices
rM>ce_t Dial payment_tntai credit_tDtal baianrejije

► 3313.33 3813.33 0.00 0.00

40.20 40.20 0.00 0.00
138.75 138.75 0.00 0.00

Use parentheses to control the sequence of operations

SELECT invoiceid,
invoice id ♦ 7 * 3 AS multiplyfirat,
(invoice_id + 7) * 3 AS add first
FROM invoices
ORDER BY invoice id
rwotcejd nxjtplyjrit add_first A

• 1 22 24
2 23 27
3 24 30 V

Use the DIV and modulo operators

SELECT invoice_id,
invoica id / 3 AS decimal-quotient,
invoice_id DIV 3 AS integer quotient,
invoiceid X 3 AS remainder
FROM invoices
ORDER BY invoice id
rwotcejd deomal_qjotJent mtege'_(>joBent A

► 1 0.3333 0 1
2 0.6667 0 2

3 1.0000 1 0 V

Description
• Unless parentheses are used, the operations in an expression take place from left to right
in the order ofprecedence. For arithmetic expressions. MySQL performs multiplication,
division, and modulo operations first. Then, it performs addition and subtraction operations.
• When necessary, you can use parentheses to override or clarify the sequence of operations.

Figure 3-5 How to code arithmetic expressions

76 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use the CONCAT function

to join strings
Figure 3-6 presents the CONCAT function and shows you how to use it to
join, or concatenate, strings. In My SQL, a slung can contain any combination of
characters, and a function performs an operation and returns a value. To code a
function, you begin by entering its name followed by a set of parentheses. If the
function requires an argument, or parameter, you enter it within the parentheses.
If the function takes more than one argument, you separate them with commas.
In this figure, the first example shows how to use the CONCAT function to
join the vendor_city and vendor_state columns in the Vendors table. Since this
example doesn't assign an alias to this column. MySQL automatically assigns
the expression formula as the column name. In addition, there isn't a space
between the vendor_state and the vendor_city in the result set. Since this makes
the data difficult to read, this string should be formatted as shown in the second
or third example.
The second example shows how to format a string expression by adding
spaces and punctuation. Here, the vendor_city column is concatenated with a
literal value for a string that contains a comma and a space. Then, the
vendor_state column is concatenated with that result, followed by a literal value
for a string that contains a single space and the vendor_zip_code column.
To code a string literal, you can enclose the value in either single quotes ( ')
or double quotes ( " ). Occasionally, you may need to include a single quote as
an apostrophe within a literal value for a string. If you're using single quotes
around the literal, however. MySQl. will misinterpret the apostrophe as the end
of tlie string. To solve this, you can code two single quotation marks in a row as
shown by the third example. Or, you can use double quotes like this:
CONCAT (vendor name, Hls Address: w) AS vendor
 Chapter 3 How to retrieve data from a single table 77

The syntax of the CONCAT function

CONCAT(stringl[t string2]...)

How to concatenate string data

SELECT vendor_city, vendor state, CONCAT (vendor_city, vendor state)
FROM vendors
vendor _aty vendor _state CONCAT (vendor _dty, vendor_state) A

► Madison WI Madson WI
Washington DC Washing tonDC v

(122 rows)

How to format string data using literal values

SELECT vendorname,
CONCAT(vendor_city, ' , vendor state, ' vendor_zip_code)
AS address
FROM vendors
vendor name address A

► US Postal Service Madison, WI 53707

National Information Data Ctr Washington, DC 20120 V

(122 rows)

How to include apostrophes in literal values

SELECT CONCAT(vendor name, *’’s Address: ') AS Vendor,
CONCAT(vendor_city, 1, vendorstate, ■ vendor_zip_code)
AS Address
FROM vendors
Vendor Address A

► US Postal Service's Address: Madson, WI 53707

Na tonal Information Data Ctr's Address: Washington, DC 20120 v

(122 rows)

Description
• An expression can include any of the functions that are supported by MySQL. A
function performs an operation and returns a value.
• To code a function, code the function name followed by a set of parentheses. Within
the parentheses, code any parameters, or arguments, required by the function. If a
function requires two or more arguments, separate them with commas.
• To code a literal value for a string, enclose one or more characters within single
quotes (') or double quotes (").
• To include a single quote within a literal value for a string, code two single quotes.
Or, use double quotes instead of single quotes to start and end the literal value.
• To join, or concatenate, two or more string columns or literal values, use the
CONCAT function.

Figure 3-6 How to use the CONCAT function to join strings

78 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use functions with strings, dates,

and numbers
Figure 3-7 shows how to work with three more functions. The LEFT
function operates on strings, the DATE_FORMAT function operates on dates,
and the ROUND function operates on numbers. For now. don’t worry about the
details of how the functions shown here work, because you'll learn more about
all of these functions in chapter 9. Instead, just focus on how they're used in
column specifications.
The first example in this figure shows how to use the LEFT function to
extract the first character of the vendor_contact_first_name and
vendor_contact_last_name columns. The first parameter of this function speci­
fies the string value, and the second parameter specifies the number of charac­
ters to return. Then, this statement concatenates the results of the two LEFT
functions to form initials as shown in the result set.
The second example shows how to use the DATE_FORMAT function
to change the format used to display date values. This function requires two
parameters. The first parameter is the date value to be formatted and the second
is a format string that uses specific values as placeholders for the various parts
of the date. The first column in this example returns the invoice_date column in
the default MySQL date format, "yyyy-mm-dd". Since this format isn’t used as
often in the USA, the second column is formatted in the more typical
“mm/dd/yy” foimat. In the third column, the invoice date is in another format
that’s commonly used. In chapter 9, you’ll learn more about specifying the
format string for the DATE_FORMAT function.
The third example uses the ROUND function to round the value of the
invoice_total column to the nearest dollar and nearest dime. This function can
accept either one or two parameters. The first parameter specifies the number to
be rounded and the optional second parameter specifies the number of decimal
places to keep. It the second parameter is omitted, the function rounds to the
nearest integer.
 Chapter J How to retrieve data from a single table 79

The syntax of the LEFT, DATE_FORMAT, and ROUND functions

LEFT(string, number©f_charactera)
DATE FORMAT(date, format string)
ROUND(number[, numberof decimal placea])

A SELECT statement that uses the LEFT function

SELECT vendorcontact—firstnamet vendor contactast_name,
CONCAT(LEFT(vendor contact flrat. name, 1),
LEFT(vendor contactlast name, 1)) AS initiala
FROM vendors
\endor_oontact_frst_name ranais A
vendor _con*ar* Jast_nare

► Francesco FA
Ama Irvin Al
LiJcas bana LL
Kense Qum KQ
frkhete Marls MM V

(122 rows)

A SELECT statement that uses the DATE FORMAT function

SELECT invoice date,
DATE FORMAT (invoice date, 1 ’tm/’td/’sy1 ) AS 'NM/DD/YY',
DATE FORMAT (Invoicedate, ’’te-Vh-VY’’ ) AS 'DD-Mon-YYYY'
FROM invoices
ORDER BY invoice_date
invoice _date WITO/YY SO-Mar-YYTf A

2022-04-08 04JM/22 3-Apr-2022

2022-04-10 04/10/22 10-Apr-2022
2022-04-13 04/13/22 13-Apr-2022
2022-04-16 04/16/22 16-Apr 2022
2022-04-16 04/16/22 16-Apr-2022 V

(114 rowa)

A SELECT statement that uses the ROUND function

SELECT invoice, date, invoice_total,
ROUND(invoice_total) AS nearestdollar,
ROUND(invoice total, 1) AS nearest dime
FROM invoices
ORDER BY invoice date
A
mvoce-date rrvot»_tDtai nearest-dofcr nearest_dme
* 2022-04-08 3813.33 3813 3813.3
2022-04-10 40.20 40 40.2
2022-04-13 138.75 139 138.8
2022-04-16 144.70 145 144.7
2022-04-16 IS. 50 16 15. S V

(114 rows)

Description
• When using the D \TI .FORMAT function to specify the format of a date, you use
the percent sign (%) to identify a format code. For example, a format code of m
returns the month number with a leading zero if necessary.
Figure 3-7 How to use functions with strings, dates, and numbers
80 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to test expressions by coding statements

without FROM clauses
When you use Mv SQL. you don’t have to code FROM clauses in SELECT
statements. This makes it easy for you to code SELECT statements that test
expressions and functions like those that you've seen in this chapter. Instead of
coding column specifications in the SELECT clause, you use literals or functions
to supply the test values you need. And you code column aliases to display
the results. Then, once you're sure that the code works as you intend it to. you
can add the FROM clause and replace the literals or functions with the correct
column specifications.
Figure 3-8 shows how to test expressions. Here, the first example tests
an arithmetic expression using numeric literals that make it easy to verify the
results. The remaining examples test the functions that you saw in figure 3-7. If
you compare these statements, you'll see that the second and fourth examples
simply replace the column specifications in figure 3-7 with literal values. The
third example uses another function, CURRENT_DATE. to supply a date value
in place of the invoice_date column that’s coded in figure 3-7.
 Chapter J How to retrieve datafrom a single table 81

Four SELECT statements without FROM clauses

Example 1; Testing a calculation
SELECT 1000 * (1 ♦ .1) XS "10% More Than 1000"
10% More Thar
1000

♦ 2100.0

Example 2: Testing the CONCAT function

SELECT "Ed" AS first name, "Williams" AS last name,
CONCAT(LEFT("Ed", 1), LEFT("Williams", 1)) AS initials
frst _name lajt_rwne ntos

» Ed WAans EW

Example 3: Testing the DATEFCRMAT function

SELECT CURRENT DATE,
DATE FORMAT I CURRENT DATE, '’ai/’fcd/’sy') AS 'MM/DD/YY*,
DATE FORMAT(CURRENT DATE, ■%e-%b-%Y') AS 'DD-Mon-YYYY'
CURRENT _pATE WWff QCWan-YfW

» 2023-06-28 06/28/23 28-Jun-2023

Example 4: Testing the ROUND function

SELECT 12345.6789 AS value,
ROUND(12345.6789) AS near©st_dollar,
ROUND(12345.6789, 1) AS nearest dime
value nearest_dollar nearest_dme
k 112345.6789 12346 12345.7

Description
• With MySQL, you don’t have to code a FROM clause. This makes it easy to test
expressions that include arithmetic operators and functions.
• The CURRENT_DATE function returns the current date. The parentheses are
optional for this function.

Figure 3-8 How to test expressions

82 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to eliminate duplicate rows

By default, all of the rows in the base table that satisfy the search condition
in the WHERE clause are included in the result set. In some cases, though, that
means that the result set will contain duplicate rows, or rows whose column
values are identical. If that's not what you want, you can include the DISTINCT
keyword in the SELECT clause to eliminate the duplicate rows.
Figure 3-9 shows how this works. Here, both SELECT statements retrieve
the vendor_city and vendor_state columns from the Vendors table. The first
statement doesn’t include the DISTINCT keyword. Because of that, the same
city and state can appear in the result set more than once. In the results shown
in this figure, for example, you can see that Anaheim CA occurs twice and
Boston MA occurs three times. In contrast, the second statement includes the
DISTINCT keyword, so each city and state combination is included only once.
 Chapter J How to retrieve data from a single table 83

A SELECT statement that returns all rows

SELECT vendor city, vendor state
FROM vendors
ORDER BY vendor_city
*endor_oty vendor _state

► Ara hern CA
Anahem CA
Am Arbor MI
Adxxn Hfa MI
Boston MA
Boston MA
Boston MA

(122 rows)

A SELECT statement that eliminates duplicate rows

SELECT DISTINCT vendor_city, vendor state
FROM vendors
ORDER BY vendorcity
A
vendor _oty vendor _state

► Arahem CA
Am Arbor Ml
Auburn MI
Boston MA
Brea CA
Carol Stream IL
Charlotte NC V

(5 3 rows)

Description
• The DISTINCT keyword prevents duplicate (identical) rows from being included in
the result set. DLS11NCTROW is a synonym for DISTINCT.
• The ALL keyword causes all rows matching the search condition to be included in
the result set, regardless of whether rows are duplicated. Since this is (he default,
you'll usually omit the ALL keyword.
• To use the DISTINCT or ALL keyword, code it immediately after the SELECT
keyword as shown above.

Figure 3-9 How to eliminate duplicate rows

84 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to code the WHERE clause

Earlier in this chapter I mentioned that to improve performance, you should
code your SELECT statements so they retrieve only the columns you need. That
goes for retrieving rows too. The fewer rows you retrieve, the more efficient the
statement will be. Because of that, you typically include a WHERE clause on
your SELECT statements w ith a search condition that filters the rows in the base
table so only the rows you need are retrieved. In the topics that follow, you'll
learn a variety of ways to code this clause.

How to use the comparison operators

Figure 3-10 shows how to use the comparison operators in the search
condition of a WHERE clause to compare two expressions. If the result of the
comparison is true, the row being tested is included in the query results.
The examples in this figure show how to use the comparison operators. The
first WHERE clause, for example, uses the equal operator (=) to retrieve only
those rows whose vendor_state column has a value of TA' Here, the state code
is a string literal so it must be enclosed in single or double quotes. In contrast,
the second WHERE clause uses the greater than (>) operator to retrieve only
those rows that have a balance greater than zero. In this case, zero (0) is a
numeric literal so it isn’t enclosed in quotes.
The third WHERE clause shows another way to retrieve all the invoices with
a balance due by rearranging the comparison expression. Like the second clause,
it uses the greater than operator. Instead of comparing the balance due to a value
of zero, however, it compares the invoice total to the total of the payments and
credits that have been applied to the invoice.
The fourth WIIERE clause shows how you can use comparison operators
other than equal w ith string data. In this example, the less than operator (<) is
used to compare the value of the vendor_name column to a literal stiing that
contains the letter M. That causes the query to return all vendors with names that
begin with the letters A through L.
You can also use the comparison operators with date literals, as shown by the
fifth and sixth WHERE clauses. The fifth clause retrieves rows with invoice dates
on or before July 31,2022, and the sixth clause retrieves rows with invoice dates
on or after July 1, 2022. Like literal values for strings, literal values for dates
must he enclosed in single or double quotes. Also, literal values for dates must
use this format: YYYY-MM-DD. This is the default date format used by MySQL.
The last two WHERE clauses show how you can test for a not-equal condi­
tion. In both cases, only rows with a credit total that isn't equal to zero are
retrieved.
Whenever possible, you should compare expressions that have similar data
types. If you compare expressions that have difterent data types, MySQL implic­
itly converts the data type for you. Generally, this implicit conversion is accept­
able. However, implicit conversions can occasionally yield unexpected results.
To prevent this, you can explicitly convert the data type by using the CAST or
CONVERT functions, which you’ll leam about in chapter 8.
 Chapter J How to retrieve datafrom a single table 85

The syntax of the WHERE clause with comparison operators

WHERE expression! operator expression _2

The comparison operators

■ Equal
< Less than
> Greater than
< ■ Less than or equal to
> ■ Greater than or equal to
< > Not equal
!« Not equal

Examples of WHERE clauses that retrieve...

Vendors located in Iowa
WHERE vendor_state = 'IA'

Invoices with a balance due (two variations)

WHERE Invoicetotal - payraenttotal - credit_total > 0
WHERE invoicetotal > payment_total ♦ credittotal

Vendors with names from A to L

WHERE vendor^ name < ' M'

Invoices on or before a specified date

WHERE invoicedate <■ "2022-07-31*

Invoices on or after a specified date

WHERE invoice_date >■ *2022-07-01*

Invoices with credits that don’t equal zero (two variations)

WHERE credit_total <> 0
WHERE credit-total !■ 0

Description
• You can use a comparison operator to compare any two expressions. Since MySQL
automatically converts the data for comparison, the expressions may be of unlike
data types. However, the comparison may sometimes produce unexpected results.
• If the result of a comparison is a true value, the row being tested is included in the
result set. If it's a false or null value, the row isn't included.
• To use a string literal or a date literal in a comparison, enclose it in quotes. To use a
numeric literal, enter the number without quotes.
• Character comparisons performed on MySQL databases are not case-sensitive. So,
for example, ‘CA’ and ‘ca’ are considered equivalent.
• If you compare a null value using one of these comparison operators. the result is
always a null value.

Figure 3-10 How to use the comparison operators

86 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use the AND, OR,

and NOT logical operators
Figure 3-11 shows how to use logical operators in a W HERE clause. You
can use tlie AND and OR operators to combine two or more search conditions
into a compound condition. And you can use the NOT operator to negate a
search condition. The examples in this figure show how these operators work.
The first two examples show the AND and OR operators. When you use
the AND operator, both conditions must be true. So. in the first example, only
those vendors in the state of New Jersey and the city of Springfield are retrieved
from the Vendors table. When you use the OR operatoi. though, only one of the
conditions must be true. So. irn the second example, all the vendors in the state of
New Jersey and all the vendors in the city of Pittsburg (no matter what state) are
retrieved.
The third example shows how to use the NOT operator to negate a condi­
tion. Here, vendors that are not in the state of California are returned. The fourth
example shows a compound condition that uses two NOT operators. This condi­
tion is difficult to read. To make it easier to read, you can rewrite this condition
to remove the NOT operators as shown in the fifth example.
The last two examples in this figure show how the order of precedence for
the logical operators and the use of parentheses affect the result of a search
condition. By default, the NOT operator is evaluated first, followed by AND.
and then by OR. However, you can use parentheses to override the order of
precedence or to clarify a logical expression, just as you can with arithmetic
expressions.
In the next to last example, for instance, no parentheses are used, so the
two conditions connected by the AND operator are evaluated first, in the last
example, though, parentheses are used so the two conditions connected by the
OR operator are evaluated first. If you take a minute to review the results in this
figure, you should quickly see how these two conditions differ.
 Chapter J How to retrieve datafrom a single table 87

The syntax of the WHERE clause with logical operators

WHERE [NOT] search condition 1 {AND[OR) [NOT] search condition 2 ...

Examples of WHERE clauses that use logical operators

The AND operator
WHERE vendor_etate ■ 'NJ1 AND vendorcity = 'Springfield1

The OR operator
WHERE vendor state ■ 'NJ* OR vendor city ■ 'Pittsburg'

The NOT operator

where NOT vendor state ■ 'CA'

The NOT operator in a complex search condition

WHERE NOT (invoice total >■ 5000 OR NOT invoice date <- '2022-08-01')

The same condition rephrased to eliminate the NOT operator

WHERE invoice total < 5000 AND invoice date <= *2022-08-01*

A compound condition without parentheses

WHERE invoice date > '2022-07-03' OR invoice total > 500
AND invoicetotal - paymenttotal - credittotal > 0
nvoce_fvnber rivacejute rit/oce _Total balance jle A

203339-13 2022-07-05 17.50 0 00

111-92R-10093 2022-07-06 39.77 0.00
963253258 2022-07-06 111.00 0.00
963253271 2022-07-07 158.00 0.00
963253230 2022-07-07 739.20 0.00 V
—
(3 3 rows)

The same compound condition with parentheses

WHERE (invoice date > '2022-07-03' OR invoice_total > 500)
AND invoice total - paymenttotal - credittotal > 0
mvaice_ruYter inxxce_cate A
rvoce _total balance _due

► 39104 2022-07-10 85.31 85.31

963253264 2022-07-18 5125 52.25
31361833 2022-07-21 579.42 579.42
263253268 2022-07-21 59.97 59.97
263253270 2022-07-22 67.92 67.92 V

(11 rows)

Description
• The AND and OR logical operators create compound conditions that consist of two
or more conditions. The AND operator specifies that the search must satisfy both
conditions. The OR operator specifies that the search must satisfy at least one condition.
• You can use the NOT operator to negate a condition. Because this can make the
search condition unclear, you should rephrase the condition if possible so it doesn't
use NOT.
• When MySQL evaluates a compound condition, it evaluates the operators in this
order: (1) NOT. (2) AND. and (3) OR. You can use parentheses to override this order.

Figure 3-11 How to use the AND, OR, and NOT logical operators
88 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use the IN operator

Figure 3-12 shows how to code a WHERE clause that uses the IN operator.
When you use this operator, the value of the test expression is compared with the
list of expressions in the IN phrase. If the test expression is equal to one of the
expressions in the list, the row is included in the query results. This is shown by
the first example in this figure, which returns all rows whose terms_id column is
equal to 1, 3. or 4.
You can also use the NOT operator with the IN phrase to test for a value
that's not in a list of expressions. This is shown by the second example. Here,
only those vendors that aren't in California. Nevada, or Oregon are retrieved.
At the top of this figure, the syntax of the IN phrase shows that you can code
a subquery’ in place of a list of expressions. As you'll learn in chapter 7, subque­
ries are a powerf ul feature. For now. though, you should know that a subquery is
simply a SELECT statement within another statement.
In the third example, for instance, a subquery is used to return a list of
vendorjd values for vendors who have invoices dated July 18,2022. Then, the
WHERE clause retrieves a row only if the vendor_id is in that list. Note that for
this to work, the subquery must return a single column, in this case, vendorjd.
 Chapter J How to retrieve datafrom a single table 89

The syntax of the WHERE clause with an IN phrase

WHERE teatexpression [NOT] IN
((subquery|expression_l [, expression2]...})

Examples of the IN phrase

An IN phrase with a list of numeric literals
WHERE tarmsid IN (1, 3, 4)

An IN phrase preceded by NOT

WHERE vendor state NOT IN CCA', • NW, 'OR')

An IN phrase with a subquery

WHERE vendor_ld IN
(SELECT vendorid
FROM invoices
WHERE invoicedate ■ '2022-07-18')

Description
• You can use the IN phrase to test whether an expression is equal to a value tn a list
of expressions. Each of the expressions in the list is automatically converted to the
same type of data as the test expression.
• The list of expressions can be coded in any order without affecting the order of the
rows in the result set.
• You can use the NOT operator to test for an expression that's not in the list of
expressions.
• You can also compare the test expression to the items in a list returned by a
subquery.

Figure 3-12 How to use the IN operator

90 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use the BETWEEN operator

Figure 3-13 shows how to use the BETWEEN operator in a WHERE clause.
When you use this operator, the value of a test expression is compared to the
range of values specified in the BETWEEN phrase. If the value falls within this
range, the row is included in the query results.
The first example in this figure shows a simple WHERE clause that uses the
BETWEEN operator. It retrieves invoices with invoice dates between June I,
2022 and June 30, 2022. Note that the range is inclusive, so invoices with invoice
dates of June 1 and June 30 are included in the results.
The second example shows how to use the NOT operator to select rows
that aren't within a given range. In this case, vendors with zip codes that aren't
between 93600 and 93799 are included in the results.
The thud example shows how you can use a calculated value in the test
expression. Here, the payment_total and eredit_total columns are subtracted
from the invoice_total column to give the balance due. Then, this value is
compared to the range specified in the BETWEEN phrase.
The last example shows how you can use calculated values in the
BETWEEN phrase Here, the first value is the credit_total column and the
second value is the credit_total column plus 500. So the results include all those
invoices w here the amount paid is between the credit amount and $500 more
than the credit amount.
 Chapter J How to retrieve datafrom a single table 91

The syntax of the WHERE clause with a BETWEEN phrase

WHERE teatexpresaion [NOT] BETWEEN begin expression AND end expression

Examples of the BETWEEN phrase

A BETWEEN phrase with literal values
WHERE invoicedato BETWEEN * 2022-06-01' AND '2022-06-30*

A BETWEEN phrase preceded by NOT

WHERE vendor„zlp_coda NOT BETWEEN 93600 AND 93799

A BETWEEN phrase with a test expression coded as a calculated value

WHERE invoicetotal - payment_total - credit total BETWEEN 200 AND 500

A BETWEEN phrase with the upper limit coded as a calculated value

WHERE payment total BETWEEN credit-total AND credit-total ♦ 500

Description
• You can use the BETWEEN phrase to test whether an expression falls within a
range of values. The lower limit must he coded as the first expression, and the
upper limit must be coded as the second expression. Others ise. MySQL, returns an
empty result set.
• The two expressions used in the BETWEEN phrase for the range of values are
inclusive. That is. the result set includes values that are equal to the upper or lower
limit.
• You can use the NOT operator to test for an expression that’s not within the given
range.

Figure 3-13 How to use the BETWEEN operator

92 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use the LIKE and REGEXP operators

To retrieve rows that match a specific string pattern* or mask, you can use
the LIKE or REGEXP operators as shown in figure 3-14.1 he LIKE operator is
an older operator that lets you search for simple stung patterns. When you use
this operator, the mask can contain one or both of the wildcard symbols shown
in the first table in this figure.
In contrast to the LIKE operator, the REGEXP operator allows you to create
complex string patterns known as regular expressions. To do that, you can use
the special characters and constructs shown in the second table in this figure.
Although creating regular expressions can be tricky at first, they allow you to
search for virtually any string pattern.
In the first example in this figure, the LIKE phrase specifies that all vendors
in cities that start with the letters SAN should be included in the query' results.
Here, the percent sign (%) indicates that any character or characters can follow
these three letters. So San Diego and Santa Ana are both included in the results.
The second example selects all vendors whose vendor name starts with the
letters COMPU, followed by any one character, the letters ER. and any charac­
ters after that. The vendor names CompuServe and Computerworld both match
that pattern.
In the third example, the REGEXP phrase searches for the letters SA within
the vendor_city column. Since the letters can be in any position w ithin the string,
both Pasadena and Santa Ana are included in the results.
The next two examples demonstrate how to use REGEXP to match a pattern
to the beginning or end of the string being tested. In the fourth example, the
mask ASA matches the letters SA at the beginning of vendor_city. as in Santa
Ana and Sacramento. In contrast, the mask NAS matches the letters NA at the
end of vendor_city, as shown in the fifth example.
The sixth example uses the pipe (I ) character to search for either of two
string patterns: RS or SN. In this case, the first pattern would match Traverse
City and the second would match Fresno, so both are included in the result set.
The last four examples use brackets to specify multiple values. In the
seventh example, the vendor_state column is searched for values that contain
the letter N followed by either C or V. That excludes NJ and NY. In contrast the
eighth example searches for states that contain the letter N followed by any letter
from A to J. This excludes NV and NY.
The ninth example searches the values in the vendor_contact_last_name
column for a name that can be spelled two different ways: Damien or Damion.
To do that, the mask specifies the two possible characters in the fifth position. E
and O, within brackets. In the final example, the REGEXP phrase searches for a
vendor_city that ends with any letter, a vowel, and then the letter N.
Both the LIKE and REGEXP operators provide powerful functionality for
finding information in a database. However, searches that use these operators
sometimes run slowly since they can’t use a table's indexes. As a result, you
should only use these operators when necessary.
 Chapter J How to retrieve datafrom a single table 93

The syntax of the WHERE clause with a LIKE phrase

WHERE match expression [NOT] LIKE pattern

The syntax of the WHERE clause with a REGEXP phrase

WHERE match expression [NOT] REGEXP pattern

LIKE wildcards
Symbol Description
Matches any string of zero or more characters.
_ Matches any single character.

REGEXP special characters and constructs

Character/Construct Jcscription
A Matches the pattern to the beginning of the value being tested.
$ Matches the pattern to the end of the value being tested.
• Matches any single character.
[charlist] Matches any single character listed within the brackets.
[charl-char2] Matches any single character within the given range.
I Separates two string patterns and matches either one.

WHERE clauses that use the LIKE and REGEXP operators

Description
• You use the LIKE and REGEXP operators to retrieve rows that match a string pattern,
called a mask. The mask determines which values in the column satisfy the condition.
• The mask for a LIKE phrase can contain special symbols, called wildcards. I’he mask
for a REGEXP phrase can contain special characters and constructs. Masks aren't
case-sensitive.
• If you use the NOT keyword, only those rows with values that don’t match the string
pattern are included in the result set.
• Most LIKE and REGEXP phrases significantly degrade performance compared to
other types of searches, so use them only when necessary.

Figure 3-14 How to use the LIKE and REGEXP operators

94 Section I An introduction to MySQL

For the sake of brevity, this chapter only presents the most common symbols
that are used in regular expressions. However, MySQL supports most of the
symbols that are standard for creating regular expressions. For more information
about creating regular expressions, please consult the online MySQL Reference
Manual. If you’re familiar with using regular expressions in other programming
languages such as PHP. you'll find that they work similarly in MySQL.

How to use the IS NULL clause

In chapter 1. you learned that a column can contain a null value. A null value
is typically used to indicate that a value is not known. A null value is not the
same as an empty string ( " ). An empty stung is typically used to indicate that
the value is known, and it doesn’t exist.
If you're working with a database that allows null values, you need to know
how to test for them in search conditions. To do that, you use the IS NULL
clause as shown in figure 3'15.
This figure uses a table named Null_Sample from the EX database to show
how to search for null values. This table contains two columns: invoice_id and
invoice_total. The values in this table are displayed in the first example.
The second example shows what happens when you retrieve all the rows
with invoice_total equal to zero. In this case, the row that has a null value isn't
included in the result set. As the third example shows, this row isn’t included in
the result set when invoice_total isn’t equal to zero either. Instead, you have to
use the IS NULL clause to retrieve rows with null values, as shown by the fourth
example.
You can also use the NOT operator w ith the IS NULL clause, as shown by
the last example. When you use this operator, all of the rows that don’t contain
null values are included in the query results.
 Chapter J How to retrieve datafrom a single table 95

The syntax of the WHERE clause with the IS NULL clause

WHERE expression IS [NOT] NULL

The contents of the Null_Sample table

SELECT * FROM nullsample
motrejd nvoice.total A

► 1 125.00
2 0.00
IM.H
3
4 2199.99
S 0.00 V

A SELECT statement that retrieves rows with zero values

SELECT * FROM null sample
WHERE invoice_total = 0
nvotcejd nvoce_totai

> 2 0.00
5 0.00

A SELECT statement that retrieves rows with non-zero values

SELECT * FROM null_sample
WHERE invoice.total <> 0
nvocejd rrwacejntai

» 1 125.00

4 2199.99

A SELECT statement that retrieves rows with null values

SELECT * FROM null_sample
WHERE invoice-total IS NULL
rnwcejd invoice Jo tai
k. 1 ™

A SELECT statement that retrieves rows without null values

SELECT *
FROM null sample
WHERE invoice total IS NOT NULL
nvoicejd rrvace .total

* 1 125.00
2 0.00
4 2199.99
5 0.00

Description
• A null value represents a value that's unknown, unavailable, or not applicable. It
isn't the same as a zero or an empty string (").

Figure 3-15 How to use the IS NULL clause

96 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to code the ORDER BY clause

The ORDER BY clause specifies the sort order for the rows in a result set.
In most cases, you'll use column names from the base table to specify the sort
order as you saw in some of the examples earlier in this chapter. However, you
can also use other techniques to sort the rows in a result set. as described in the
figures that follow.

How to sort by a column name

Figure 3-16 presents the expanded syntax of the ORDER BY clause. This
syntax shows that you can sort by one or more expressions in either ascending
or descending sequence The three examples in this figure show1 how to code this
clause for expressions that involve column names.
The first two examples show how to sort the rows in a result set by a
single column. In the first example, the rows in the Vendors table are sorted in
ascending sequence by the vendor_name column. Since ascending is the default
sequence, the ASC keyword can be omitted. In the second example, the rows are
sorted by the vendor name column in descending sequence.
To sort by more than one column, you simply list the names in the ORDER
BY clause separated by commas as shown in the third example. This can be
referred to as a nested sort because one sort is nested within another. Here,
the rows in the Vendors table are first soiled by the vendor_state column in
ascending sequence. Then, within each state, the rows are sorted by the
vendor_city column in ascending sequence. Finally. writhin each city, the rows
are sorted by the vendor_name column in ascending sequence.
 Chapter J How to retrieve datafrom a single table 97

The expanded syntax of the ORDER BY clause

ORDER BY expression [ASC DESCI r. expression [ASC DESC il___

An ORDER BY clause that sorts by one column in ascending sequence

SELECT vendor,name,
CONCATfvendor city, *, ’, vendor state, 1 •, vendorzipcode) AS address
FROM vendors
ORDER BY vendor name
A
^endor_name address

► Abbey Office Funshngs Fresno . CA 93722

American Bocxsefcrs Assoc Tarrytown, NY 10591
Amencan Express Los Angeles. CA 90096
ASC Signs Fresno, CA 93703 V

An ORDER BY clause that sorts by one column in descending sequence

SELECT vendorname,
CONCAT(vendorcityt , 1, vendor state, 1 *, vendor zip_code) AS address
FROM vendors
ORDER BY vendor name DESC
vendor_name address A

Zyfra Design Fresno, CA 93711

Zp Pmt & Copy Center Fresno, CA 93777
Zee Ser/ce Co Washington, IA 52353
Yeaned, Inc Fresno. CA 93718 V

An ORDER BY clause that sorts by three columns

SELECT vendorname,
CONCAT(vendorcity, 1, vendor state, ' •, vendor_zip_code) AS address
FROM vendors
ORDER BY vendor state, vendor city, vendor name
vendor_name addess A

♦ AT&T Phoenix. AZ 35062

Ccrewte' Lbrary Phoena, AZ 35023
Weds Fargo Bank Phoenix, AZ 35038
Aztex Label Anahem. CA 92807 V

Description
• The ORDER BY clause specifies how you want the rows in the result set sorted.
You can sort by one or more columns, and you can sort each column in either
ascending (ASC) or descending (DESC) sequence. ASC is the default.
• By default, in an ascending sort, special characters appear first in the sort sequence,
followed by numbers, then letters. This sort order is determined by the character set
used by the server, which you can change when you start the server.
• Null values appear first in the sort sequence, even if you're using DESC.
• You can sort by any column in the base table regardless of whether it's included in
the SELECT clause.

Figure 3-16 How to sort by a column name

98 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to sort by an alias, expression,

or column number
Figure 3-17 presents thiee more techniques that you can use to specify sort
columns. First, you can use a column alias that's detined in the SELECT clause.
The first SELECT statement in this figure, for example, sorts by a column
named Address, which is an alias for the concatenation of the vendor_city,
vendor_state. and vendor_zip_code columns. Notice that within the Address
column, the result set is also sorted by the vendor_name column.
You can also use an arithmetic or string expression in the ORDER BY
clause, as shown by the second example in this figure. Here, the expression
consists of the vendor_contact_last_name column concatenated with the
vendor_contact_first_name column. Notice that neither of these columns is
included in the SELECT clause. Although MySQL allows this coding technique,
many other SQL dialects don't
The last example in this figure shows how you can use column numbers to
specify a sort order. To use this technique, you code the number that corresponds
to the column ot the result set. where 1 is the first column. 2 is the second
column, and so on. In this example, the ORDER BY clause sorts the result set
by the second column, which contains the concatenated address, then by the first
column, which contains the vendor name. As a result, this statement returns the
same result set that's returned by the first statement.
However, the statement that uses column numbers is more difficult to
read because you have to look at the SELECT clause to see what columns the
numbers refer to. In addition, if you add or remove columns from the SELECT
clause, you may also have to change the ORDER BY clause to reflect the new
column positions. As a result, you should avoid using this technique in most
situations.
 Chapter J How to retrieve datafrom a single table 99

An ORDER BY clause that uses an alias

SELECT vendor name,
CONCAT(vendor city, •, vendor state, 1 •, vendor zip code) AS address
FROM vendors
ORDER BY address, vendor name
A
yendor_name address

AzteK Label Anahern, CA 92807

Sue Shred of Caifoma Anahem, CA 928SC
Mafcv Lithographing Inc Am Arbor, MI 48106
Data Reproductions Corp Atixm Hite, MI 48326 V

An ORDER BY clause that uses an expression

SELECT vendor name,
CONCATfvendor_city, ■, vendor state, 1 •, vendorzipcode) AS address
FROM vendors
ORDER BY CONCAT(vendor contact last name, vendor_contact first name)
■ endorname address A

> Crstas Groom & McCormick Fresno, CA 93720

Internal Reverve Sendee Fresno, CA 93888
US Posta Service Madson, WI 53707
Yaie Industrial Trudes-Fresno Fresno, CA 93706 V

An ORDER BY clause that uses column positions

SELECT vendor name,
CONCAT(vendor city, ’, vendor state, 1 *, vendorzip code) AS address
FROM vendors
ORDER BY 2, 1
vendorname address A

Artex Label Anaheim, CA 92337

Sue SFiefd of Caifoma Anaheim, CA 92850
Maloy Lthograph-rq Inc Am Arbor. Ml 48106
Data Reproductions Corp Ahn Hite, Ml 48326 V

Description
• The ORDER BY clause can include a column alias that's specified in the SELECT
clause if the column alias does not include spaces.
• The ORDER BY clause can include any valid expression. The expression can refer
to any column in the base table, even if it isn't included in the result set.
• The ORDER BY clause can use numbers to specify the columns to use for sorting.
In that case, I represents the first column in the result set, 2 represents the second
column, and so on.

Figure 3-17 How to sort by an alias, expression, or column number

100 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to code the LIMIT clause

The LIMIT clause specifies the maximum number of rows that are returned
in the result set. For most queries, you want to see the entire result set so you
won’t use this clause. However, there may be times when you want to retrieve
just a subset of a larger result set.
Figure 3-18 presents the expanded syntax of the LIMIT clause. This clause
can take one or two arguments as shown by the three examples in this figure.

How to limit the number off rows

In its simplest form, you code the LIMIT clause with a single numeric
argument. Then, the number of rows in the result set is, at most, the number you
specify. But if the result set is smaller than the number you specify, the LIMIT
clause has no effect
In the first example, the SELECT statement includes the LIMIT 5 clause, so
the entire result set is five row's. Without the LIMIT clause, this statement would
return 114 rows. Because the result set is sorted by invoice_total in descending
sequence, this result set represents the five largest invoices.

How to return a range off rows

If you code the optional offset argument of the LIMIT clause, it represents
an offset, or starting point for the result set. This offset starts from a value of 0,
which refers to the first row in the result set. In the second example, then, the
offset is 2 so the result set starts with die third invoice. Then, since the row count
is 3, the result set contains just 3 row s.
Similarly, the third example has an offset of 100, so the result set starts with
row 101. Note that the row count for the LIMIT clause in this example is KXX).
Since the table contains only 114 rows, though, the result set contains just the
last 14 rows in the table.
 Chapter J How to retrieve data from a single table 101

The expanded syntax of the LIMIT clause

LIMIT [offset,] row count

A SELECT statement with a LIMIT clause that starts with the first row
SELECT vendor id, invoice total
FROM invoices
ORDER BY invoicetotal DESC
LIMIT 5
vendorjd nvace_total

110 37966.19
110 26881.40
110 23S17.S8
72 21842.00
110 20551.18

A SELECT statement with a LIMIT clause that starts with the third row
SELECT invoiceid, vendorid, invoice total
FROM invoices
ORDER BY invoiceid
LIMIT 2, 3
nvoicejd vendor jd rvoce_totai

• 3 123 138.75
4 123 144.70
5 123 15.50

A SELECT statement with a LIMIT clause that starts with the 101st row
SELECT invoice_id, vandorid, invoicetotal
FROM invoices
ORDER BY invoice_id
LIMIT 100, 1000
nvntcejd vendor jd rivoce_totai

► 101 123 30.73

102 110 2055118
103 122 20 5 L 59
104 123 44.44

(14 rows)

Description
• You can use the LIMIT clause to limit the number of rows returned by the SELECT
statement. This clause takes one or two integer arguments.
• If you code a single argument, it specifies the maximum row count, beginning with
the first row If you code both arguments, the offset specifies the first row to return,
where the offset of the first row is 0.
• If you want to relieve all of the rows from a certain offset to the end of the result
set. code -1 for the row count.
• Typically, you'll use an ORDER BY clause whenever you use the LIMIT clause.

Figure 3-18 How to code the LIMIT clause

102 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

Perspective
The goal of this chapter has been to teach you the basic skills for coding
SELECT statements. As a result you’ll use these skills in almost every
SELECT statement you code.
As you'll see in the next chapter and in chapters 6 and 7, though, there’s
a lot more to coding SELECT statements than what’s presented here. In these
chapters, then, you'll learn additional skills for coding SELECT statements.
When you complete these chapters, you’ll know everything you need to know
about retrieving data from a MySQL database.

Terms
keyword parameter
base table concatenate
search condition comparison operator
filter logical operator
Boolean expression compound condition
expression subquery
column alias string pattern
arithmetic expression mask
arithmetic operator wildcard
order of precedence regular expression
literal value null value
stung nested sort
function offset
argument

Exercises
Run some ot the examples in this chapter
In these exercises, you’ll use MySQL Workbench to run some of the scripts for
the examples in this chapter. This assumes that you already know how to use
MySQL Workbench, as described in chapter 2.
1. Start MySQL Workbench.
2. Open the script named 3-02.sql that you should find in this directory:
murach/mysql/book_scnpts/ch03. When it opens, you should see all of the
queries for figure 3-2. Note that each of these queries has a semicolon at the
end of it.
3. Move the insertion point into the first query and press Ctrl+Enter or click on
the Execute Current Statement button to run the query. This shows you the
data that's in the Invoices table that you'll be working with in this chapter.
4. Move the insertion point into the second query and run it.
 Chapter 3 How to retrieve data from a single table 103

5. Open the script named 3-05.sql in the ch()3 directory. Then, run the second
query. W hen you do. you’ll see that the result set is in sequence by the
invoice_id column.
6. Delete the ORDER BY clause from the SELECT statement and run the query
again. Scroll through the result set to see that the rows are no longer in a
particular sequence. When you're done, close the script without saving the
changes.
7. Open and run the queries for any of the other examples in this chapter that
you’re interested in reviewing.

I nter and run your own SELECT statements

In these exercises, you’ll enter and run your own SELE(?T statements. To do
that, you can open the script for an example that is similar to the statement you
need to write, copy the statement into a new SQL tab. and modify the statement.
That can save you both time and syntax errors.
8. Write a SELECT statement that returns three columns from the Vendors table:
vendor_name, vendor_contact_last_name. and vendor_contact_first_name.
Then, run this statement to make sure it works correctly.
Add an ORDER BY clause to this statement that sorts the result set by last
name and then first name, both in ascending sequence. Then, run this state­
ment again to make sure it works correctly. This is a good way to build and
test a statement, one clause at a time.
9. Write a SELECT statement that returns one column from the Vendors table
named full_name that joins the vendor_contact_last_name and
vcndor_contact_first_name columns.
Format this column with the last name, a comma, a space, and the first name
like tills:
Doef John
Sort the result set by last name and then first name in ascending sequence.
Return only the contacts whose last name begins with the letter A. B. C, or E.
This should retrieve 41 rows.
10. Write a SELECT statement that returns these column names and data from
the Invoices table:
Due Date The invoice_due_date column
Invoice Total The invoice_total column
10% 10% of the value of invoice_total
Plus 10% The value of invoice_total plus 10%
Return only the rows u ith an invoice total that’s greater than or equal to 500
and less than or equal to 1000. This should retrieve 12 rows.
Sort the result set in descending sequence by invoice_due_date.
104 Section I An introduction to MySQL

1i Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the Invoices
table:
invoice_number The invoice_number column
invoice_total The invoice_total column
payment_credit_total Sum of the payment_total and credit_total
columns
balance_due The invoice_total column minus the
paj ment_total and credit-total columns
Return only invoices that have a balance due that’s greater than S50.
Sort the result set by balance due in descending sequence.
Use the LIMIT clause so the result set contains only the rows with the 5
largest balances.

Work with nulls and test expressions

12. Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the Invoices
table:
invoice_number The invoice_number column
invoice_date The invoice_date column
balance_due The invoice_total column minus the payment_total
and credit_total columns
payment_date The payinent_date column
Return only the rows where the payment-date column contains a null value.
This should retrieve 11 rows.
13. Write a SELECT statement without a FROM clause that uses the
CURRENT-DATE function to return the current date in its default format.
Use the DATE_FORMAT function to format the current date in this format:
mm-dd-yyyy
This displays the month, day. and four-digit year of the current date.
Give this column an alias of cui rent_date. To do that, you must enclose the
alias in quotes since that name is already used by the CURRENT_DATE
function.
14. W rite a SELECT statement without a FROM clause that creates a row with
these columns:
starting_prmcipal Starting principal of $50,000
interest 6.5% of the principal
principul_plus_interest The principal plus the interest
To calculate the third column, add the expressions you used for the first two
columns.
 4
How to retrieve data
from two or more tables
In the last chapter, you learned how to create result sets that contain data from a
single table. Now. this chapter shows you how to create result sets that contain
data from two or more tables. To do that, you can use an inner join, an outer
join, or a union.

How to work with inner joins...................................................106

How to code an inner join................................... ........................... .................... 106
How to use table aliases............. _...... ......................... ................ 108
How to join to a table in another database..................................................... 110
How to use compound join conditions............................................................ 112
How to use a selfjoin....................................................................................... 114
How to join more than two tables........... ......................................................... 116
How to use the implicit inner join syntax........................... ........ _................ 118
How to work with outer joins............ .... ........... .......... 120
How to code an outer join..............................................................................................120
Outer join examples.................. «...................................................................... 122
Other skills for working with joins....... .............................. 126
How to join tables with the USING keyword................................................. 126
How to join tables with the NATURAL keyword................................... .....128
How to use cross joins............................ .......................... ..... ....................... _ 130
How to work with unions____ .........___.____________ .....132
How to code a union.......................................................................................... 132
A union that combines result sets fromdifferent tables................................132
A union that combines result sets fromthe same tables............................... 134
A union that simulates a full outer join....... ....... ........................................... 136
Perspective....... ................. .................................. 138
106 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to work with inner joins

A join lets you combine columns from two or more tables into a single result
set. To start, this chapter shows how to code the most common type of join, an
inner join.

How to code an inner join

Figure 4-1 shows how to use the explicit syntax to code an inner join This
syntax is also called the SQL-92 syntax because it was introduced by the SQL-92
standards. It's generally considered a best practice to use this syntax.
To join data from two tables, you code the names of the two tables in the
FROM clause along with the JOIN keyword and an ON phrase that specifies
the join condition. The join condition indicates how' the two tables should be
compared. In most cases, they’re compared based on the relationship between
the primary key of the first table and a foreign key of the second table.
In this figure, for example, the SELECT statement joins data from the
Vendors and Invoices tables based on the vendor_id column in each table. Since
the join condition uses the equal operator, the value of the vendor_id column in a
row in the Vendors table must match the vendorJd in a row in the Invoices table
for that row to be included in the result set. In other words, only vendors w ith
one or more invoices are included.
Although you code most inner joins using the equal operator, you can
compare two tables based on other conditions too. For example, you can use the
greater than or less than operators for an inner join condition.
In this figure, the Vendors table is joined with the Invoices table using
a column that has the same name in both tables: vendorjd. As a result, the
columns must be qualified so MySQL can tell which table they come from. To
code a qualified column name, you can enter the table name and a period in front
of the column name.
In this figure, the SELECT statement only uses qualified column names
in the join condition. However, you must qualify a column name anywhere it
appears in the statement it the same name occurs in both tables. If you don't,
MySQL returns an error indicating that the column name is ambiguous.
 Chapter 4 Hos, to retrieve data from two or more tables 107

The explicit syntax for an inner join

SELECT ■•lact.llst
FROM tabla 1
[INNER] JOIN tabla_2
ON join condition 1
([INNER] JOIN tabla_3
ON join conditions]...

An inner join of the Vendors and Invoices tables

SELECT invoice number, vendor name
FROM vendors INNER JOIN invoices
ON vendors.vendor_id ■ invoices.vendor id
ORDER BY invoicenumber
nvoice_nuTt)er A
vendor _name

► 0-2058 Maloy Lithographing Inc

0-2060 Maloy Lithog»aphng Inc
0-2436 Maloy Lithographing Inc
1-200-5164 Federal Express Corporation
1-202-2978 Federal Express Corporation
10843 Yesmed, Inc V

(114 rows)

Description
• A join combines columns from two or more tables into a result set based on the
join conditions you specify. For an inner join, only those rows that satisfy the join
condition are included in the result set.
• A join condition names a column in each of the two tables involved in the join and
indicates how the two columns should be compared. In most cases, you use the
equal operator to retrieve rows with matching columns. However, you can also use
any of the other comparison operators in a join condition.
• Tables are typically joined on the relationship between the primary key in one table
and a foreign key in the other table. However, you can also join tables based on
relationships not defined in the database. These are called ad hoc relationships.
• If the two columns in a join condition have the same name, you must qualify them
with the table name so MySQL can distinguish between them. To code a qualified
column name, type the table name, followed by a period, followed by the column
name.

Note
• The INNER keyword is optional and is seldom used.

Figure 4-1 How to code an inner join

108 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use table aliases

When you name a table to be joined in the FROM clause, you can refer to
the table by an alias as shown in figure 4-2. A table alias is an alternative table
name that's typically just a letter or two. This makes it easier to qualify the
column names in the rest of the statement, and it makes the query easier to code
and read, especially when the table names are long.
The first example in this figure joins data from the Vendors and Invoices
tables. Here, both tables have been assigned aliases that consist of a single letter.
The second example only assigns an alias to the second table, not the first.
Here, the alias shortens the name of the Invoice_Line_Items table to just
Line_Items. As a result, the shorter name can he used to refer to the invoice_id
column of the table in the join condition. Although you can use this technique
when you code a query, most programmers use abbreviations of the table names
as shown in the first example and throughout the rest of this chapter.
After you assign a table alias, you must use the alias in place of the original
table name throughout the query. Otherwise, MySQL returns an error message
instead of a result set.
 Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from two or more tables 109

The syntax for an inner join that uses table aliases

SELECT select_li®t
FROM table 1 al
[INNER] JOIN table 2 a2
ON al.column name operator a2.column name
([INNER] JOIN table_3 a3
ON a2.column name operator a3.column name]...

Aliases for all tables

SELECT invoice numbert vendor name, invoice due date,
invoicetotal - payment total - credittotal AS balance due
FROM vendors v JOIN invoices i
ON v.vendorid ■ i.vendor id
WHERE invoicetotal - payment total - credit total > 0
ORDER BY invoice due date DESC
vendor _name A
nvace_f*mber mvo*ce_due_date baance_Oje

► 547480102 Bbe Cross 2022-08-31 224.00

0-2436 Malloy Lthogsapnng Inc 2022-08-30 10976.06
9982771 Ford Motor Cr edt Company 2022-06-23 503.20
PC608 Malloy ufrograpring Inc 2022-08-22 1935 L18
263253270 Federal Express Corporation 2022'08-21 67.92 V

(11 rows)

An alias for only one table

SELECT invoice_number, line item amount, linaitem description
FROM invoices JOIN invoice_line items line items
ON invoices.invoice id - line items.invoiceid
WHERE account number = 540
ORDER BY invoice date
nvftce_nLjflber Irejtern-descnption A
1nejteffl_arnount

» 177271-001 478.00 Publishers Marketing

972110 207.78 Prospect tet
133560 175.00 Card dedc ad- ertsng
97/522 765.13 Catalog desqn
587056 2184.50 PC card deck V

(6 rows)

Description
• A table alias is an alternative table name assigned m the FROM clause. You can use
an alias, which is typically just a letter or two, to make a SQL statement easier to
code and read.
• If you assign an alias to a table, you must use that alias to refer to the table
throughout your query. You can't use the original table name.
• You can use an alias for one table in a join without using an alias for another table.

Figure 4-2 How to use table aliases

110 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to join to a table in another database

If you used the procedure described in appendix A ( Windows) or appendix
B imacOS) of this book to create the databases for this book, all of the tables
are organized into three databases, which are also known as schemas. First, all
tables pertaining to accounts payable such as the Vendors and Invoices tables are
stored in the database, or schema, named AP. Then, all tables pertaining to order
management are stored in a database named OM. Finally, all tables that are used
by the smaller examples presented in this book are stored in a database named
EX.
When you use MySQL Workbench to run a query against a database, you
don't need to qualify a table name with its database name. For example, when
you run a query against the AP database, you don't need to qualify the Vendors
table with the name of the database.
However, you may occasionally need to join to a table that's in another
database. To do that, you must qualify the table name in the other database by
prefixing the table name with the database name. For example, let's say you need
to join the Vendors table in the AP database w ith the Customers table in the OM
database. To do that, you need to qualify the Customers table w ith the name of
the OM database as showm in figure 4-3.
 Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from two or more tables 111

The syntax of a table name that's qualified with a database name

database, name .table name

Join to a table in another database

SELECT vendor name, customer last name, customer first name,
vendorstate AS state, vendor_city AS city
FROM vendors v
JOIN om. customers c
ON v.vendorzipcode ■ c.cuatomarzip
ORDER BY state, city

(37 rows)

Description
• A MySQL server can store tables in multiple databases. These databases are
sometimes referred to as schemas.
• When you run a SELECT statement against one database, you can join to a table in
another database if you have appropriate privileges. To do that, you must prefix the
table name in the other database with the name of that database.

Figure 4-3 How to join to a table in another database

112 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use compound join conditions

Although a join condition typically consists of a single compaiison. you can
include two or more comparisons in a join condition using the AND and OR
operators. Figure 4-4 shows how this works.
The query in this figure uses the AND operator to return the first and last
names of all customers in the Customers table whose first and last names also
exist in the Employees table. Since Thomas Hardy is the only name that exists in
both tables, this is the only row that's returned in the result set for this query.
 Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from two or more tables 113

The Customers table

customer jd customer _last name customer _first_name customer address OJSto?reraoty customer .state A

> 1 Anders Mana 345 Wrchefl PI Anderson IN

2 Trujlo Ana 1298 E Smothers St Benton AR

3 Macro Antono 6925 N Partdand Ave Puyakip WA

4 Hardy Thomas 83 rfUrberwIe Ln Casterbndge GA
5 Eeigwd Chnstina 22717E 7>d Ave tkiMjQue IA
6 moos Hama 1778 N Bovne Ave Peora IL
7 Gteaui Fred 1234 Mar St Normal n. v
< >

(24 rows)

The Employees table

Mt.name A
employee jd last .name depfl'tnert nurhe’’ manager jd

» 1 Smith Ondy 2
2 Jones Bner 4 1
3 Snonar 33k*- 2 2

14 Hernandez Otvia 1 9

5 Aaronsen Robert 2 4

6 Watson Dense 6 8
7____________ Hardy Thomas S 2 V

(9 rows)

An inner join with two conditions

SELECT custonerfirat_name, customer last, name
FROM customers c JOIN employees e
ON c.customer first name ■ e.first.name
AND c.customsr_last_naxne ■ a.last name
custDfnef_first narie customer Jast_name

I Thomas Hardy

(1 row)

Description
• A join condition can include two or more conditions connected by AND or OR
operators.

Figure 4-4 How to use compound join conditions

114 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use a self-join

A self-join, joins a table to itself. Although self-joins are rare, they are
sometimes useful for retrieving data that can’t be retrieved any other way. For
example, figure 4-5 presents a self-join that returns rows from the Vendors table
where the vendor is in a city and state that has at least one other vendor In other
words, it does not return a vendor if that vendor is the only vendor in that city
and state.
Since this example uses the same table tw ice. it must use aliases to distin­
guish one occurrence of the table from the other. In addition, this query must
quality each column name with a table alias since every column occurs in both
tables.
Then, the join condition uses three comparisons. The first two match the
vendor_city and vendor_state columns in the two tables. As a result, the query
returns rows for vendors that are in the same city and state as another vendor.
However, since a vendor resides in the same city and state as itself, a third
comparison is included to exclude rows that match a vendor with itself. To do
that, this condition uses the not-equal operator to compare the vendor_name
columns in the two tables.
In addition, this statement includes the DISTINCT keyword. That way, a
vendor appears only once m the result set. Otherwise, a vendor would appear
once for every other row with a matching city and state. For example, if a vendor
is in a city and state that has nine other vendors in that city and state, this query
would return nine rows tor that vendor.
This example also shows how you can use columns other than key columns
in a join condition. Keep in mind, how ever, that this is an unusual situation and
you're not likely to code joins like this often.
 Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from tw o or more tables 115

A self-join that returns vendors from cities in common with other vendors
SELECT DISTINCT vl.vendor_name, vl.vendor_cityf
vl.vendor state
FROM vendors vl JOIN vendors v2
ON vl.vendor_city * v2.vendor city AND
vl.vendorstate ■ v2.vendorstate AND
vl.vendor name <> v2.vendor name
ORDER BY vl.vendor_state, vl.vendor_city
vendor .name vendor _cty vendor .state A

» Computer Ltxary Phoenix AZ

AT&T Phoenix AZ
Wefts Fargo Barit Phoenix AZ
Artek Label Anaherr CA
Blue Sheid of CaMorria Anahexn CA
Abbey Office Findings Fresno CA
CaHbrnia Busress Machnes Fresno CA
Postmaster Fresno CA V

(84 rows)

Description
• A self-join is a join that joins a table with itself.
• When you code a self-join, you must use aliases foi the tables, and you must
qualify each column name with the alias.

Figure 4-5 How to use a self-join

116 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to join more than two tables

So far. this chapter has only showed how to join data f rom two tables.
However, it’s common for programmers to need to join data from more than
two tables. For example, it's not unheard of to need to join 10 or more tables.
Fortunately, once you code the join condition correctly, you can often reuse it
The SELECT statement m figure 4-6 joins data from four tables: Vendors,
Invoices. Invoice_Line_Items. and General_Ledger_Accounts. Each of the
joins is based on the relationship between the primary key of one table and a
foreign key of the other table. For example, the account_number column is the
primary key of the General_Ledger_Accounts table and a foreign key of the
Invoiee_Line_Items table.
This SELECT statement also shows how table aliases make a statement
easier to code and read. Here, the one-letter and two-letter aliases that are used
for the tables allow you to code the ON clauses more concisely.
 Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from two or more tables 117

A statement that joins four tables

SELECT vendor_nama ( invoice number, invoice date,
linaitem amount, account.description
FROM vendors v
JOIN invoices i
ON v.vendor id ■ i.vendor_id
JOIN invoice line!terns li
ON i.invoice_id ■ li.invoice id
JOIN general.ledger accounts gl
ON li.account number = gl.account number
WHERE invoicetotal - paymenttotal - credittotal > 0
ORDER BY vendor name, line item amount DESC
.endorname tnvacejiuflber mvace_date ine_item_amount arrmn t_descr pton

Blue Cross 547430102 2022-00-01 224.00 Group Insurance

Cardnal Busress Media. Inc. 134116 2022-07-28 90.36 Direct Mai Adyertasng
Data Reproductions Corp 39104 2022-07-10 85.31 Ecok Printing Costs
Fede*a Express Corporation 263253270 2022-07-22 67.92 height
Federal Express Corporation 263253268 2022-07-21 59.97 Freight
Federal Express Corporator 963253264 2022-07-18 52.25 Freight
Federal Express Corporator 263253273 2022-07-22 30.75 Freight
Ford Motor Cred t Company 9982771 2022-07-24 503.20 Travel and Accomodations
Ingram 31361833 2022-07-21 579.42 Books. Dues, and Subsectors

(11 rows)

Description
• You can think of a multi-table join as a series of two-table joins proceeding from
left to right.

Figure 4-6 How to join more than two tables

118 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use the implicit inner join syntax

Although it’s generally considered a best practice to use the explicit inner
join syntax described earlier in this chapter, MySQL also provides the implicit
inner join syntax shown in figure 4-7 1 his syntax was widely used prior to the
introduction of the explicit syntax. You should be familiar with the older implicit
syntax mainly because you may need to maintain existing SQL statements that
use it.
When you use the implicit syntax for an inner join, you code the tables in the
FROM clause separated by commas. Then, you code the join conditions in the
WHERE clause.
The first SELECT statement joins data from the Vendors and Invoices tables.
Like the SELECT statement shown in figure 4-1, this statement joins these tables
on an equal comparison between the vendor_id columns in the two tables. In this
case, though, the comparison is coded as the search condition of the WHERE
clause. However, both of these statements retum the same result set.
The second SELECT statement uses the implicit syntax to join data from
four tables. This is the same join you saw in figure 4-6. In this example, the three
join conditions are combined in the WHERE clause using the AND operator. In
addition, an AND operator is used to combine the join conditions with die search
condition.
Because the explicit syntax for joins lets you separate join conditions from
search conditions, statements that use the explicit syntax are ty pically easier to
read than those that use the implicit syntax. In addition, the explicit syntax helps
you avoid a common coding mistake with the implicit syntax: omitting the join
condition. As you’ll leam later in this chapter, an implicit join without a join
condition results in a cross join, which can return a large number of rows. Eor
these reasons, we recommend that you use the explicit syntax in all your new
SQL code.
 Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from tw o or more tables 119

The implicit syntax for an inner join

SELECT select_list
FROM table_l, table2 [, tabl®_3]...
where table_l.column name operator table 2.column name
[AND table_2.column name operator table_3 - column name]...

Join the Vendors and Invoices tables

SELECT invoice number, vendor name
FROM vendors v, invoices i
WHERE v.vendor id ■ i.vendor id
ORDER BY invoice number
rwocejwiber A
vendor_name

0-2050 Malloy Lthogr acting Inc

0-2060 Malloy bfhogattwxj Inc
0-2436 Malloy uthogracting Inc
1-200-5164 Federal Express Corporation
1-202-2978 Federal Express Corporation V

(114 rows)

Join four tables

SELECT vendor name, invoice number, invoice date,
line item amount, account description
FROM vendors v, invoices i, invoice line items li,
genera1_1edger accounts gl
WHERE v.vendor_id ® i.vendor id
AND i.invoiceid « li.invoiceid
AND li.account number ■ gl.account_number
AND invoice_total - payment total - credittotal > 0
ORDER BY vendor name. line_item amount DESC
vendor _name m/oice_'vmber invoice _datg inejtemamoun! accnuri t_descr pton A

► Ebe Cross 547400102 2022-06-01 224.00 Group Insurance

Cardnal Busness Meda, Inc. 134116 2022-07-20 90.36 Direct Mai Ad/erbstng
Data Reproductions Corp 39104 2022-07-10 85.31 BookPrntng Costs
Federal Express Corporation 263253270 2022-07-22 67.92 Freight
Federal Express Corporation 263253268 2022-07-21 59.97 Freight
Federal Express Corporation 963253264 2022-07-18 52.25 Freight
Federal Express Corporation 263253273 2022-07-22 30.75 Freight
Ford Motor Cred t Company 9932771 2022-07-24 503.20 Travel and Aczomodatiars
*11 "W a~j-- V
— on

(11 rows)

Description
• Instead of coding a join condition in the FROM clause, you can code it in the
Wl II .RE clause along with any search conditions In that case, you list the tables in
the FROM clause separated by commas.
• Tins syntax for coding joins is referred to as the implicit syntax. Il was used prior to
the SQL-92 standards, which introduced the explicit syntax.

Figure 4-7 How to use the implicit inner join syntax

120 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to work with outer joins

Although inner joins are the most common type of join, MySQL also
supports outer joins. Unlike an inner join, an outer join returns all of the rows
from one of the tables involved in the join, regardless of whether the join condi­
tion is true.

How to code an outer join

Figure 4-8 presents the explicit syntax for coding an outer join. Because this
syntax is similar to the explicit syntax for inner joins, you shouldn't have any
trouble understanding how it works. Tha main difference is that you include the
LEFT or RIGHT keyword to specify the type of outer join you want to perform.
You can also include the OUTER keyword, but it’s optional and is usually
omitted.
When you use a left outer join, the result set includes all the rows from
the first, or left, table. Similarly, when you use a right outer join, the result set
includes all the rows from the second, or right, table.
The example in this figure illustrates a left outer join. Here, the Vendors
table is joined Vi ith the Invoices table. In addition, the result set includes vendor
rows even if no matching invoices are found. In that case, null values are
returned for the columns in the Invoices table.
 Chapter 4 Hovto retrieve data from two or more tablev 121

The explicit syntax for an outer join

SELECT ■•lact.llst
FROM table 1
(LEFT RIGHT} [OUTER] JOINtable_2
ON join conditional
[{LEFT|RIGHT) [OUTER] JOIN tablo_3
ON join condition. 2]...

What outer joins do

Joins of this type Retrieve unmatched rows from
Left outer join The first (left) table
Right outer join The second (right) table

A left outer join

SELECT vendor name, invoice number, invoice total
FROM vendors LEFT JOIN invoices
ON vendors.vendorid ■ invoices.vendor id
ORDER BY vendor name
vendor .name mvwcejwnber rrvoce_totai A

» Abbey Office 203339-13 17.50

■2"JI C231
American Booksders Assoc
nrn □sn
American Express
Enn cnn
ASC Signs
EEH PEW
Ascoffl Hader Mahng Systems V

(202 rows)

Description
• An outer join retrieves all rows that satisfy the join condition, plus unmatched rows
in the left or right table.
• In most cases, you use the equal operator to retrieve rows w ith matching columns.
However, you can also use any of the other comparison operators.
• When a row with unmatched columns is retrieved, any columns from the other
table that are included in the result set are given null values.

Note
• The OUTER keyword is optional and typically omitted.

Figure 4-8 How to code an outer join

122 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

Outer join examples

To give you a better understanding of how outer joins work, figure 4-9
shows four more examples. To start, part 1 of this figure shows the Departments
table, the Employees table, and the Projects table from the EX database. These
tables are used by the examples shown in parts 2 and 3 of this figure. In addition,
they’re used in other examples later in this chapter.
The first example performs a left outer join on the Departments and
Employees tables. Here, the join condition joins the tables based on the values in
their department_number columns. Then, the result set produced by this state­
ment shows that department number 3 (Operations) is included in the result set
even though none of the employees in the Employees table w'ork in that depart­
ment. As a result, MySQL assigns a null value to the last_name column from
that table.
The second example uses a right outer join to join the Departments and
Employees table. In this case, all of the rows from the Employees table are
included in the result sat. However, two of the employees. Loc-ario and Watson,
are assigned to a department that doesn't exist in the Departments table. If
the department_number column in the Employees table had been defined as
a foreign key to the Departments table, this would not have been allowed by
MySQL. In this case, though, a foreign key wasn't defined, so null values are
returned for the depaitment_name column in these two rows.
When coding outer joins, it's a common practice to avoid using right loins.
To do that, you can substitute a left outer join for a right outer join by reversing
the order of the tables in the FROM clause and using the LEFT keyword instead
of RIGHT. This often makes it easier to read statements that join more than two
tables.
The third example shows that you can use outer joins to work w ith more
than two tables. To do that, you use skills similar to those that you use to work
with inner joins with more than two tables. In this example, the statement uses
left outer joins to join all three tables: Departments, Employees, and Projects.
Because of this, the result set uses a null value to show that none of the
employees are assigned to the Operations department. In addition, the result set
uses null values to show that two employees. Hardy and Jones, aren't assigned to
a project.
The fourth example shows that you can combine inner joins and outer joins
in the same query. Here, the query works like the third example, but it uses
an inner join for the first join instead of a left outer join. Because of this, the
result set doesn't include a row for the Operations department. However, it still
displays the rows for the two employees. Hardy and Jones, who aren t assigned
to a project.
 Chapter 4 Hov, to retrieve data from two or more tables 123

The Departments table

depar troert_rmi bet department .name

► Acccxrhng
2 Payroi

3 Operators
4 Personnel

5 Maintenance

The Employees table

employ eejd last_name frst_name depar tmen t _ncnber manager jd

► 1 Smith Cindy 2
2 Jones Elmer 4 1
3 Simonian Ralph 2 2
14 Hemandea Olvia 1 9
5 Aaronsen Robert 2 4
6 Watson Dense 6 8
7 Hardy Thomas 5 2
8 Oleary Rhea 4 9
9 Locario Paulo 6 1

The Projects table

pro)ect_nurnber employee jd

» P1011 8
Pion 4
PIO 12 3
PIO 12 1
PIO 12 S
PIO 13 6
PIO 13 9
P1014 10

Description
• The examples in this figure use the Departments, Employees, and Projects tables
from the EX database.

Figure 4-9 Outer join examples (part 1 of 3)

124 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

A left outer join

SELECT department name, d.department number, last name
FROM departments d
LEFT JOIN employees e
ON d.department number ■ e.department^number
ORDER BY department name
department-name depaftment_number

► Accounting 1 Hernandez
Mantawxe 5 Hardy
3
E3S9
Operations
Payrol 2 Smih
Payrol 2 Simonian
Payrol 2 Aar omen
Pereomri 4 Jones
Personnel 4 Oleary

(6 rows)

A right outer join

SELECT department name, e.department number, last name
FROM departments d
RIGHT JOIN employees e
ON d.department number ■ e.department number
ORDER BY department name
dcpar^nen?_rart* department _numb>er last-name
6 Watson
6 Locano
Acoxnting 1 Hernandez
Martenance 5 Hardy
Payrol 2 Smith
Payrol 2 Smonwn
Payroll 2 Aaronsen
Personne 4 Jones
Personnel 4 Oleary

(9 rows)

Description
• A left outer join returns unmatched rows trom the first (left) table.
• A light outer join returns unmatched rows from the second (right) table.

Figure 4-9 Outer join examples (part 2 of 3)

 Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from two or more tables 125

Join three tables using left outer joins

SELECT department naiw, last name, projact_number
FROM departments d
LEFT JOIN employees e
ON d.department number ■ e.department, number
LEFT JOIN projects p
ON e.employee id ■ p.employeeid
ORDER BY department name, last.name
department .name las! .name project.number

► Accounting Hernandez P1011

Martenance Hardy
rrtryi CZ3
Operators
Payrol Aaponser PIO 12
Payrol Srrtoman PIO 12
Payrol Smfri PIO 12
Jones CEH
Personnel
Personnel Oleary P1011

(8 rows)

Combine an outer and an inner join

SELECT department name, last name, project number
FROM departments d
JOIN employees e
ON d.department number ■ e.department, number
LEFT JOIN projects p
ON e.employee id ■ p.employee_id
ORDER BY department name, last_name
latt_name prcjert_ru*fccf

► Accocrtmg Hernandez P1011

Mantenance Hardy □33
Payrol Aaronsen PIO 12
Payrol Simonian PIO 12
Payrol Smtr PIO 12
Personnel Jones
Personnel Oleary P10U

(7 rows)

Description
• You can use outer joins to join multiple tables.
• You can combine inner and outer joins within a single SELECT statement.

Figure 4-9 Outer join examples (part 3 of 3)

126 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

Other skills for working with joins

Now that you know how to work with inner and outer joins, you’re ready to
learn how to join tables with the USING and NATURAL keywords. In addition,
you're ready to learn about another type of join, called a cross join.

How to join tables with the USING keyword

When you use the equal operator to join two tables on a common column,
the join can be referred to as an equijoin (or an equi-join). When you code an
equijoin, it’s common for the columns that are being compared to have the same
name. For joins like these, you can simplify the query with the USING keyword.
To do that, you code a USING clause instead of an ON clause to specify the join
as shown in figure 4-10.
The first example in this figure shows how to join the Vendors and Invoices
tables on the vendor_id column with a USING clause. This returns the same
results as the query shown in figure 4-1 that uses the ON clause. However, the
USING clause only works because the vendor_id column exists in both the
Vendors and Invoices tables.
The second example shows how to join the Departments, Employees,
and Projects tables with the USING keyword. Here, the first USING clause
uses an inner join to join the Departments table to the Employees table on the
department_number column. Then, the second USING clause uses a left join to
join the Employees table to the Projects table on the employee_id column. This
shows that you can use a USING clause for both inner and outer joins, and this
query returns the same result as the last query shown in figure 4-9.
In some cases, such as w hen a table has a composite primary' key, you
may w'ant to join tables by multiple columns. To do that with a USING clause,
you can code multiple column names within the parentheses, separating the
column names with commas. This yields the same result as coding two equijoins
connected with the AND operator.
Since the USING clause is more concise than the ON clause, it can make
your code easier to read and maintain. As a result, it often makes sense to use the
USING clause when you’re developing new statements. However, if you can’t
get the USING clause to work correctly because of the way your database is
stiuctured, you can always use the ON clause instead.
 Chapter 4 Hm, to retrieve data from two or more tables 127

The syntax for a join that uses the USING keyword

SELECT aelectliat
FROM table .1
({LEFT I RIGHT} [OUTER]] JOIN table!
USING (joincolumn 1[, join column 2]...)
([(LEFT|RIGHT} [OUTER]] JOINtabl«_3
USING (joincolumn 1(, join column 2).

Use the USING keyword to join two tables

SELECT invoice number, vendor_name
FROM vendors
JOIN invoices USING (vendor id)
ORDER BY invoicenumber
A
nvo*ce_nutoe? vendor .name

> 0-2058 Maloy uthographng Inc

0-2060 Maloy LithoQ»aphing Inc
I0-2436
Maloy Lithographing Inc
1-200-5164 Federal Express Corporator

1-202-2978 Federal Express Corporator

10843 Yeaned, Inc V

(114 rows)

Use the USING keyword to join three tables

SELECT department name, last name, project number
FROM departments
JOIN employees USING (department number)
LEFT JOIN projects USING (employe«_id)
ORDER BY department name
depar frten!_r«ne last_name project _nunber

► Accounting Hernande/ P1011

Lt.NI
Mantenance Hardy
Payrol Srnonan P1012
Payrol Smfri P1012
Payrol Aaronser P1012
Personnel Oleary P1011
Per some Jones
esh

(7 rows)

Description
• You can use the USING keyword to simplify the syntax for joining tables.
• The join can be an inner join or an outer join.
• The tables must be joined by a column that has the same name in both tables.
• To include multiple columns, separate them with commas.
• The join must be an equijoin, which means that the equal operator is used to
compare the two columns.

Figure 4-10 How to join tables with the USING keyword

128 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to join tables with the NATURAL keyword

Figure 4-11 shows how to use the NATURAL keyword to code a natural
join. When you code a natural join, you don't specify the column that’s used to
join the two tables. Instead, the database automatically joins the two tables based
on all columns in the two tables that have the same name. As a result, this type
of join only works correctly if the database is designed in a certain way.
For instance, if you use a natural join to join the Vendors and Invoices tables
as shown in the first example, the join works correctly because these tables only
have one column in common: the vendorjd column. As a result, the database
joins these two tables on the vendorjd column However, if these tables had
another column in common, this query would attempt to join these tables on
both columns and might yield unexpected results.
In addition, you may get unexpected results if you use natural joins for
complex queues. In that case, you can use the USING or ON clause to explicitly
specify the join since these clauses give you more control over the join. If neces­
sary, you can mix a natural join with the USING or ON clause within a single
SELECT statement. In this figure, for example, the second SELECT statement
uses a natural join for the first join and a USING clause for the second join. The
result is the same as the result for the second statement in figure 4-10.
Finally, since natural joins don’t explicitly specify the join column, they may
not work correctly if the structure of the database changes later. So although
natural joins are easy to code, you’ll usually want to avoid using them for
production code.
 Chapter 4 Hin. to retrieve data from two or more tables 129

The syntax for a join that uses the NATURAL keyword

SELECT aelectliat
FROM tabla_l
NATURAL JOIN table2
[NATURAL JOIN table 3]___

Use the NATURAL keyword to join tables

SELECT invoice number, vendor name
FROM vendors
NATURAL JOIN invoices
ORDER BY invoice number
invoice .number vendor.name A

► 0-2058 Maloy uthogtaphng Inc

0-2060 Maloy Lithographng Inc
0*2436 Maloy Lithographing Inc
1-200-5164 Federal Express Corporation
1-202-2978 Federal Express Corporator)
10843 Yesmed, Inc V

(114 rows)

Use the NATURAL keyword in a statement that joins three tables

SELECT department name AS dept name, last name, project number
FROM departments
NATURAL JOIN employees
LEFT JOIN projects USING (employee_id)
ORDER BY department name
dept_name iast.name project .number

» Accouibng Hernandez P1011

Mantenance Hardy
Payrol Smornar P1012
Payrol Smith PIO 12
Payrol Aaronsen PIO 12
Personnel Oleary P1011
Personnel Jores

(7 rows)

Description
• You can use the NATURAL keyword to create a natural join that joins two tables
based on all columns in the two tables that have the same name.
• Although the code for a natural join is shorter than the code for joins that use
the ON or USING clause, a natural join only works correctly for certain types of
database structures. In addition, a natural join often yields unexpected results for
complex queries. As a result, it's more common to use the ON or USING clause to
join tables.

Figure 4-11 How to join tables with the NATURAL keyword

130 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use cross joins

A cross join produces a result set that includes each row from the first
table joined with each row from the second table. The result set is known as
the Cartesian product of the tables. Figure 4-12 shows how to code a cross join
using either the explicit or implicit syntax.
To use the explicit syntax, you include the CROSS JOIN keywords between
the two tables in the FROM clause. Because of the way a cross join works, you
don't code an ON clause that includes a join condition. The same is true when
you use the implicit syntax. In that case, you simply list the tables in the FROM
clause and omit the join condition from the WHERE clause.
The two SELECT statements in this figure illustrate how cross joins work.
Both of these statements combine data from the Departments and Employees
tables. For both statements, the result is a table that includes 45 rows. That's
each of the five rows in the Departments table combined with each of the nine
rows in the Employees table. Although this result set is relatively small, you can
imagine how large it would be it the tables included hundreds or thousands of
rows.
As you study these examples, you should realize that cross joins have few
practical uses in a relational database. As a result, you'll rarely, if ever, need to
use one. In tact, you’re most likely to code a cross join by accident if you use the
implicit join syntax and forget to code the join condition in the WHERE clause.
That’s one of the reasons why it's generally considered a good practice to use the
explicit join syntax.
 Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from two or more tables 131

How to code a cross join using the explicit syntax

The explicit syntax for a cross join
SELECT s«l«ctll«t
FROM table! CROSS JOIN table_2

A cross join that uses the explicit syntax

SELECT departMnts .departmant number, department name, employeeid,
last name
FROM departments CROSS JOIN employees
ORDER BY departments.department number
A
depar tmeri t jxrnbet department .name employee jd iast.name

► I Accourtng 2

1 Acoxntng 7 hard?

1 Accounting 4 Hernandez

1 ActanonQ 1 Smith

1 Accounting 9 l oca? io V

(4 5 rows)

How to code a cross join using the implicit syntax

The implicit syntax for a cross join
SELECT aelectlist
FROM table_l, table_2

A cross join that uses the implicit syntax

SELECT departments.department number, department name, employee_id,
last name
FROM departments, employees
ORDER BY departments.department number
depar tmen t _rwtber depar tment_name employee _id last_name A

► Accounting 2

i Acaxntng 7 Hardy

i Accnuntng 4 Hernandez

a Accomtro 1 Smith

i Accounting 9 Locario V

(4 5 rows)

Description
• A cross join joins each row from the first table with each row from the second
table. The result set returned by a cross join is known as a Cartesian product.

Figure 4-12 How to use cross joins

132 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to work with unions

Like a join, a union combines data from two or more tables. Instead of
combining columns from base tables, however, a union combines rows from two
or more result sets.

How to code a union

Figure 4-13 shows how to code a union. To start, you use the UNION
keyword to connect two or more SELECT statements. For this to work, the result
of each SELECT statement must have the same number of columns, and the data
types of the corresponding columns in each table must be compatible.
In this figure. 1 have indented all of the SELECT statements that are
connected by the UNION operator to make it easier to see how this statement
works. However, in a production environment, it’s common to see the SELECT
statements and the UNION operator coded at the same level of indentation.
If you want to sort the result of a union operation, you can code an ORDER
BY clause after the last SELECT statement. In an ORDER BY clause, you must
use the column names that are specified in the first SELECT statement. That’s
because the column names in the first SELECT statement are the ones that are
used in the final result set.
By default, a union operation removes duplicate rows from the result set.
If that's not what you want, you can include the ALL keyword. In most cases,
though, you'll omit this keyword.

A union that combines result sets

from different tables
The example in figure 4-13 shows how to use a union to combine data from
two different tables. In this case, the Active_Invoices table contains invoices with
outstanding balances, and the Paid_Invoices table contains invoices that have
been paid in full. Both of these tables have the same structure as the Invoices
table that's been used in this book so far.
This union operation combines the rows in both tables that have an invoice
date on or after June 1, 2022. Here, the first SELECT statement includes a
column named source that contains a literal value of “Active.’’ Then, the second
SELECT statement includes a column by the same name, but it contains a literal
value of “Paid.” This column is used to indicate which table each row in the
result set came from.
Although this column is assigned the same name in both SELECT state­
ments. you don’t have to use the same name for corresponding columns. That’s
because the corresponding relationships are determined by the order in which the
columns are coded in the SELECT clauses, not by their names. When y ou use
column aliases, though, you'll typically assign the same name to corresponding
columns so the statement is easier to understand.
 Chapter 4 Him to retrieve data from two or more tables 133

The syntax for a union operation

SELECT statement 1
UNION [ALL]
SELECTat at aunt 2
[UNION [ALL]
SELECT_stateiMnt_3]___
[ORDER BY order by list]

A union that combines result sets from two different tables

SELECT 1Activ®' AS source, invoice number, invoice date. Invoice .total
FROM active^Invoices
WHERE invoice date >■ '2022-06-01*
UNION
SELECT 'Paid' AS source, invoice number, invoice_date, invoice total
FROM paid invoices
WHERE invoice date >■ 12022-06-01 1
ORDER BY invoice_total DESC
9DLTCE rn/ojcejitrnber rvace_date tnw»te_tota

> Pad 0*2058 2022-05-08 37966.19

Paid P-0259 2022-04-16 26881.40
Paid 0 2560 2022-05-08 23517.58
Acttve <0318 2022-07-13 2UM2.00
Acuve 2022-04-11 20551.18
Actr/e 0 2436 2022-05-07 10976.06
Pad PO2-3772 2022-06-03 7125.34
Pad 509786 2022-05-31 6940.25
Ow- xn?4¥>-04 76

(2 2 rows)

Description
• A union combines the result sets of two or more SELECT statements into one
result set.
• Each result set must return the same number of columns, and the corresponding
columns in each result set must have compatible data types.
• By default, a union eliminates duplicate rows. If you want to include duplicate
rows, code the ALL keyword.
• The column names in the final result set are taken from the first SELECT clause.
Column aliases assigned by the other SELE(?T clauses have no effect on the final
result set.
• To sort the rows in the final result set. code an ORDER BY clause after the last
SELECT statement. T liis clause must refer to the column names assigned in the
first SELECT clause.

Figure 4-13 How to combine result sets from different tables

134 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

A union that combines result sets

from the same tables
The first example in figure 4-14 shows how to use unions to combine result
sets created from a single table. In this example, rows from the Invoices table
that have a balance due are combined with rows from the same table that are
paid in full. As in the pre\ ious figure, a column named source is added at the
beginning of each result set. I'hat way. the final result set indicates whether each
invoice is active or paid.
The second example shows how to use unions to combine result sets created
from the same tw o tables after they have been joined. Here, each SELECT
statement joins data from the Invoices and Vendors tables. The first SELECT
statement retrieves invoices with totals greater than $10,000.1 hen. it calculates
a payment of 33% of the invoice total. The two other SELECT statements are
similar. The second one retrieves invoices with totals between $500 and $10,000
and calculates a 50% payment. And the third one retrieves invoices with totals
less than S500 and sets the payment amount at 100% of the total. Although
this isn't the most practical example, it helps illustrate the flexibility of union
operations.
In both of these examples, the same column aliases are assigned in each
SELECT statement. Although the aliases in the second and third SELECT state­
ments are optional, they make the query easier to read. In particular, they make
it easy to see that the three SELECT statements have the same number and types
of columns.
 Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from two or more tables 135

A union that combines result sets from a single table

SELECT "Active1 AS source, invoicinumber, invoice date, invoice total
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice total - paymenttotal - credittotal > 0
UNION
SELECT "Paid1 AS source, invoice number, invoicedate, invoicetotal
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice-total - payment.total - credittotal <■ 0
ORDER BY invoice total DESC
source r.oce_r_rrbe-' nvace_date rrvo*ce_total A

Pad 0-2058 2022-05-28 37966.19

Pad P-0259 2022-07*19 26881 40
Pae 0-2C60 2022-07-24 23517.58
Pad <40318 2022-06-01 21842.00
Active P-0608 2022-07-23 20551 18
Active 0-2436 2022-07-31 10976.06
Pad P02-3772 2022-05-21 7125.34
Pad 509786 2022-06-18 6940.25
V
ACT' K

(114 rows)

A union that combines result sets from the same two tables
SELECT invoice number, vendor name, "33Jt Payment1 AS payment.type,
invoice total AS total, invoice.total * 0.333 AS payment
FROM invoices JOIN vendors
ON invoices.vendor id ■ vendors.vendor id
WHERE invoicetotal > 10000
UNION
SELECT invoice number, vendor name, '50^ Payment1 AS payment.type,
invoicetotal AS total, invoice.total * 0.5 AS payment
FROM invoices JOIN vendors
ON invoices.vendor.id ■ vendors.vendor id
WHERE invoice total BETWEEN 500 AND 10000
UNION
SELECT invoice number, vendor name, "Full amount" AS payment type,
invoice.total AS total, invoice.total AS payment
FROM invoices JOIN vendors
ON invoices.vendor.id ■ vendors.vendor.id
WHERE invoice total < 500
ORDER BY payment.type, vendor name, invoice number
A
nvacejiunber vendor _name pa mnent-type tota payment

40318 Data Reproducbors Corp 33% Payment 21842.00 7273.38600

0-20 58 Maloy Lithographing Inc 33% Payment 37966.19 12642.74127
0-2060 Maloy bthogr spring Inc 33% Payment 23517 58 7831.35414
0-2436 Maloy Lithographing Inc 33% Payment 10976.06 3655.02798
P-0259 Mafoy Lithographing Inc 33% Payment 26881 43 8951.50620
P-0608 Maloy dthograpnng Inc 33% Payment 20551 18 6843.54294
509786 Be»tekvnann Industry Svcs. Inc 50% Payment 6940.25 3470.12500
587056 Cahners Pubtehng Company 50% Payment 2184.50 1092.25000
TA 7447 7411 nn 111 A QYWL ,
V
—
(114 rows)

Figure 4-14 How to combine result sets from the same tables
136 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

A union that simulates a full outer join

A full outerjoin returns unmatched rows from both the left and right tables.
Although MySQL doesn't provide a keyword for coding a full outer join, you
can simulate a full outer join by coding a union that combines the result sets for
a left outer join and a right outer join as shown in figure 4-15.
The example in this figure uses the UNION keyword to combine the result
sets for the left and right outer joins shown in figure 4-9. As a result, this
example returns all the row s from the Departments and Employees tables even if
the rows don't have matching columns in the other table.
To make it easier to identify the unmatched row s. this statement includes
the department_number column from both tables. 1 his shows that two rows in
the Employees table don't have matching rows in the Departments table, and
it shows that one row in the Departments table doesn't have a matching row in
the Employees table. In other words, two employees haven't been assigned to a
department, and one department doesn't have any employees.
 Chapter 4 How to retrieve data from two or more tables 137

A union that simulates a full outer join

SELECT department name AS deptname, d.department number AS d deptno,
e.department number AS e dept no, last, name
FROM departments d
LEFT JOIN employees e
ON d.department number ® e.department, number
UNION
SELECT departmentname AS dept.name, d.department number AS ddeptno,
e.department number AS e dept no, last name
FROM departments d
RIGHT JOIN employees e
ON d.department number ■ e.department number
ORDER BY dept name
dept_name d_dept_no e_dept_no iast_name
k CTI
6 Watson
Erg csn 6 Locano
Accocrtng i 1 Hernandez
Man ten an re 5 5 Hardy
rcii czn
Operations 3
Payroll 2 2 Smith
Payroi 2 2 Smoman
Payrol 2 2 Aaronsen
Personnel 4 4 Jones
Personnel 4 4 O'Leary

(10 rows)

Description
• When you use a full outer join, the result set includes all the rows from both tables.
• MySQL doesn’t provide a keyword for full outer joins, but you can simulate a full
outer join by using the L’NION keyword to combine the result sets from a left outer
join and a right outer join.

Figure 4-15 How to simulate a full outer join

138 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

Perspective
In this chapter, you learned a variety of techniques for combining data
from two or more tables into a single result set. In particular, you learned how
to use the explicit syntax to code inner joins. Of all the techniques presented in
this chapter, this is the one you'll use most often. So you'll want to be sure you
understand it thoroughly before you go on.

Terms
join implicit syntax
join condition outer join
inner join left outer join
ad hoc relationship right outer join
qualified column name equijoin
explicit syntax natural join
SQL-92 syntax cross join
table alias Cartesian product
schema union
self-join full outer join

Exercises
I. Write a SELECT statement that returns all columns from the Vendors table
inner-joined with all columns from the Invoices table. This should return 114
rows. Hint: You can use an asterisk (*) to select the columns from both tables.
2. Write a SELECT statement that returns these four columns:
vendor_name The vendor_name column from the Vendors table
invoice_number The invoicc_number column from the Invoices table
invoice_date The invoice_date column from the Invoices table
balance.due The invoice_total column minus the payment_total
and credit_total columns from the Invoices table
Use these aliases for the tables: v for Vendors and i tor Invoices.
Return one row for each invoice with a nonzero balance. This should return
11 rows.
Sort the result set by vendor_name in ascending order.
3. Write a SELECT statement that returns these three columns:
vendor_name The vendor_name column from the Vendors table
default_account The default_account_number column from the
Vendors table
description The account-description column from the
(ieneral_Ledger_Accounts table
Return one row tor each vendor. This should return 122 rows.
Sort the result set by account_description and then by vendor_name.
 Chapter 4 Hoc to retrieve data from two or more tables 139

4. Write a SELECT statement that returns these five columns:

vendorname The vendor_name column from the Vendors table
invoice_date The invoice_date column from the Invoices table
invoice_number The invoice_number column from the Invoices table
li_sequence The invoice_sequence column from the
lnvoice_Lme_Items table
h_amount The lme_item_amount column from the
lnvoice_Line_Items table
Use aliases for the tables. This should return 118 rows.
Sort the final result set by vendor_name, invoice_date, invoice_number, and
i nvoice._sequence.
5. Write a SELECT statement that returns three columns:
vendor_id The vendor_id column from the Vendors table
vendor_name The vendor_name column from the Vendors table
contact_name A concatenation of the vendor_contact_first_name
and vendor_contact_last_name columns with a space
between
Return one row for each vendor whose contact has the same last name as
another vendor's contact. This should return 2 rows. Hint: Use a self-join to
check that the vendorjd columns aren't equal but the
vendor_contact_last_name columns are equal.
Sort the result set by vendor_contact_last_name.
6. Write a SELECT statement that returns these three columns:
account_number The account_number column from the
Gencral_Ledger_Accounts table
account_description The account_descnption column from the
General_Ledgei_Accounts table
invoice_id The invoice_id column from the
lnvoice_Line_Items table

Return one row for each account number that has never been used. This
should return 54 rows. Hint: Use an outer join and only return rows where the
invoice_id column contains a null value.
Remove the invoice_id column from the SELECT clause.
Sort the final result set by the account_number column.
7. Use the UNION operator to generate a result set consisting of two columns
from the Vendors table: vendor_name and vendor_state. It the vendor is in
California, the vendor_state value should be ‘*CA”; otherwise, the
vendor_state value should be ‘’Outside CA.” Sort the final result set by
vendor_name.
 5

How to insert, update,

and delete data
In the last two chapters, you learned how to code the SELECT statement to
retrieve and summarize data. Now. you’ll learn how to code the INSERT,
UPDATE, and DELETE statements to modify the data in a table. When you're
done with this chapter, you’ll know how to code the four statements that are
used every day by professional application developers.
As you read this chapter, keep in mind that by default, MySQL automati­
cally commits changes to the database immediately af ter each INSERT.
UPDATE, or DELETE statement is executed. Usually, that's what you want.
If it isn’t, you can refer to chapter 14 to leam how to turn off auto-commr
mode.

How to create test tables................. ........................... ............ 142

How to create the tables for this book........................................................... 142
How to create a copy of a table......................................................................... 142
How to insert now rows.......... .............................................144
Howto insert a single row................................................. 144
Howto insert multiple rows.................................................. 144
Howto insert default values and null values................................................... 14b
Howto use a subquery in an INSERT statement........................................... 148
How to update existing rows........................... —... .......... 150
HoW to update rows........................................................................................... 150
How to use a subquery in an UPDATE statement............. ........ 152
How to delete existing rows..................................... 154
How to delete rows..............................................................................................154
How to use a subquery in a DELETE statement............................................ 154
Perspective................................................................... 156
142 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to create test tables

Before you begin experimenting with INSERT. UPDATE. and DELETE
statements, you need to make sure that your experimentation won't affect “live"
data that's used by other people at your business or school.

How to create the tables for this book

If you're only working with the tables for this book, you can use the proce­
dure shown in appendix A (Windows) or B (macOS) to create the tables for this
book. Then, you can experiment all you want without worrying about how much
you change these tables. If you ever want to restore these tables to their original
state, you can use the procedure shown in the appendix to do that.

How to create a copy off a table

If you're working with tables that are running on a server that's available
from your business or school, it's usually a good idea to create a copy of some
or all of a table before you do any testing. To do that, you can use the CREATE
TABLE AS statement w ith a SELECT statement as shown in figure 5-1 When
you use this technique, the result set that's defined by the SELECT statement
is copied into a new table. Then, you can experiment all you want with the test
table and delete it when you're done.
When you use this technique to create tables. MySQL only copies the
column definitions and data. In other words, MySQL doesn't retain other parts
of the column definitions such as primary keys, foreign keys, and indexes. As
a result, when you experiment with copied tables, you may get different results
than you would get with the original tables. Still, this is usually preferable to
experimenting with live data.
The examples in this figure show how to use the CREATE TABLE AS
statement. Here, the first example copies all of the columns from all of the
rows in the Invoices table into a new table named hivoices_Copy. The second
example copies all of the columns in the Invoices table into a new' table named
Old_ Invoices, but only for rows where the balance due is zero. And the third
example creates a table that contains summary data from the Invoices table.
When you're done experimenting with test tables, you can use the DROP
TABLE statement that's shown rn this figure to delete any tables you don't need
anymore. In this figure, for instance, the fourth example shows how to drop the
Old_lnvoices table.
 Chapter 5 How to insert, update, and delete data 143

The syntax of the CREATE TABLE AS statement

CREATE TABLE table_name AS salect_statement

Create a complete copy of the Invoices table

CREATE TABLE invoiceB_copy AS
SELECT ♦
FROM invoices

Create a partial copy of the Invoices table

CREATE TABLE old invoices AS
SELECT *
FROM invoices
WHERE invoicetotal - payment_total - credittotal ■ 0

Create a table with summary rows from the Invoices table

CREATE TABLE vendor balances AS
SELECT vendor id, SUM(invoicetotal) AS sum of invoices
FROM invoices
WHERE (invoicetotal - payment-total - credittotal) <> 0
GROUP BY vendor id

Delete a table
DROP TABLE old invoices

Description
• You can use the CREATE TABLE AS statement to create a new table based on the
result set defined by a SELECT statement.
• Each column name in the SELECT clause must be unique. If you use a calculated
value in the select list, you must name the column.
• You can code the other clauses of the SELECT statement just as you would for any
other SELECT statement including grouping, aggregates, joins, and subqueries.
• If you code the CREATE TABLE AS statement as shown above, the table you
name must not exist. If it does, you must delete the table by using the DROP
TABLE statement before you execute the CREATE TABLE AS statement.
• When you use the CREATE TABLE AS statement to create a table, only the
column definitions and data are copied. Definitions of primary keys, foreign keys,
indexes, and so on are not included in the new table.

Figure 5-1 How to create a table from a SELECT statement

144 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to insert new rows

lb add rows to a table, you use the INSERT statement. In most cases, you
use this statement to add a single row to a table. However, you can also use it to
add mult pie rows to a table.

How to insert a single row

Figure 5-2 starts by showing how to code INSERT statements that insert
a single row. Because the examples in this figure insert rows into the Invoices
table, this figure reviews the column definitions for this table. Hus shows the
sequence of the columns in the table and which columns have default values or
allow null values. It also shows that invoice_id is an auto increment column.
When you code an INSERT statement, you name the table in the INSERT
clause, followed by an optional list of columns. Then, you list the values to be
inserted in the VALUES clause.
The first two examples in this figure illustrate how this works. The first
example doesn't include a column list. Because of that, the VALUES clause must
include a value for every column in the table, and those values must be listed
in the same sequence that the columns appear in the table. That way. MySQL
knows which value to assign to which column. Notice that this statement uses
the NULL keyword to assign a null value to the payment_date column. You’ll
learn more about using this keyword in the next figure.
The second INSERT statement includes a column list. However, this list
doesn't include four columns. It doesn't include the invoice_id column since
MySQL automatically increments this column if a value isn't specified. It
doesn't include the payment_total and credit_total columns since these columns
provide a default value of 0. And it doesn't include the payment_date column
since this column allows a null value. In addition, the columns aren't listed in the
same sequence as the columns in the table. When you include a list of columns,
you can code the columns in any sequence you like. Then, you just need to be
sure you code the values in the VALUES clause in the same sequence.
When you specify the values for the columns to be inserted, you must be
sure that those values are compatible with the data types of the columns. For
example, you must enclose literal values for dates and strings within quotes.
However, the quotes are optional when you code literal values for numbers.
Either way, if any of the values aren't compatible with the corresponding column
data types. MySQL returns an error and the row isn't inserted.

How to insert multiple rows

The third example in figure 5-2 shows how to insert multiple rows. When
you do that, you follow the same rules as you do for inserting a single row. Then,
you separate each list of values with a comma. This technique is often useful
when you need to create a script that inserts data into a database.
 Chapter 5 How to insert, update, and delete data 145

The syntax of the INSERT statement

INSERT [INTO] table name [(column list)]
VALUES (expression 1[, expression 2]...)[,
(expression![, expressions]...)]...

The column definitions for the Invoices table

invoice id I NT NOT NULL AUTO INCREMENT.
vendor id I NT NOT NULL,
invoice_number VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
invoice_date DATE NOT NULL,
invoice total DECIMAL (9,2) NOT NULL,
payment_total DECIMAL(9,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
credittotal DECIMAL(9,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
terms_id I NT NOT NULL,
invoice_due_date DATE NOT NULL,
payment_ dat e DATE

Insert a single row without using a column list

INSERT INTO invoices VALUES
(115, 97, ■456789', '2022-08-01', 8344.50, 0, 0, 1, '2022-08-31', NULL)
(1 row affected)

Insert a single row using a column list

INSERT INTO invoices
(vendor id, invoice number, invoice total, terms id, invoice date,
invoicedue date)
VALUES
(97, '456789', 8344.50, 1, '2022-08-01', '2022-08-31')
(1 row affected)

Insert multiple rows

INSERT INTO invoices VALUES
(116, 97, '456701', '2022-08-02', 270.50, 0, 0, 1, *2022-09-01', NULL),
(117, 97, *456791', *2022-08-03', 4390.00, 0, 0, 1, *2022-09-02', NULL),
(118, 97, *456792', *2022-08-03', 565.60, 0, 0, 1, '2022-09-02', NULL)
(3 rows affected)

Description
• You use the INSERT statement to add one or more rows to a table.
• In the INSERT clause, you specify the name of the table that you want to add a row
to. along with an optional column list. The INTO keyword is also optional.
• In the VALUES clause, you specify the values to be inserted. If you don't include a
column list in the INSERT clause, you must specify the column values in the same
order as in the table, and you must code a value for each column. If you include a
column list, you must specify the column values in the same order as in the column
list, and you can omit columns that have default values, accept null values, or are
automatically generated.
• To insert a null value into a column, you can use the NULL keyword. To insert a
default value or to have MySQL generate a value for an auto increment column,
you can use the DEFAULT keyword.

Figure 5-2 How to insert rows

146 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to insert default values and null values

If a column allows null values, you can use the INSERT statement to insert
a null value into that column. Similarly, if a column is defined with a default
value, you can use the INSERT statement to insert that value. Finally, if a
column is defined as an auto increment column, you can have MySQL generate
a value for the column. 'I he technique you use depends on whether the INSERT
statement includes a column list, as shown by the examples in figure 5-3.
All of these INSERT statements use a table named Color_Sample from
the EX database. This table contains the three columns shown at the top of this
figure The first column, color_id, is defined so MySQL automatically generates
its value whenever necessary. The second column. color_number. is defined with
a default value of 0. And the third column. color_name, is defined so it allows
null values.
The first two statements show how to assign an automatically incremented
value, a default value, or a null value using a column list. To do that, you omit
the column from the list. In the first statement, for example, the column list
names only the color_number column. As a result, MySQL automatically
assigns a value of 1 to the color_id column (assuming the table doesn’t contain
any rows) and a null value to the color_name column. Similarly, in the second
statement, the column list names only the color_name column. As a result.
MySQL assigns a value of 2 to the color_id column and a value of 0 to the
coior_number column.
The next three statements show how to assign an automatically incremented,
default, or null value to a column without including a column list. To do that,
you can use the DEFAULT and NULL keywords. For example, the third state­
ment specifies a value for the color_name column, but uses the DEFAULT
keyword for the color_id and color_number columns. As a result. MySQL
assigns an automatically incremented value of 3 to the color_id column and a
default value of 0 to the color_number column. The fourth statement uses the
NULL key word to assign a null value to the color_name column. Finally, the
fifth statement shows what happens if you use the DEFAULT keyword for the
first two columns and the NULL keyword for the third column.
 Chapter 5 How to insert, update, and delete data 147

The column definitions for the Color Sample table

color_id I NT NOT NULL AUTO INCREMENT ,
color number INT NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
color name VARCHAR(50)

Five INSERT statements for the Color Sample table

INSERT INTO color sample (color number)
VALUES (606)

INSERT INTO color.sample (color name)

VALUES (’Yellow1)

INSERT INTO color_sample

VALUES (DEFAULT t DEFAULT t ■Orange')

INSERT INTO color_sample

VALUES (DEFAULT, 808, NULL)

INSERT INTO color.sample

VALUES (DEFAULT, DEFAULT, NULL)

The Color Sample table after the rows have been inserted
color -number color _name A
mj
► 1 606
2 0 YetCVJ

3 0 Orange
4 8G8
5 E331 W
0

Description
• If a column is defined so it allows null values, you can use the NULL keyword in
the list of values to insert a null value into that column.
• If a column is defined with a default value, you can use the DEFAULT keyword in
the list of values to insert the default value for that column.
• If a column is defined as an auto increment column, you can use the DEFAULT
keyword in the list of values to have MySQL generate the value for the column.
• If you include a column list, you can omit columns w ith default values and null
values. Then, the default value or null value is assigned automatically. You can also
omit an auto increment column. Then. MySQL generates the value for the column.

Figure 5-3 How to insert default values and null values

148 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use a subquery in an INSERT statement

A subquary is just a SELECT statement that's coded within another SQL
statement. Since you already know how to code SELECT statements, you
shouldn't have much trouble coding subquencs as described in this chapter.
Then, in chapter 7, you'll learn more about coding subqueries.
Figure 5-4 shows how to code a subquery in an INSERT statement. Here,
both examples use a SELECT statement instead of a VALL'ES clause. As a
result, the subquery specifies the values for the new row s by selecting these
values from another table.
Both examples retrieve rows from the Invoices table and insert them into a
table named Invoice_Archive. This table is defined with the same columns as the
Invoices table. However, the invoice_id column isn't defined as an auto incre­
ment column, and the payment_total and credit_total columns aren't defined
w ith default values. As a result, you must include values for these columns.
The first example shows how you can use a subquery in an INSERT state­
ment without a column list. In tins example, the SELECT clause of the subquery
uses an asterisk to retrieve all the columns in the Invoices table. Then, after
MySQL applies the search condition in the WHERE clause, all the rows in the
result set are inserted into the Invoice_Archive table.
1’he second example shows how you can use a subquery in an INSERT state­
ment with a column list. Just as when you use the VALL’ES clause, you can list
the columns in any sequence. However, the columns must be listed in the same
sequence in the SELECT clause of the subquery. In addition, you can omit auto
increment columns, columns that are defined w ith default values, and columns
that allow null values.
When you code a subquery in an INSERT statement, you don't code paren­
theses around the SELECT statement. That’s because the SELECT statement is
coded instead of the VALLES clause. However, w hen you code a subquery in
the WHERE clause of an UPDATE or INSERT statement, you do code paren­
theses around the SELECT statement.
Before you execute an INSERT statement that uses a subquery, you should
make sure that the rows and columns retrieved by the subquery are the ones
you want to insert. To do that, you can execute the SELECT statement by itself.
Then, wrhen you’re sure it retrieves the correct data, you can add the INSERT
clause to insert the rows into another table.
 Chapter 5 How to insert, update, and delete data 149

The syntax for using a subquery to insert one or more rows

INSERT [INTO] table name [(column list)] select statement

Insert paid invoices into the lnvoice_Archive table

INSERT INTO invoice archive
SELECT *
FROM invoices
WHERE invoicetotal - payment total - credittotal ■ 0
(103 rows affected)

The same statement with a column list

INSERT INTO invoice archive
<invoice_idf vendor id, invoice number, invoicetotal, credittotal,
paymenttotal, terms id, invoice date, invoice,due date)
SELECT
invoice_id, vendorid, invoice number, invoicetotal, credit total,
payment total, termaid, invoice date, invoicedue date
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice_total - paymenttotal - credittotal ■ 0
(103 rows affected)

Description
• A subquttry is a SELECT statement that's coded witinn another SQL statement.
• To insert rows selected from one oi more tables into another table, you can code a
subquery m place of the VALUES clause. Then. MySQL inserts the rows returned
by the subquery into the target table. For this to work, the target table must already
exist.
• The rules for working with a column list are the same as the\ are for any INSERT
statement.

Figure 5-4 How to use a subquery in an INSERT statement

150 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to update existing rows

To modify the data in one or more rows of a table, you use the UPDATE
statement. Although most of the UPDATE statements you code will perform
simple updates, you can also code more complex UPDATE statements that
include subqueries if necessary.

How to update rows

Figure 5-5 presents the syntax of the UPDATE statement. Most UPDATE
statements include all three of the clauses shown here. The UPDATE clause
names the table to be updated. The SET clause names the columns to be updated
and the values to be assigned to those columns. And the WHERE clause speci­
fies the condition a row must meet to be updated.
When you use MySQI. Workbench, you should realize that it will execute
an UPDATE statement only if the condition on the WHERE clause refers to a
primary or foreign key. That's because, by default. Workbench runs in “safe
update” mode. It that's not what you want, you can turn safe update mode off as
described in this figure. For example, because the WHERE clauses in the first
and third UPDATE statements in this figure refer to the invoice_number column,
which isn't a key column, you have to turn safe update mode off to execute
them.
The first UPDATE statement modifies the values of two columns in the
Invoices table: payment_date and payment_total. Since the WHERE clause tn
this statement identifies a single row, MySQL only updates the columns in that
row. In this example, the values for the columns are coded as a literal values. You
should realize, though, that you can assign any valid expression to a column as
long as it evaluates to a value that's compatible with the data type of the column.
You can also use the NULL keyword to assign a null value to a column that
allows nulls, and you can use the DEFAULT keyword to assign the default value
to a column that's defined with a default value.
The second UPDATE statement modifies a single column in the Invoices
table. terms_id. This time, however, the WHERE clause specifies that all the
rows for vendor 95 should be updated. Since this vendor has six rows in the
Invoices table, MySQL updates all six rows.
The third UPDATE statement shows how you can use an expression to
assign a value to a column. In this case, the expression increases the value of
the credit_total column by 100. Like the first UPDATE statement, this statement
updates a single row.
Before you execute an UPDATE statement, you may want to make sure that
you’ve selected the correct rows. To do that, you can code a SELECT statement
with the same search condition. Then, if the SELECT statement returns the
correct rows, you can copy its WHERE clause into your UPDATE statement.
 Chapter 5 How to insert, update, and delete data 151

The syntax of the UPDATE statement

UPDATE table name
SET column name 1 ■ expression 1[, column name 2 = expression 2]...
[WHERE search_condition]

Update two columns for a single row

UPDATE invoices
SET payment date ■ '2022-09-21',
payment-total ■ 19351.18
WHERE invoice_number ■ 197/5221
(1 row affected)

Update one column for multiple rows

UPDATE invoices
SET terms id ■ 1
WHERE vendor id = 95
(6 rows affected)

Update one column for one row

UPDATE invoices
SET credit_total ■ credit-total ♦ 100
WHERE invoice number ■ 197/522*
(1 row affected)

Description
• You use the UPDATE statement to modify one or more rows in a table.
• In the SET clause, you name each column and its new value. You can specify the
value for a column as a literal or an expression.
• In the WHERE clause, you can specify the conditions that must be met for a row to
be updated.
• You can use the DEFAULT and NULL keywords to specify default and null values.
• By default. MySQL Workbench runs in safe update mode. That prevents you from
updating rows if the WHERE clause is omitted or doesn't refer to a primarj key or
foreign key column.
• To get around the restrictions of safe update mode, you can turn this mode off. To
do that, select Edit-> Preferences. select the SQL Editor node, uncheck the box next
to ‘Safe Updates”, and restart MySQL Workbench.

Warning
• If you tum off safe update mode and omit the WHERE clause in an UPDATE state­
ment. all rows in the table will be updated.

Figure 5-5 How to update rows

152 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to use a subquery in an UPDATE statement

When you code the search condition on the WHERE clause of an UPDATE
statement, you can include a subquery to identify the rows to be updated.
Figure 5-6 presents two statements that illustrate how you do that.
In the first statement, a subquery is used in the W HERE clause to identify
the invoices to be updated. This subquery returns the vendor_id value for the
vendor in the Vendors table with the name “Pacific Bell.'* Then. all the invoices
with that vendorid value are updated.
The second UPDATE statement also uses a subquery in the WHERE clause.
This subquery returns a list of the vendor Jd values for all vendors in California.
Arizona, and Nevada. Then, the IN operator is used to update all the invoices
with vendor_id values in that list. Although this subquery returns 80 vendors,
many of these vendors don’t have invoices. As a result, the UPDATE statement
only affects 40 invoices.
To execute the second UPDATE statement from MySQL Workbench, you
have to tum safe update mode off. That's because the WHERE clause in this
statement uses the IN operator.
 Chapter 5 How to insert, update, and delete data 153

Update all invoices for a vendor

UPDATE invoices
SET terms id = 1
WHERE vendor_id -
(SELECT vendor_id
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor name ® "Pacific Bell1)
(6 rows affected)

Update the terms for all invoices for vendors in three states
UPDATE invoices
SET terms id ■ 1
WHERE vendorid IN
(SELECT vendorid
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor_state IN ('CA', ‘AZ1, "NV"))
(40 rows affected)

Description
• You can code a subquery in the W1IERE clause of an UPDATE statement to
provide one or more values used in the search condition.

Figure 5-6 How to use a subquery in an UPDATE statement

154 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

How to delete existing rows

lb delete one or more rows from a table, you use the DELETE statement. If
necessary, you can use subqueries in a DELETE statement to help identify the
rows to be deleted.

How to delete rows

Figure 5-7 presents the syntax of the DELETE statement along with four
examples that show how it works. To start, the DELETE clause specifies the
name of the table and must include the KROM keyword.
The WHERE clause specifies a search condition that identities the rows to
be deleted. Although this clause is optional, you'll almost always include it. If
you don't, you could inadvertently delete all of the row s in the table. Fortunately,
MySQL Workbench runs in safe update mode by default, which prevents a
DELETE statement from executing if it doesn't include a WHFiRE clause that
refers to a primary key or foreign key column.
If you want to make sure that you've selected the correct rows before you
delete them, you can code a SELECT statement that retrieves those rows. Then,
once you’re sure the SELECT statement is retrieving the correct rows, you can
conveit the SELECT statement to a DELETE statement.
The first DELETE statement in this figure deletes a single row from the
General_Ledger_Accounts table. To do that, it specifies the account_number
value of the row to be deleted in the WHERE clause. The second DELETE
statement deletes a single row from the Invoice_Line_Items table. To do that,
it specifies the invoice_id value and the invoice_sequence value of the row to
be deleted in the WHERE clause. Finally, the third DELETE statement deletes
four rows from the lnvoice_Line_Iterns table. To do that, it specifies 12 as the
invoice_id value of the row to be deleted. Since the invoice for this ID has four
line items, this deletes all four line items.
If you try to delete a row that has one or more related rows in another table,
MySQL typically returns an error message and doesn’t delete the row. For
example. MySQL returns an error message if you attempt to delete a row from
the Vendors table that has related rows in the Invoices table. Usually, that's what
you want.

How to use a subquery in a DELETE statement

If you want to delete a row from the Vendors table that has related rows in
the Invoices table, you need to stall by deleting the rows in the
Invoice_Line_Items table for the vendor’s invoices. To do that, you can use
a subquery as shown in the fourth example in figure 5-7.1 lere. the subquery
selects all the invoice IDs for the vendor from the Invoices table. Then, the
DELETE statement deletes all the invoice line items with those IDs.
 Chapter 5 How to insert, update, and delete data 155

The syntax of the DELETE statement

DELETE FROM table nun
[WHERE search condition]

Delete one row

DELETE FROM general ledger accounts
WHERE account number ■ 306
(1 row affected)

Delete one row using a compound condition

DELETE FROM invoice_line_items
WHERE invoice_id ■ 78 AND invoice_sequence ■ 2
(1 row affected)

Delete multiple rows

DELETE FROM invoiceline_iterns
WHERE invoiceid - 12
(4 rows affected)

Use a subquery in a DELETE statement

DELETE FROM invoice lineiterns
WHERE invoice_id IN
(SELECT invoice_id
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor id ■ 115)
(4 rows affected)

Description
• You can use the DELETE statement to delete one or more rows from the table you
name in the DELETE clause.
• You specify the conditions that must be met for a row to be deleted in the WHERE
clause.
• You can use a subquery w ithin the WHERE clause.
• A foreign key constraint may prevent you from deleting a row In that case, you can
only delete the row if you delete all child rows for that row first.
• By default. MySQL Workbench runs in safe update mode. That prevents you from
deleting rows it the WHERE clause is omitted or doesn't refer to a primary key or
foreign key column. For information on turning safe update mode off. see figure
5-5.

Warning
• If you turn safe update mode off and omit the WHERE clause from a DELETE
statement, all the rows in the table w ill be deleted.

Figure 5-7 How to delete rows

156 Section 1 An introduction to MySQL

Perspective
In this chapter, you learned how to use the INSERT. UPDATE, and
DELETE statements to modify the data in a database. In chapters 10 and 11.
you’ll learn more about how table definitions can affect the way these state­
ments work. And in chapter 14. you’ll leam more about executing groups of
INSERT. UPDATE, and DELETE statements as a single transaction.

Term
subquery

Exercises
To test whether a table has been modified correctly as you do these exercises,
you can write and run an appropriate SELECT statement. Or. when you're
using MySQL Workbench, you can right-click on a table name in the Navigator
window and select Select Rows - Limit 1000 to display the data for the table in
a Result tab. To refresh the data in this tab after modifying the table data, click
the Refresh button in the toolbar at the top of the tab.
I. Write an INSERT statement that adds this row to the Terms table:
terms_id: 6
terms_description: Net due 120 days
tet ms_due_days: 120
Use MySQL Workbench to review the column definitions for the Terms table,
and include a column list with the required columns in the INSERT statement.
2. Wr ite an UPDATE statement that modifies the row you just added to the
Terms table. I hi* statement should change the terms description column to
“Net due 125 days”, and it should change the terms_due_days column to 125.
3. Write a DELETE statement that deletes the row you added to the Terms table
in exercise I
4. Write an INSERT statement that adds this row to the Invoices table:
invoice, id. The next automatically generated ID
vendor_id: 32
i nvoice_nu mber: AX-014-027
invoice_date: 8/1/2022
invoice_total: $434.58
payment_total: $0.00
credit_total. $0.00
terms_id: 2
invoice_due_date: 8/31/2022
payment_date: null

Write this statement without using a column list.

 Chapter 5 How to insert, update, and delete data 157

5. Write an INSERT statement that adds these rows to the lnvoice_Line_Items

table:
i nvoice_sequence: 1 2
account_number: 160 527
11 ne_item_amount: SI 80.23 $254.35
j me_item_description: Hard drive Exchange Server update
Set the invoice_id column of these two rows to the invoice ID that was gener­
ated by MySQL for the invoice you added in exercise 4.
6. Write an UPDATE statement that modities the invoice you added in exercise
4. This statement should change the credit_total column so it’s 10% oi the
invoice_total column, and it should change the payment_total column so the
sum of the payment_total and credit_total columns are equal to the
invoice_total column.
7. Write an UPDATE statement that modifies the Vendors table. Change the
default_account_number column to 403 for the vendor with an ID of 44.
8. Write an UPDATE statement that modities the Invoices table. Change the
terms_id column to 2 for each invoice that's for a vendor with a
default_terms_id of 2.
9. Write a DELETE statement that deletes the row that you added to the Invoices
table in exercise 4. When you execute this statement it will produce an error
since the invoice has related rows in the Invoice_Line_Items table. To fix that,
precede the DELETE statement with another DELETE statement that deletes
the hue items for this invoice. (Remember that to code two or more statements
in a script, you must end each statement with a semicolon.)
Section 2

More SQL skills

as you need them
In section I. you learned a professional subset of SQL skills that you can
use to work with data in an existing database. Now, in this section, you
can add to those skills by learning new skills whenever you need them. To
make that possible, each chapter in this section has been designed as an
independent module. As a result, you can read these chapters in whatever
sequence you prefer.
In chapter 6. you'll learn how to summarize the data that you retrieve.
In chapter 7, you’ll learn more about coding subqueries. In chapter 8,
you'll learn more about the types of data that My SQL supports. And
in chapter 9. you'll learn how to use MySQL functions in your SQL
statements.
 6
How to code summary
queries
In this chapter, you'll leam how to code queries that summarize data. For
example, you can use summary queries to report sales totals by vendor or
state. Similarly, you can use summary queries to get a count of the number
of invoices that were processed each day of the month But first, you'll leam
how to use a special type of function called an aggregate function. Aggregate
functions allow you to do jobs like calculate averages, summarize totals, or find
the highest value for a given column, and you'll use them in summary queries.

How to work with aggregate functions................................162

How to code aggregate functions..................................................................... 162
Queries that use aggregate functions............................................................... 164
How to group and summarize data......... ............... 166
How to code the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses........ «..................... .. 166
Queries that use the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses. ........... ... 168
How the HAVING clause compares to the WHERE clause..................... ... 170
How to code compound search conditions...................................................... 172
How to use the WITH ROLLUP operator...................................................... 174
How to use the GROUPING function....................................................... 176
How to code aggregate window functions.........................180
How the aggregate window functions work.................................................... 180
How to use frames ..................................................................... ................. 182
How to use named windows..............................................................................186
Perspective....................................................................... ..188
162 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to work with aggregate functions

In chapter 3, you learned how to use scalar functions, which operate on a
single value and return a single value. In this chapter, you'll learn how to use
aggregate functions, which operate on a series of values and return a single
summary value. Because aggregate functions typically operate on the values
in columns, they are sometimes referred to as column functions. A query that
contains one or more aggregate functions is typically referred to as a summary
query.

How to code aggregate functions

Figure 6-1 presents the syntax of the most common aggregate functions.
Most of these functions operate on an expression. Typically, the expression is
just a column name. For example, you could get the average of all values in the
invoice_total column like this:
AVG (invoice total)
However, an expression can also be more complex. In this figure, for example,
the expression that’s coded for the SUM function calculates the balance due of
an invoice using the |invoice_total, paymenl_total. and credit_total columns. The
result is a single value that represents the total amount due for all the selected
invoices. In this case, the WHERE clause selects only those invoices with a
balance due.
When you use these functions, you can also code the ALL or DISTINCT
keyword. 'Hie ALL keyword is the default, which means that all values except
null values are included m the calculation. In other words, null values are
excluded from these functions.
If you don't want duplicate values included, you can code the DISTINCT
keyword. In most cases, you'll use DISTINCT only with the COUNT function
as shown in the next figure. You won't use it with MIN or MAX because it has
no effect on those functions. And it doesn’t usually make sense to use it with the
AVG and SUM functions.
Unlike the other aggregate functions, you can’t use the ALL or DISTINCT
keywords or an expression with COl'NTt*). Instead, you code this function
exactly as shown in the syntax. The value returned by this function is the number
of rows in the base table that satisfy the search condition of the query, including
rows with null values. In this figure, for example, the COUNT(*) function in the
query indicates that the Invoices table contains 11 invoices with a balance due.
 Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 163

The syntax of some common aggregate functions

Function syntax Result
AVG([ALL | DISTINCT] expression) The average of the non-null values in the expression.
SUM([ALL I DISTINCT] expression) The total of the non-null values in the expression.
MINI[ALL|DISTINCT] expression) The lowest non-null value in the expression.
max( [AIJ«|DISTINCT] expression) The highest non null value in the expression.
COUNT(FALL|DISTINCT] expression) The number of non-null values in the expression.
COUNT(*) The number of rows selected by the query.

A summary query that counts unpaid invoices and calculates the total due
SELECT COUNT(*) AS number_of invoices,
SUM(invoice_total - payment_totai - credittotal) AS total due
FROM invoices
WHERE invoicetotal - payment total - credittotal > 0
number _of_nvo*ces toti_due

» 11 32020.42

Description
• Aggregate functions, also called column functions, perform a calculation on the
values in a set of selected rows.
• A summary query is a SELECT statement that includes one or more aggregate
functions.
• The expression you specify for the AVG and SUM functions must result in a
numeric value. The expression for the MIN. MAX. and COUNT functions can
result in a numeric, date, or string value.
• By default, all values are included in the calculation regardless of whether they’re
duplicated. If you want to omif duplicate values, code the DISTINCT keyword.
This keyword is typically used with the COUNT function.
• All of the aggregate functions except for COUNTt*) ignore null values.

Figure 6-1 How to code aggregate functions

164 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Queries that use aggregate functions

This figure presents four more queries that use aggregate functions. 1 he
first two queues use the COUNT/*) function to count the number of rows in the
Invoices table that satisfy the search condition. In both cases, only those invoices
with invoice dates after 1/1/2022 are included m the count. In addition, the first
query uses the AVG function to calculate the average amount of those invoices
and the SUM function to calculate the total amount of those invoices. In contrast,
the second query uses the MIN and MAX functions to get the minimum and
maximum invoice amounts.
Although the MIN. MAX, and COUNT functions are typically used on
columns that contain numeric data, they can also be used on columns that
contain character or date data. In the third query, for example, they're used
on the vendor_name column in the Vendors table. Here, the MIN function
returns the name of the vendor that's lowest in the sort sequence, the MAX
function returns the name of the vendor that's highest in the sort sequence, and
the COUNT function returns the total number of vendors. Note that since the
vendor_name column can't contain null values, the COUNT/*) function would
have returned the same result.
The fourth query shows how using the DISTINCT keyword can affect
the result of a COUNT function. Here, the first COUNT function uses the
DISTINCT keyword to count the number of vendors that have invoices after
1/1/2022 in the Invoices table. To do that, it looks for distinct values in the
vendor_id column. In contrast, since the second COUNT function doesn't
include the DISTINCT keyword, it counts every invoice that's after 1/1/2022.
Although you could use the COUNT/*) function instead, this example uses
COUNT<vendor_id) to clearly show the difference between coding and not
coding the DISTINCT keyword
With two exceptions, a SELECT clause that contains an aggregate function
can contain only aggregate functions. The first exception is if the column specifi­
cation results in a literal value. This is shown by the first column in the first two
queries in figure 6-2. The second exception is if the query includes a GROUP
BY clause. Then, the SELECT clause can include any columns specified in the
GROUP BY clause as shown in the next two figures.
 Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 165

A summary query that uses the COUNT(*), AVG. and SUM functions
SELECT 'After 1/1/20221 AS selection date,
COUNT (*) AS number ofinvoiceg,
ROUND(AVG(invoice total), 2) AS avg invoice amt,
SUM(invoice total) AS total invoice amt
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice date > 12022-01-01 1
sdectton_date nifnber_ofjn voices avg_rvoce_amt total jnv«e_amt

» After 1/1/2022 114 1879.74 214290.51

A summary query that uses the MIN and MAX functions

SELECT 'After 1/1/20221 AS selection date,
COUNT(*) AS number ofinvoicea,
MAX(invoicetotal) AS highestinvoicetotal,
MIN(invoice total) AS lowest invoicetotal
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice date > 12022-01-01'
selection _date mmbefjofjn voces h^est_nvace_totai towest_nvace_total

» After 1/1/2022 114 37966.19 6.00

A summary query that works on non-numeric columns

SELECT MIN(vendor name) AS first_vendor,
MAX(vendor, name) AS last vendor,
COUNT (vendor name) AS number_of vendors
FROM vendors
number _of_vendors

Abbey Office Fumisnngs Zyita Desgn 122

A summary query that uses the DISTINCT keyword

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT vendor id) AS number of.vendors,
COUNT(vendor id) AS numberofinvoicea,
ROUND(AVG(invoice total), 2) AS avg invoice amt,
SUM(invoice.total) AS total invoice amt
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice date > *2022-01-01'
run-ber jof.vendors number _ofjovocm afvfl_m/oce_amt total _nvoce_amt

34 114 1879.74 214290.51

Description
• To count all of the selected rows, you typically use the COUNT(*) function.
Alternately, you can use the COUNT function with the name of any column that
can't contain null values.
• To count only the rows with unique values in a specified column, you can code
the COUNT function with the DISTINCT keyword followed by the name of the
column.

Figure 6-2 Queries that use aggregate functions

166 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to group and summarize data

Now that you understand how aggregate functions work, you're ready to
learn how to group data and use aggregate functions to summarize the data
m each group. To do that, you can use two clauses of the SELECT statement:
GROUP BY and HAVING.

How to code the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses

Figure 6-3 shows the syntax of the SELECT statement with the GROl'P BY
and HAVING clauses. The GROLT BY clause determines how the selected rows
are grouped, and the HAVING clause determines which groups are included in
the final results. These clauses are coded after the WHERE clause hut before the
ORDER BY clause. That makes sense because the WHERE clause is applied
before the rows are grouped, and the ORDER BY clause is applied after the rows
are grouped.
In the GROUP BY clause, you list one or more columns or expressions
separated by commas. Then, the rows in the result set are grouped by those
columns or expressions in ascending sequence That means that a single row is
returned for each unique set of values in the GROUP BY columns. In this figure,
for instance, the first example groups the results by a single column. In the next
figure, you can see examples that group by multiple columns.
This example calculates the average invoice amount for each vendor who has
invoices in the Invoices table To do that, it uses a GROUP BY clause to group
the invoices by vendor_id. As a result, the AVG function calculates the average
of the invoice_total column for each group rather than for the entire result set.
The example in this figure also includes a HAVING clause. The search
condition in this clause specifies that only those vendors with invoices that
average over S2.OCX) should be included. Note that this condition must be applied
after the rows are grouped and the average for each group has been calculated.
In addition to the AVG function, the SELECT clause includes the vendor_id
column. That’s usually what you want since it shows which average goes with
which group. However, if you don't want to include the columns used in the
GROUP BY clause in She SELECT clause, you don't have to.
In most cases, the SELECT clause for a statement that includes a GROUP
BY clause will only include the columns that are used for grouping, along with
the aggregate functions. However, you can also include expressions that result in
a constant value as well as columns that are functionally dependent on a column
that's used for grouping.
For a column to be functionally dependent on a grouping column, MySQL
must be able to unambiguously determine its value based on the grouping
column This means if the grouping column is the primary key for the table,
you can include any other column in the SELECT clause because MySQL can
always determine the value for those columns. However, if another column
or combination of columns also contains unique, non-null values, then you
 Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 167

The syntax of a SELECT statement with GROUP BY and HAVING clauses

SELECT gelect_list
FROM table source
[WHERE search condition]
[GROUP BY group byliat]
[HAVING search^condition]
(ORDER BY order bylist]

A summary query that calculates the average invoice amount by vendor

SELECT vendor id, ROUND(AVG(invoicetotal), 2) AS average invoice amount
FROM invoices
GROUP BY vendorid
HAVING AVG(invoice_total) > 2000
ORDER BY average_invoice. amount DESC
vendor jd average jnvo«ce_amount

110 23978.48
72 10963.66
MM 7123.34
99 6940.25
119 4901.26
122 2573.33
86 2433.00
1D0 2184.50

(8 rows)

A summary query that includes a functionally dependent column

SELECT vendor_name, vendor state,
ROUND(AVG(invoicetotal), 2) AS average invoice amount
FROM vendors JOIN invoices ON vendors.vendor id ■ invoices.vendor_id
GROUP BY vendor name
HAVING AVG(invoice_total) > 2000
ORDER BY average_invoice. amount DESC

Description
• The GROUP BY clause groups the rows of a result set based on one or more columns or
expressions, lb include two or more columns or expressions, separate them by commas.
• If you include aggregate functions in the SELECT clause, the aggregate is calculated for
each group specified by the GROUP BY clause.
• If you include two or more columns or expressions in the GROUP BY clause, the
results are grouped by the first column, then by the second column if there are any ties,
and so on.
• The HAVING clause specifies a search condition for including a group in the results.
MySQL applies this condition after it groups the rows that satisfy the search condition
in the WHERE clause.
• W hen a SELECT statement includes a GROUP BY clause, the SELECT clause can
include the columns used for grouping, aggregate functions, and expressions that
result in a constant value.
• The SELECT clause can also include columns that are functionally dependent on a
column used for grouping. To he functionally dependent. MySQL must be able to
unambiguously determine the column's value based on the grouping column.

Figure 6-3 How to code the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses

168 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

can group by those columns and include other columns from the table in the
SELECT statement as well.
The second example illustrates how this works. This example gets the
vendor name, vendor state, and the average invoice total for each vendor.
To do that, it joins the Vendors and Invoices table and groups the rows by
vendor_name. Although the vendor_state column isn’t included in the GROUP
BY clause, it can be included in the SELECT clause because MySQL can deter­
mine the value of the vendor_state column based on the vendor_name column.
This is because the vendor name column contains only unique, non-null values.

Queries that use the GROUP BY

and HAVING clauses
Figure 6-4 presents three more queries that group data. The first query in this
figure groups the rows in the Invoices table by vendor_id and returns a count of
the number of invoices for each vendor.
The second query shows how you can group by more than one column.
Here, a join is used to combine the vendor_state and vendor_city columns from
the Vendors table with a count and average of the invoices in the Invoices table.
Because the rows are grouped by both state and city, a row is returned for each
state and city combination.
The third query is identical to the second query except that it includes a
HAVING clause. This clause uses the COUNT function to limit the state and city
groups that are included in the result set to those that have two or more invoices.
In other words, it excludes groups that have only one invoice.
With MySQL 8.0.12 and earlier, the GROUP BY clause sorted the columns
in ascending sequence by default. Then, to change that sequence, you could
code the DESC keyword after the column name in the GROUP BY clause. You
could also code the ASC keyword to make it clear that the rows were sorted in
ascending sequence. And, you could improve the performance of a query by
coding an ORDER BY NULL clause so the result set wasn't sorted at all.
With MySQL 8.0.13 and later, the columns in a GROUP BY clause are not
automatically sorted. In addition, you can no longer specify the ASC or DESC
keywords on this clause. Instead, you must code an ORDER BY clause to sort
the rows in a result set. Otherwise. MySQL doesn’t guarantee the sort sequence.
 Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 169

A summary query that counts the number of invoices by vendor

SELECT vendor_id, COUNT(*) AS invoiceqty
FROM invoices
GROUP BY vendor id
vendor jd ri*-joice_qtY A

► 34 2
37 3
4fl 1
72 2
80 2 V

(34 rows)

A summary query that calculates the number of invoices

and the average invoice amount for the vendors in each state and city
SELECT vendor state, vendor city, COUNT(*) AS invoice qty,
ROUND(AVG(invoice total), 2) AS invoice avg
FROM invoices JOIN vendors
ON invoices.vendor!d ■ vendors.vendor id
GROUP BY vendor state, vendorcity
ORDER BY vendor state, vendorcity
vendor _state vendor _oty rrvo*ce_qty rwoice_avg A

► AZ Phoenix 1 66200
CA Fresno 19 1206.75
CA Los Angees 1 503.20
CA Oxnard 3 188.00
CA Pasadena 5 196.12 V

(20 rows)

A summary query that limits the groups

to those with two or more invoices
SELECT vendor_Btate, vendor city, COUNT(*) AS invoiceqty,
ROUND(AVG(invoicetotal), 2) AS invoiceavg
FROM invoices JOIN vendors
ON invoices.vendor id ■ vendors.vendor id
GROUP BY vendor state, vendor_city
HAVING COUNT(*) >- 2
ORDER BY vendor state, vendor_city
vendor-State vendor_oty rvoce_qty nvosce_avg A

CA Ftesno 19 1208.75
CA Oxnard 3 188.00
CA Pasadena 5 196.12
CA Sacramento 7 253.00
CA San Francsco 3 1211.04 V

(12 rows)

Description
• With MySQL 8.0.12 and earlier, the GROUP BY clause sorted the columns in ascending
sequence by default, and you could code the ASC and DESC keywords on the clause.
• With MySQL 8.0.13 and later, the columns in a GROUP BY clause are not sorted by
default. Instead, you must use the ORDER BY clause to specify a sort sequence.

Figure 6-4 Queries that use the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses
170 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How the HAVING clause compares

to the WHERE clause
As you've seen, you can limit the groups included in a result set by coding
a search condition in the HAVING clause hi addition, you can apply a search
condition to each row before it's included in a group. To do that, you code the
search condition in the WHERE clause just as you would for any SELECT state­
ment. Figure 6-5 presents two examples that illustrate how this works.
The first example groups the invoices in the Invoices table by vendor name
and calculates a count and average invoice amount for each group. Then, the
HAVING clause limits the groups in the result set to those that have an average
invoice total greater than $500.
In contrast, the second example includes a WHERE clause that limits the
invoices included in the groups to those that have an invoice total greater than
$500. In other words, the search condition in this example is applied to every
row. In the previous example, it was applied to each group of rows. As a result,
these examples show that there are eight invoices for Zylka Design in the
Invoices table, but only seven of them are over $500.
Beyond this, there are two differences in the expressions that you can
include in the WHERE and HAVING clauses. First, the HAVING clause can
include aggregate functions as shown in the first example, but the WHERE
clause can't. That's because the search condition in a WHERE clause is applied
before the rows are grouped. Second, although the WHERE clause can refer to
any column in the base tables, the HAVING clause can only refer to column*
included in the SELECT clause. That's because it filters the summarized result
set that’s defined by the SELECT. FROM. WHERE, and GROUP BY clauses. In
other words, it doesn’t filter the base tables.
 Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 171

A summary query with a search condition in the HAVING clause

SELECT vendor name,
COUNT!*) AS invoice_qty,
ROUND(AVG(invoice total), 2) AS invoice_avg
FROM vendors JOIN invoices
ON vendors.vendor id = invoices.vendor id
GROUP BY vendor name
HAVING AVG(invoice_tOtal) > 500
ORDER BY invoice qty DESC
vendor name mvaoe_qty invoice _avq A

LMted Parse! Ser.xe 9 2575.33

2 Aa Dexr 8 867.53
Maloy Lithographng Inc 5 23978.48
IBM 2 600.06 V
—

(19 rows)

A summary query with a search condition in the WHERE clause

SELECT vendor name,
COUNT(*) AS invoiceqty,
ROUND(AVG(invoice totai)t 2) AS invoice avg
FROM vendors JOIN invoices
ON vendors.vendor.id ■ invoices.vendor id
WHERE invoice total > 500
GROUP BY vendor name
ORDER BY invoice qty DESC
A
vendor _name invoice _qty ffivarce_avg

inted Parse! Serves 9 2575.33

2yfca Desgn 7 946.67
Maloy LitfuqraphnQ Inc 5 23978.48
Ingram 2 1077.21 V

(20 rows)

Description
• When you include a WHERE clause in a SELECT statement that uses grouping
and aggregates, MySQL applies the search condition before it groups the rows and
calculates the aggregates.
• When you include a HAVING clause in a SELECT statement that uses grouping
and aggregates. MySQL applies the search condition after it groups the rows and
calculates the aggregates.
• A WHERE clause can refer to any column in the base tables.
• A HAVING clause can only refer to a column included in the SELECT clause.
• A WHERE clause can’t contain aggregate functions.
• A HAVING clause can contain aggregate functions.

Figure 6-5 How the HAVING clause compares to the WHERE clause
172 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to code compound search conditions

You can code compound search conditions in a HAVING clause just as you
can in a WHERE clause. The first example in figure 6-6 shows how this works.
Illis query groups invoices by invoice date and calculates a count of the invoices
and the sum of the invoice totals for each date. In addition, the HAVING clause
specifies three conditions. First, the invoice date must be between 5/1/2022 and
5/31/2022. Second, the invoice count for each date must be greater than 1. And
third, the sum of the invoice totals for reach date must be greater than SI00.
In the HAVING clause of this query, the second and third conditions include
aggregate functions. As a result, they must be coded in the HAVING clause. The
first condition, however, doesn't include an aggregate function, so it could be
coded in either the HAVING or W HERE clause. The second example shows this
condition coded in the WHERE clause. Either way, both queries return the same
result set.
So, where should you code your search conditions? In general, 1 think
queries are easier to read when they include all the search conditions in the
HAVING clause. However, if you prefer to code non-aggregate search conditions
in the WHERE clause, that's OK too.
 Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 173

A summary query with a compound condition in the HAVING clause

SELECT
invoice data,
COUNT(*) AS invoice qty,
SUM(invoice total) AS invoice sum
FROM invoices
GROUP BY invoice date
HAVING invoice date BETWEEN '2022-05-01' AND '2022-05-31'
AND COUNT(*) > 1
AND SUM(invoice total) > 100
ORDER BY invoice date DESC

The same query coded with a WHERE clause

SELECT
invoice date,
COUNT(*) AS invoice qty,
SUM(invoice total) AS invoice, sura
FROM invoices
WHERE invoicedate BETWEEN '2022-05-01' AND '2022-05-31'
GROUP BY invoicedate
HAVING COUNT(*) > 1
AND SUM (invoice total) > 100
ORDER BY invoice date DESC

The result set returned by both queries

anvftce_date nvacejsty

2022-05-31 2 453.75
2022-05-25 3 220 L15
2022-05-23 2 347.75
2022-05-21 2 8078.44
2022-05-13 3 1888.95
2022-05-11 2 5009.51
2022-05-03 2 866.87

(7 rows)

Description
• You can use the AND and OR operators to code compound search conditions in a
HAVING clause just as you can in a WHERE clause.
• If a search condition includes an aggregate function, it must be coded in the
HAVING clause. Otherwise, it can be coded in either the HAVING or the WHERE
clause.

Figure 6-6 How to code compound search conditions

174 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to use the WITH ROLLUP operator

You can use the WITH ROLLUP operator to add one or more summary rows
to a result set that uses grouping and aggregates. The two examples in figure 6-7
show how this works.
The first example shows how the WITH ROLLUP operator works when you
group by a single column. This statement groups the invoices by vendor_id and
calculates an invoice count and invoice total for each vendor group. In addition,
since the GROUP BY clause includes the WITH ROLLUP operator, this query
adds a summary row to the end of the result set. This row summarizes all of the
aggregate columns in the result set. In this case, it summarizes the invoice_count
and invoice_total columns. Since the vendor _id column can't be summarized,
it’s assigned a null value.
The second query in this figure shows how the WITH ROLLUP operator
works w hen you group by two columns. This query groups vendors by state
and city and counts the number of vendors in each group. Then, this query adds
summary rows for each state, and it adds a final summary row at the end of the
result set.
Before MySQL 8.0.13, you couldn't use the use an ORDER BY clause
to sort a result set if the GROUP BY clause included the WITH ROLLUP
operator. Instead, you had to sort the individual columns by coding the ASC or
DESC keyword after the column name in the GROUP BY clause. With MySQL
8.0.13 and later, however, you can't code the ASC or DESC keyword on the
GROUP BY clause. Instead, if you want to sort the result set. you can now use
an ORDER BY clause. However, when you use WITH ROLLUP the result set
is sorted by the columns in the GROUP BY clause in ascending sequence by
default. So you'll only code an ORDER BY clause if you want to change this
sequence.
 Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 175

A summary query that includes a final summary row

SELECT vendor id, COUNT(*) AS invoice count,
SUM(invoicetotal) AS Invoicetotal
FROM invoices
GROUP BY vendor id WITH ROLLUP
vendor jd nvoice_CDUit invoice _ to tai

119 1 4901.26
121 8 6940.25
122 9 23177.96
123 47 4378.02
csn 114 214290.51

(3 S rows)

A summary query that includes a summary row for each grouping level
SELECT vendor state, vendor city, COUNT(*) AS qty. vendors
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor state IN ('IA', 'NJ’)
GROUP BY vendor state, vendor_city WITH ROLLUP
vendor _state vendor _cjty qty .vendors

► IA Farted 1
IA Washington 1
IA 2
MJ East Ekuwrdc 2
NJ Fat fled 1
MJ Waging ton 1
LiLEIB
NJ 4
6

Description
• You can use the WITH ROLLUP operator in the GROUP BY clause to add
summary rows to the final result set.
• The WITH ROLLUP operator adds a summary row for each group specified in the
GROUP BY clause. It also adds a summary row to the end of the result set that
summarize* the entire result set.
• If the GROUP BY clause specifies a single group, the WITH ROLLUP operator
only adds the final summary row.
• With MySQL 8.0.12 and earlier, you couldn't use the ORDER BY clause with the
WITH ROLLUP operator. Instead, to sort individual columns, you coded the ASC
or DESC keyword alter the column in the GROUP BY clause.
• With MySQL 8.0.13 and later, you can’t code the ASC or DESC keyword on the
GROUP BY clause. However, you can nowr include an ORDER BY clause to sort
the result set when the GROUP BY clause includes WITH ROLLUP.
• With MySQL 8.0.12 and earlier, you couldn t use the DISTINCT keyword in any
of the aggregate functions when you used the W I T H ROLLUP operator. With
MySQL 8.0.13 and later, you can use the DISTINCT keyword.

Figure 6-7 How to use the WITH ROLLUP operator

176 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to use the GROUPING function

When you group by a column that can contain null values, the result of the
grouping can be a null value. In addition, when you use the WITH ROLLUP
operator to summarize a column that can contain null values, the summary
row will contain a null value in that column. Because of that it can be difficult
to distinguish between null values due to grouping and null values due to
summarizing.
The first query' in figure 6-8 illustrates how this works. Here, the query
includes the invoice date and payment date from the Invoices table, as well as
the sum of the invoice totals and the sum of the invoice balances. The first five
rows in the result set are for the same invoice date. Both the first and the last of
those five rows contain a null value in the Payment Date column. The first row
contains a null value because one or more of the invoices for that invoice date
contains a null value. The last row contains a null value because it is a summary
row for all of the invoices for that invoice date. Without studying this result set
carefully, though, it’s difficult to tell which null values are for summary rows
and which aren’t.
To help distinguish between these null values, you can use the GROUPING
function that was introduced with MySQL 8.0. This function evaluates the
expression you specify to determine if the expression results in a null value
because it's in a summary row. If it does, the GROUPING function returns a
value of 1. Otherwise, it returns a value of 0.
This is illustrated by the second query in this figure. This query is the
same as the first query except that it uses IF and GROUPING functions for the
invoice_date and payment_date columns in the SELECT clause. You’ll learn
about the IF function in chapter 9. For now, just realize that it evaluates the
expression in the first argument and returns the second argument if the expres­
sion is true or the third argument if it’s not.
In this case, the first argument of each IF function is a GROUPING function.
These GROUPING functions test if the invoice_date or payment_date column
contains a null value because it's in a summary row. If so, the IF function returns
the literal value that's specified by the second argument. Otherwise, it returns
the value of the column grouping that's specified by the third argument. It
you compare the results of this query with the results of the first query , you’ll
see that it's now obvious which rows are summary rows because they contain
literal values instead of null values. This is a common use for the GROUPING
function.
 Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 177

The basic syntax of the GROUPING function

GROUPING(expre scion)

A summary query that uses WITH ROLLUP on a table with null values
SELECT invoice date, payment date,
SUM(invoice total) AS invoice total,
SUM(invoicetotal - credittotal - payment_total) AS balance due
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice date BETWEEN '2022-07-24' AND '2022-07-31'
GROUP BY invoice date, payment-date WITH ROLLUP
invoice date payment_date rvoce_tntal balance _due

2022-07-24 cnns
503 20 503.20
2022-07-24 2022-08-19 3689.99 0.00
2022-07-24 2022-06-23 67.00 0.00
2022-07-24 2022-08-27 23517.58 0.00
2022-07-24 Gl'iH THTi.T! 503.20
2022-07-25 2022-08-22 1000.46 0.00
2022-07-25 1000.46 0.00
2022-07-23 90.36 90.36
[ill!
2022-07-28 90 36 90.36
2022-07-30 2022-09-03 22.57 0.00
2022-07-30 22.57 0.00
inflis
2022-07-31 10976.06 10976.06
2022-07-31 CQH1 10976.06 10976.06
UUliS
39867.22 11569.62

A query that substitutes literals for nulls in summary rows

SELECT IF(GROUPING(invoicedate) ■ 1, 'Grand totals', invoicedate)
AS invoicedate,
IF (GROUPING (payment.data) ■ 1, 'Invoice date totals', payment date)
AS payment date,
SUM(invoice_total) AS invoicetotal,
SUM(invoice=total - credittotal - payment-total) AS balancedue
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice.date BETWEEN '2022-07-24' AND '2022-07-31'
GROUP BY invoice date, payment date WITH ROLLUP
rvoiCB_date payment_date rv oice _tntal balance _ due
CUDS
2022-07-24 503.20 503.20
2022-07-24 2022-08-19 3689.99 0.00
2022-07-24 2022-06*23 67.00 0.00
2022-07-24 2022-08-27 23517.58 0.00
2022-07-24 Invitee date totals 27777.77 503.20
2022-07-25 2022-08-22 1000.46 0.00
2022-07-25 Invoke date totals 1000.46 0.00
2022-07-28 90.36 90.36
2022-07-28 Invoice date totals 90.36 90.36
2022-07-30 2022-09-03 22.57 0.00
2022-07-30 Invoice date totals 22.57 0.00
CZ3
2022-07-31 10976.06 10976.06
2022-07-3! Invoke date totals 10976.06 10976.06
Grand totals Invoice date totals 39867.22 11569.62

Description
• The GROUPING function returns 1 if the expression is null. Otherw ise, it returns 0.
Figure 6-8 How to use the GROUPING function (part 1 of 2)
178 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Part 2 of figure 6-8 shows another common use for the GROUPING
function. The query in this example is identical to the second one in part I
of this figure, except that it includes a HAVING clause. This clause uses the
GROUPING function to filter the result set so only the summary rows are
included. To do that, it checks if this function returns a value of 1 for the
invoice_date or payment_date column.
 Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 179

A query that displays only summary rows

SELECT IF(GROUPING(invoice date) ■ 1, ’Grand totals*f invoice date)
AS invoicedate,
IF(GROUPING(payment_date) ■ lf ’Invoice date totals', payment date)
AS payment date,
SUM(invoice.total) AS invoice_totalf
SUM(invoicetotal - credit-total - payment-total) AS balance.due
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice date BETWEEN '2022-07-24' AND '2022-07-31'
GROUP BY invoice date, payment date WITH ROLLUP
HAVING GROUPING(invoice date) - 1 OR GROUPING(payment date) » 1
eivoce_date payment-date rvoce _total balance _cL*

» 2022-07-24 In voce date totals 27777.77 503.20

2022-07-25 Invoice date totals 1000.46 0.00
2022-07-28 Invoice date totals 90.36 90.36
2022-07-30 Invoke date totals 22.57 0.00
2022-07-31 Invoce date totals 10976.06 10976.06
Grand totals Invoice date totals 39867.22 11569.62

Description
• The GROUPING function is commonly used to replace the nulls that are gener­
ated by WITH ROLLUP with literal values. To do that, you can use it with the IF
function as shown in this figure.
• The IF function evaluates the expression in the first argument and returns the
second argument if the expression is true and the third argument it the expression is
false. See chapter 9 for more information on this function.
• If you want to display just the summary rows produced by the WITH ROLLUP
operator, you can include one or more GROUPING functions in the HAVING
clause.
• In addition to the SELECT and HAVING clauses, you can code the GROUPING
function in the ORDER BY clause.

Figure 6-8 How to use the GROUPING function (part 2 of 2)

180 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to code aggregate

window functions
In the figures that follow, you'll learn how to use the aggregate window
functions that were introduced with MySQL 8.0. You can use the window
functions with any of the aggregate functions presented in this chapter.

How the aggregate window functions work

Earlier in this chapter, you learned how to use some of the aggregate
functions with the GROUP BY clause to group and summarize data. When
you use GROUP BY, a single row is returned for each unique set of values in
the grouped columns. If a result set is grouped by the vendor_id column, for
example, only one row is returned for each vendor, and that vendor is summa­
rized by the aggregate functions that are included in the SELECT clause.
Aggregate window functions are similar except that die groups, or partitions,
aren't collapsed to a single row. Instead, all of the rows in the result set arc
returned.
Figure 6-9 illustrates how diis works. To start, you code an aggregate
w indow function by including the OVER clause. This clause defines the window
that's used by the aggregate function. A window consists of all of the rows that
are needed to evaluate the function for the current row.
The first example in this figure shows a SELECT statement that includes
two aggregate window functions. Both of these functions use the SUM function
to calculate a total of the invoice_total column. However, the OVER clause for
the first function is empty, which means that all of the rows in the result set are
included in a single partition. Because of that, the total_invoices column contains
the same value for each column, w'hich is the total of all of the invoices in the
result set. In this case, to calculate the total of all invoices, the SUM function for
each row needs a window into all of the other rows in the result set.
By contrast, the second window function in this query uses the PARTITION
BY' clause to partition the result set by die vendor_id column. That way, the sum
of the invoice totals is calculated for each vendor instead of for all vendors. You
can see the result of this function in the vendor_total column. In this case, to
calculate the total of all invoices for each vendor, the SUM function for each row
needs a window into all the other rows for the same vendor. That means that if
the first row for vendor 110 is the current row. it needs a window into the other
four rows for that vendor.
If you want to sort the rows within each partition, you can code the ORDER
BY clause on the OVER clause. This is illustrated by the second example in this
figure. Here, the second aggregate window function indicates that die invoices
for each vendor should be sorted bv the invoice_total column. If you compare
the sequence of the invoices for vendor 110 in diis result set with the sequence in
the first result set, you shouldn't have any trouble understanding how this works.
 Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 181

The basic syntax of the OVER clause

OVER( (PARTITION BY expresslonl (, expression?]...
(ORDER BY expression! (ASC|DESC] [, expression? [ASC|DESC]]...)

A SELECT statement with two aggregate window functions

SELECT vendorid, invoice date, invoicetotal,
SUM(invoicetotal) OVER() AS total invoices,
SUM(involce_total) OVER(PARTITION BY vendorid) AS vendor total
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice total > 5000
vendor _d rvoce_date mvace_totai total_ruoices vendor _totai

► 72 2022-06-01 21842.00 155800.00 21842.00

99 2022-06'18 6940.25 155800.00 6940.25
104 2022-05-21 7125.34 155800.00 7125.34
110 2022-05-28 37966.19 155800.00 119892.41
110 2022-07-19 2688 140 155800.00 119892.41
110 2022-07-23 20551.18 155800,00 119892.41
110 2022-07-24 23517.58 155800.00 119892.41
110 2022-07-31 10976.06 155800.00 119892.41

A SELECT statement that includes a cumulative total

SELECT vendor id, invoice date, invoice total,
SUM(invoicetotal) OVER() AS total invoices,
SUM(invoice_tOtal) OVER(PARTITION BY vendor id
ORDER BY invoice_total) AS vendor total
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice total > 5000
vendor _d nvoce_date r /oicetota to taljnvoices vendor total

72 2022-06-01 21842.00 155800.00 21842.00

99 2022-06-18 6940.25 155800.00 6940.25
104 2022-05-21 7125.34 155800.00 7125.34
:io 2022-07-31 10976.06 155800.00 10976.06
110 2022*07-23 20551.18 155800.00 31527.24
110 2022-07-24 23517.58 155800.00 55044.82
:io 2022-07-19 26831.40 155800.00 81926.22
110 2022-05-28 37966.19 155800.00 119892.41

Description
• A window consists of all of the rows that are needed to calculate the aggregate
value for the current row.
• The window functions can be used with all of the aggregate functions listed in
figure 6-1. The groups, or partitions, in an aggregate window function are not
collapsed to a single row.
• To treat an aggregate function as a window function, you include an OVER clause
that indicates how to partition the rows m the result set.
• If you code an empty OVER clause, the entire result set is treated as a single partition.
• If you code an OVER clause with a PARTITION BY clause, the aggregate function
is performed on each partition.
• If you code an ORDER BY clause on the OVER clause, the rows within each parti­
tion are sorted and the values from one row to the next are cumulative.

Figure 6-9 How the aggregate window functions work

182 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Another difference between these two result sets are the values m the
vendor_total column for vendor 1 10. That's because, when you code the
ORDER BY clause, the frame includes all of the rows from the start of the parti­
tion through the current row.
For the SUM function, this means that the column contains a cumulative
total for each vendor. To see how this works, you can compare the values in
the vendor_total column with the values in the invoice_total column for vendor
110. Here, the values for the first row are the same. However, the second row
in the vendor_total column contains the value of the first row plus the value of
the second row in the invoice_total column. The third row in the vendor_total
column contains the value of the second row plus the value of the third row in
the invoice_total column. And so on.

How to use frames

In addition to partitioning the rows in the result set for an aggregate
function, you can create a frame that defines a subset of the current partition.
Because a frame is relative to the current row, it can move within a partition as
the current row changes. As you’ll see, that makes it easy to calculate cumulative
totals and moving averages.
Figure 6-10 shows the syntax for defining a frame. To start, you can code the
ROWS or RANGE keyword. If you use ROWS, the frame is determined by the
number of rows before and after the current row. If you use RANGE, the frame
is determined by the value of the rows before and after the current row. In some
cases, you can get the same result with either ROWS or RANGE. In other cases,
though, you'll need to use one or the other to get the result you want. You’ll see
examples of that in a minute.
Following the ROWS or RANGE keyword, you can specify just the starting
row for the frame or both the starting and ending rows. If you specify just the
starting row. the ending row is the current row. To specify' both a starting and
ending row. you code a BETWEEN clause.
To indicate where a frame starts or ends, you can code any of the values
in the table shown in this figure. To illustrate, the first example in this figure
shows how to define a frame that includes the first row in the partition up to
and including the current row. To do that, it uses the ROWS keyword followed
by a BETW EEN clause that specifies the starting and ending rows. In this case.
UNBOUNDED PRECEDING indicates that the frame starts at the first row in
the partition, and CURRENT ROW indicates that the frame ends at the current
row. Then, because the rows in the partitions are sorted, the column contains
cumulative values.
Note that, because the frame ends at the current row, you could also define
the frame like this:
ROWS UNBOUNDED PRECEDING
 Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 183

The syntax for defining a frame

{ROWS | RANGE) (frame start | BETWEEN frame start AND frame end)

Possible values for frame start and frame end

Value Description
CURRENT ROW The frame starts or ends with the current row.
UNBOUNDED PRECEDING The frame starts or ends with the first row in the partition.
UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING The frame starts or ends with the last row in the partition.
«xpr PRECEDING With ROWS, the frame starts expr rows before the current row. With
RANGE, the frame starts with the first row before the current row
whose value is expr less than the value of the current row.
•xpr FOLLOWING With ROWS, (he frame starts expr rows after the current row. With
RANGE, the frame starts with the last row after the current row whose
value is expr greater than the value of the current row.

A SELECT statement that defines a frame

SELECT vendorid, invoice date, invoicetotal,
SUM(invoicetotal) OVER() AS total-invoices,
SUM(invoicetotal) OVER(PARTITION BY vendor id ORDER BY invoice date
ROWS BETWEEN UNBOUNDED PRECEDING AND CURRENT ROW)
AS vendor total
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice date BETWEEN '2022-04-01' AND '2022-04-30'
vendor jd nvone.date invoice _to tai total jrrvoces vendor _ total

► 89 2022-04-24 95.00 5828.18 95.00

95 2022-04-30 16.33 5828 19 16.33
96 2022-04-26 662.00 5828.18 662.00
121 2022-04-24 601.95 5828.19 601.95
122 2022-04-08 3813.33 5828.18 3813.33
123 2022-04-10 40.20 5828.13 40.20
123 2022-04-13 138.75 5828.18 173.95
123 2022-04-16 144.70 5828.18 323.65
123 2022-04-16 15.50 5828.13 339. IS
123 2022-04-16 42.75 5828.18 381.90
123 2022-04-21 172.50 5828.18 554.40
123 2022-04-24 42.67 5828.18 597.07
123 2022-04-25 42.50 5828.18 639.57

Description
• A frame can be defined as the number of rows before and after the current row
(ROWS) or a range of values based on the value of the current row •-RANGE).
• If you specify just the starting row for a frame, the ending row is the current row.
To specify both a starting and ending row, you use the BETWEEN clause. When
you use BETWEEN, the starting row for a frame must not come after the ending
row.
• If an ORDER BY clause is included in the OVER clause and you use the ROWS
keyword, values arc accumulated up to and including the current row as shown
above.

Figure 6-10 How to use frames (part 1 of 2)

184 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

In that case, the ending row defaults to the current row. You can also omit the
frame definition entirely, since it's the default when you include ORDER BY on
the OVER clause. You saw how that worked in the previous figure.
Part 2 of figure 6-10 presents two more queries that use frames. The first
query is almost identical to the one in part 1 of this figure. The only difference
is that it uses the RANGE keyword instead of the ROWS keyword. Because
of that, the frame includes all of the rows within the partition, along with the
current row and any of its peers. In this case, a peer is a row that has the same
value as other rows in the sort column. In this example, for instance, the result
set includes three invoices dated 2022-04-16 for vendor 123. If you look at the
vendor_total column for these rows, you'll see that they all contain the same
value. That’s because the value of the invoice_total column for all three of these
rows is included in the accumulation for the rows.
The second example in this figure illustrates a common use for frames.
Here, a moving average is calculated for the invoice totals. A moving average is
an average that's calculated on the current row plus a specified number of rows
before and after the current row. It’s particularly useful when working with data
over a period of time to eliminate short-term tluctuations so long-term trends
become more obvious.
In Uns example, a three-month average is calculated for the sum of invoice
totals. To do that, the RANGE keyword is coded w ith a BETWEEN clause
that indicates that the invoice total for the current month, one month before
the current month, and one month after the current month should be used to
calculate the average. The three-month average for month 5, for example, is
calculated by adding the values in the invoice_total column for months 4, 5, and
6 and dividing by 3.
Note that when you calculate a moving average, there isn't a row before
the first row to include in the average. Because of that, the average for that row
includes just the invoice totals for the current row and the next row. Similarly,
the average for the last row includes just the invoice totals for the current row
and the previous row.
This query also uses the MONTH function in the SELECT clause, the
ORDER BY clause for the OVER clause, and the GROUP BY clause. The
MONTH function extracts the numeric month from a date. You'll leam about
this function as well as other functions for working with dates in chapter 9.
 Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 185

A SELECT statement that creates peer groups

SELECT vendorid, invoicedate, invoicetotal,
SUM(invoicetotal) OVER!) AS totalinvoices,
SUM (invoicetotal) OVER(PARTITION BY vendorid ORDER BY invoicedate
RANGE BETWEEN UNBOUNDED PRECEDING AND CURRENT ROW)
AS vendortotal
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice date BETWEEN ’2022-04-01' AND '2022-04-30'
vendor jd nvace_date rJ«oce_t2t3i total _rvuoias vendor_total

b 89 2022-CH-24 95 00 5828.18 95.00

95 2022-04-30 16.33 5828.13 16.33
96 2022-04-26 662.00 5823.18 662.00
121 2022-04-24 601.95 5828.18 601.95
122 2022-04-06 3813.33 5828.18 3813.33
123 2022'04-10 40.20 5828.18 40.20
123 202204-13 138.75 5828.13 178.95
123 202204-16 144.70 5828.13 381.90
123 202204-16 15.50 5823.18 381.90 Peer group
123 202204-16 42.75 5828.18 381.90
123 202204-21 172.50 5828.13 554.40
123 202204-24 42.67 5828.13 597.07
123 202204-25 42.50 5828.18 639.57

A SELECT statement that calculates moving averages

SELECT MONTH(invoice date) AS month, SUM(invoice.total) AS total_invoices,
ROUND(AVGtSUH(invoice total)) OVER(ORDER BY MONTH(invoice date)
RANGE BETWEEN 1 PRECEDING AND 1 FOLLOWING), 2) AS 3. month avg
FROM invoices
GROUP BY MONTH(invoico_date)
montti total jnvoce< 3_monto_avg

► 4 5828.18 32212.64
5 58597.10 39614.34
6 54417.73 69370.19
7 95095.75 49955.08
8 351.75 47723.75

Description
• If an ORDER BY clause is included in the OVER clause and you use the RANGE keyword,
values are accumulated up to and including the current row as well as its peer rows. A peer
is a row that's in the same sort sequence as other rows in the partition as shown by the first
example above.
• You can use a frame to calculate a moving average. A moving average is calculated by
adding the value of the current row to the values of zero ch more preceding and following
rows.
• Because there are no preceding rows for the first row in a partition, the mov ing
average for that row consists of the average of the value of the current row plus the
values of the following rows. Similarly, the moving average for the last row consists
of the average of the value of the cunent row' plus the values of the previous rows.

Figure 6-10 How to use frames (part 2 of 2)

186 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to use named windows

In some cases, you'll need to code a SELECT statement with two or more
aggregate functions that use the same window. Then, you may want to use a
named window so you don't have to repeat the definition for the window for
each function. Figure 6-11 shows how to define and use a named window.
1 he first example in this figure shows a SELECT statement that includes
four aggregate functions. Each function includes an OVER clause that partitions
the rows in the result set by the vendor_id column. To do that, the PARTITION
BY clause is repeated on each OVER clause.
An easier way to do this is to name the window by coding a WINDOW
clause as shown in the second example. Here, the window is named
\endor_window. and it’s defined with the PARTITION BY clause. Then,
the four aggregate functions include just the w indow name on the OVER
clause. In other words, they don’t have to repeat the PARI I HON BY
clause. Note that when you code just a window name, you don’t enclose it
in parentheses.
If you review the code in this example, you might wonder why you w'ould
use a named window. After all. the code isn’t any simpler since the window
definition consists of only a PARTITION BY clause. The answer is that if you
wanted to change the window definition, you would only need to do it in one
place. Of course, window names provide even more of an advantage as your
window definitions get more complex.
The third example in this figure shows how you can modify a window
definition when you use it. To do that, you can add a PARTITION BY or
ORDER BY clause or a frame definition. In this example, the named window
partitions the rows in the result set by the vendor_id column just like the second
example. Then, the SELECT clause includes two columns that sum the invoice
totals for each vendor. Both columns use the named w indow. but they sort the
totals in a different sequence. To do that, the window name is followed by an
ORDER BY clause, and both the name and clause are enclosed in parentheses.
When you use named windows, you should know that you can't modify any
of the clauses that are included in the wrindow definition. For example, because
the window in the third example includes a PARTITION BY clause, you can’t
include that clause on an OVER clause that uses the named w indow. Instead, you
can only add to the window definition.
 Chapter 6 How to code summary queries 187

The syntax for naming a window

WINDOW window name AS ([partitionclsuss] [order clause] [frame clause])

A SELECT statement with four functions that use the same window
SELECT vendor id, invoice date, invoice total,
SUN (invoice total) OVER (PARTITION BY vendor_id) AS vendor total,
ROUND(AVG(invoicetotal) OVER(PARTITION BY vendor_id) , 2) AS vendor avg,
MAX(invoice total) OVER (PARTITION BY vendor id) AS vendor max,
MIN (invoice total) OVER (PARTITION BY vendor id) AS vendor min
FROM invoices
WHERE invoicetotal > 5000

A SELECT statement with a named window

SELECT vendor id, invoice date, invoice total,
SUM (invoice total) OVER vendor window AS vendor total,
ROUND(AVG(invoice total) OVER vendor window, 2) AS vendor avg,
MAX (invoice total) OVER vendor window AS vendor max,
MIN fl invoice totals OVER vendor window AS vendor min
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice total > 5000
WINDOW vendor window AS (PARTITION BY vendor.ld)

The result set for both statements

vendor jd nvocejiate m ^xcetota vendor _to tai vendor_axg vendor jtiax vendor _mn

► 72 2022-06-01 21842.00 21842.00 21842.00 21842.00 21842.00

99 2022-06-13 6940.25 6940.25 6940.25 6940.25 6940.25
204 2022-05-21 7125.34 7125.34 7125.34 7125.34 7125.34
210 2022-05-28 37966.19 11989241 23978.46 37966.19 10976.06
110 2022-07-19 26881.40 11989241 23978.40 37966.19 10976.06
110 2022-07-23 20551.18 11989241 23978.43 37966.19 10976.06
110 2022-07-24 23517.58 11989241 23978.48 37966.19 10976.06
no 2022-07-31 10976.06 11989241 23978.46 37966.19 10976.06

A SELECT statement that adds to the specification for a named window

SELECT vendor id, invoice date, invoice total,
SUM (invoice total) OVER (vendor window ORDER BY invoice date ASC)
AS invoice date asc,
SUM (invoice total) OVER (vendor window ORDER BY invoicadate DESC)
AS invoice date desc
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice total > 5000
WINDOW vendor window AS (PARTITION BY vendor id)

Description
• To define a named window, you code a WINDOW clause. Tliis clause should be
coded after the HAVING clause and before the ORDER BY clause, if those clauses
are included.
• To use a named window, you code it on the OVER clause. If you code just the
window name, you don't include parentheses.
• If a WINDOW clause doesn’t include a PARTITION BY or ORDER BY clause or a
frame definition, you can add it to the window when you use it.

Figure 6-11 How to use named windows

188 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Perspective
In this chapter, you learned how to code queries that group and summarize
data. In most cases, you'll be able to use the techniques presented here to get
the summary information you need.

Terms
scalar function partition
aggregate function w indow
column function frame
summary query peer
functionally dependent column moving average
aggregate window function named window

Exercises
1. Write a SELECT statement that returns one row for each vendor in the
Invoices table that contains these columns:
The vendorjd column from the Invoices table
The sum of the invoice_total columns in the Invoices table for that vendor
This should return 34 rows.
2. Write a SELECT statement that returns one row for each vendor that contains
these columns:
The vendor_name column from the Vendors table
The sum of the payment_total columns in the Invoices table for that vendor
Sort the result set in descending sequence by the payment total sum for each
vendor.
3. Write a SELECT statement that returns one row for each vendor that contains
three columns:
The vendor_name column from the Vendors table
The count of the invoices in the Invoices table for each vendor
The sum of the invoice_total columns in the Invoices table for each vendor
Sort the result set so the vendor with the most invoices appears first.
4. Write a SELECT statement that returns one row for each general ledger
account number that contains three columns:
The account_descnption column from the General_Ledger_Accounts table
The count of the items in the Invoice_Liae_Items table that have the same
account_number
 Chapter 6 How to code summary que ries 189

The sum of the line_item_amount columns in the lnvoice_Line_Items table

that have the same account_number
Return only those rows where the count of line items is greater than 1. This
should return 10 rows.
Group the result set by the account_descnption column.
Sort the result set in descending sequence by the sum of the line item
amounts.
5. Modify the solution to exercise 4 so it returns only invoices dated in the
second quarter of 2022 (April I, 2022 to June 30. 2022). This should still
return 10 rows but with some different line item counts for each vendor flint:
Join to the Invoices table to code a search condition based on invoice_date.
6. Write a SELECT statement that answers this question. What is the total
amount invoiced for each general ledger account number? Return these
columns:
The account_number column from the lnvoice_Line_ltems table
The sum of the line_item_amount columns from the Invoice_Line_Items
table
Use the WITH ROLLUP operator to include a row that gives the grand total.
This should return 22 rows.
7. Write a SELECT statement that answers this question: Which vendors are
being paid from more than one account? Return these columns:
The vendor_name column from the Vendors table
The count of distinct general ledger accounts that apply to that vendor's
invoices
This should return 2 rows.
8. W rite a SELECT statement that answers this question. What are the last
payment date and total amount due for each vendor with each terms id?
Return these columns:
1 he terms_id column from the Invoices table
The vendor_id column from the Invoices table
The last pay ment date for each combination of terms id and vendor id in the
Invoices table
The sum of the balance due (invoice_total - payment_total - credit_total)
for each combination of terms id and vendor id in the Invoices table
Use the WITH ROLLI 'P operator to include rows that give a summary for
each terms id as well as a row that gives the grand total. This should return 40
rows.
Use the IF and GROUPING functions to replace the null values in the terms_id
and vendor_id columns with literal values if they're for summary rows.
190 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

9. Write a SELECT statement that uses aggregate w indow functions to calculate

the total due for all vendors and the total due for each vendor. Return these
columns:
The vendor id from the Invoices table
The balance due (invoice_total - payment_total - credit_total) for each
invoice in the Invoices table with a balance due greater than 0
1 he total balance due for all vendors in the Invoices table
The total balance due for each vendor in the Invoices table
Modify the column that contains the balance due for each vendor so it
contains a cumulative total by balance due. This should return 11 rows.
10. Modify the solution to exercise 9 so it includes a column that calculates the
average balance due for each vendor in the Invoices table. This column should
contain a cumulative average by balance due.
Modify the SELECT statement so it uses a named window for the last two
aggregate u indow functions.
11. Write a SELECT statement that uses an aggregate window function to calcu­
late a moving average of the sum of invoice totals. Return these columns:
The month of the invoice date from the Invoices table
The sum of the invoice totals from the Invoices table
The moving average of the invoice totals sorted by invoice month
The result set should be grouped by invoice month and the frame for the
moving average should include the current row plus three rows before the
current row.
 7

How to code subqueries

Subqueries allow you to build queries that would be difficult or impossible
to build otherwise. In chapter 5, you learned how to use them in INSERT.
UPDATE, and DELETE statements. In this chapter, you'll learn how to use
subqueries in SELECT statements.

An introduction to subqueries........ ................................ 192

Where to code subqueries......... ........................................................................ 192
When to use subqueries............ .................................................... .................... 194
How to code subqueries in the WHERE clause ................ 196
How to use the IN operator................ ................. ......................... ............... ... 196
Hou to use the comparison operators............................................................. 198
How to use the ALL keyword......................................................................... 200
How to use the ANY and SOME keywords................................................... 202
How to code correlated subqueries.............. ................................................ .. 204
How to use the EXISTS operator.......................................... ................... 206
How to code subqueries in other clauses...... ........ 208
How to code subqueries in the HAVING clause............................................208
How to code subqueries in the SELECT clause............... ......................... .. 208
How to code subqueries in the FROM clause................................................ 210
How to work with complex queries.......... ................ 212
A complex query that uses subqueries ..... ....................................................... 212
A procedure for building complex queries............... ....... .......................... — 214
How to work with common table expressions...... ..........216
How to code a CTE............................................................................................ 216
How to code a recursive CTE.... ................................................................... 2IS
Perspective............................ .............220
192 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

An introduction to subqueries
As you learned in chapter 5, a subquery is a SELECT statement that's coded
within another SQL statement. Since you already know how to code SELECT
statements, you already know how to code subqueries. Now you just need to
learn where you can code them and when you should use them.

Where to code subqueries

Figure 7-1 shows that a subquery can be coded, or introduced, in the
WHERE. HAVING, FROM, or SELECT clause of a SELECT statement. In this
figure, for example, the SELECT statement shows how you can use a subquery
in a WHERE clause. This statement retrieves all the invoices from the Invoices
table that have invoice totals greater than the average of all the invoices. To do
that, the subquery calculates the average of all the invoices. Then, the search
condition tests each invoice to see if its invoice total is greater than that average.
When a subquery returns a single value as it does in this example, you can
use it anywhere you would normally use a single value. However, a subquery
can also return a list of values (a result set that has one column). In that case,
you can use the subquery in place of a list of values, such as the list for an IN
operator. In addition, a subquery can return a table of values (a result set that has
multiple columns). In that case, you can use the subquery in the FROM clause in
place of a table. In this chapter, you’ll learn about all of these different types of
subqueries.
Finally, you can code a subquery within another subquery. In that case, the
subqueries are said to be nested. Because nested subqueries can be difficult to
read, you should use them only when necessary.
 Chapter 7 How to code subqueries 193

Four ways to introduce a subquery in a SELECT statement

1 In a WHERE clause as a search condition
2. In a HAVING clause as a search condition
3. In the FROM clause as a table specification
4. In the SELECT clause as a column specification

Use a subquery in the WHERE clause

SELECT invoice number, invoicedate, invoicetotal
FROM invoicea
where invoicetotal >
(SELECT AVG(invoice total)
FROM invoices)
ORDER BY invoice total

The value returned by the subquery

1879.741316

The result set

nvace_rxmber m voice .date nvwoE_ total

» 989319-487 2022-06-20 1927.54

97/522 2022-06-28 1962.13
989319-427 2022-07-23 2052.59
989319-427 2022-06-16 2115.81
989319-477 2022-06-08 2184.11

(21 rows)

Description
• A subquery is a SELECT statement that’s coded within another SQL statement. For
this to work, you must enclose the subquery in parentheses.
• A subquery can return a single value, a list of values (a result set that has a single
column), or a table of values (a result set that has multiple columns).
• A subquery can be coded, or introduced, anywhere a single value, a list of values,
or a table is allowed.
• The syntax for a subquery is the same as for a standard SELECT statement.
However, a subquery can’t include an ORDER BY clause.
• Subqueries can be nested within other subqueries.

Figure 7-1 Where to code subqueries

194 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

When to use subqueries

In the last figure, you saw an example of a subquery that returns an aggre­
gate value that's used in the search condition of a WHERE clause. This type of
subquery provides for processing that can't be done any other way. However,
most subqueries can be restated as joins, and most joins can be restated as
subqueries as shown by the SELECT statements in figure 7-2.
Both SELECT statements in this figure return a result set that consists of
selected rows and columns from the Invoices table. In this case, only the invoices
for vendors in California are returned.
The first statement uses a join to combine the Vendors and Invoices tables so
the vendor_state column can be tested for each invoice. In contrast, the second
statement uses a subquery to return a result set that consists of the vendor_id
column for each vendor in California. Then, that result set is used with the IN
operator in the search condition so only invoices with a vendorid in that result
set are included in the final result set.
So if you have a choice, which technique should you use? In general. 1
recommend that you use the technique that results in the most readable code.
For example, a join tends to be more intuitive than a subquery when it uses an
existing relationship between two tables. That's the case with the Vendors and
Invoices tables used in this figure. On the other hand, a subquery tends to be
more intuitive w hen it uses an ad hoc relationship.
You should also realize that when you use a subquery in a WHERE clause,
its results can t be included in the final result set. For instance, the second
example in this figure can't be changed to include the vendor_name column
from the Vendors table. That’s because the Vendors table isn't named in the
FROM clause of the main query. So if you need to include information from
both tables in the result set, you need to use a join.
 Chapter 7 How to code subqueries 195

A query that uses an inner join

SELECT invoice number, Invoicedate, invoicetotal
FROM invoices JOIN vendors
ON invoices.vendor id = vendors.vendor id
WHERE vendor state - ' CA*
ORDER BY invoice date

The same query restated with a subquery

SELECT invoice number, invoicedate, invoicetotal
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor id IN
(SELECT vendor id
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor state - 'CA1)
ORDER BY invoice date

The result set returned by both queries

n’.‘Dice_nLrfiber mvotcejiatE r>voice_total

125520-1 2022-04-24 95.00

97/488 2022-04-24 60195
111-92R-10096 2022-04-30 16.33
25022117 2022-05-01 6.00
P02-S9D77S7 2022-05-03 856.92

(4 0 rows)

Advantages of joins
• The SELECT clause of a join can include columns from both tables.
• A join tends to be more intuitive when it uses an existing relationship between the
two tables, such as a primary key to foreign key relationship.

Advantages of subquet ies

• You can use a subquery to pass an aggregate value to the main query.
• A subquery tends to be more intuitive when it uses an ad hoc relationship between
the two tables.
• Long, complex queries can sometimes be easier to code using subqueries.

Description
• Like a join, a subquery can be used to code queries that work with two or more
tables.
• Most subqueries can be restated as joins and most joins can be restated as
subquenes.

Figure 7-2 When to use subqueries

196 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to code subqueries

in the WHERE clause
You can use a variety of techniques to work with a subquery in a W HERE
clause. You'll learn about these techniques in the topics that follow.

How to use the IN operator

In chapter 3, you learned how to use the IN operator to test whether an
expression is contained in a list of values. One way to provide that list of values
is to use a subquery as shown by figure 7-3.
The example in this figure retrieves the vendors from the Vendors table that
don't have invoices in the Invoices table. To do that, it uses a subquery to return
a list of IDs for each vendor that’s in the Invoices table. Then, the main query
returns the ID. name, and state for the vendors whose IDs aren't in that list
When you use the IN operator with a subquery, the subquery must return a
single column that provides the list of values. In this figure, the subquery also
includes the DISTINCT keyword. That way, if more than one invoice exists for a
vendor, the subquery only includes a single ID for the vendor. Although that can
make the main query more efficient, this keyword is optional and has no effect
on the final result set
In the previous figure, you saw that a query that uses a subquery with the
IN operator can be restated using an inner join. Similarly, a query that uses a
subquery with the NOT IN operator can typically be restated using an outer join.
Li this figure, for instance, the first query can be restated as shown in the second
query. In this case, though the first query is more readable.
 Chapter 7 How to code subqueries 197

The syntax of a WHERE clause that uses an IN phrase

WHERE teat_expression [NOT] IN (subquery)

Get vendors without invoices

SELECT vendor id, vendor name, vendor state
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor_id NOT IN
(SELECT DISTINCT vendor_id
FROM invoices)
ORDER BY vendor id

The result of the subquery

The result set

vendor jd vendor jiame vendor .state *

33 Nelson OH
135 CA
Cal State Termte
36 Gray!ft CA
138
Venture Communications Int'l MY
139 Custom Ponting Company MO
40 Nat Assoc of Colege Stares OH v

(8 8 rows)

The query restated without a subquery

SELECT v.vendor id, vendor name, vendor state
FROM vendors v LEFT JOIN invoices i
ON v.vendor id = i.vendorid
WHERE i.vendorid IS NULL
ORDER BY v.vendor id

Description
• The IN operator allows you to test if a value is in a list of values returned by a
subquery.
• When you use the IN operator, the subquery must return a single column of values.
• A query that uses the NOT IN operator with a subquery can typically be restated
using an outer join.

Figure 7-3 How to use the IN operator

198 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to use the comparison operators

Figure 7^4 shows how you can use the comparison operators to compare an
expression with the result of a subquery. In this example, the subquery returns
the average balance due of the invoices in the Invoices table that have a balance
due greater than zero. Then, it uses that value to retrieve all invoices with a
balance due that's less than the average.
When you use a comparison operator as shown in this figure, the subquery
must return a single value. In most cases, that means that it uses an aggregate
function. However, you can also use comparison operators with subqueries that
return a list of values. To do that, you use the SOME. ANY. or ALL keywords as
shown in the next two figures.
 Chapter 7 How to code subqueries 199

The syntax of a WHERE clause that uses a comparison operator

WHERE expression comparison operator [ SOME | ANY | ALL ] (subquery)

Get invoices with a balance due less than the average

SELECT invoice number, invoice date,
invoice total - paymenttotal - credit-total AS balance_due
FROM invoices
WHERE invoicetotal - payment total - credittotal > 0
AND invoice_total - paymenttotal - credittotal <
(
SELECT AVG(invoicetotal - payment total - credit—total)
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice-total - payment-total - credit-total > 0
)
ORDER BY invoice total DESC

The value returned by the subquery

2910.947273

The result set

A
rr.uee_rtmber invoice _date baancej^e

31361833 2022-07-21 579.42

9962771 2022-07-24 503.20
547430202 2022-08-0! 224.00
234116 2022-07-28 90.36
39104 2022-07-10 85.31 V

(9 rows)

Description
• You can use a comparison operator m a WHERE clause to compare an expression
with the results of a subquery.
• If you code a search condition without the ANY. SOME, and ALL keywords, the
subquery must return a single value.
• If you include the ANY. SOME, or ALL keyword, the subquery can return a list of
values.

Figure 7-4 How to use the comparison operators

200 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to use the ALL keyword

Figure 7-5 shows how to use the ALL keyword to modify a comparison
operator so the condition must be true for all the values returned by a subquery.
The table at the top of this figure shows how this works. Here, the values in
parentheses represent the values returned by the query.
If you use the greater than operator (>), the expression must be greater than
the largest value returned by the subquery. Conversely, if you use the less than
operator (<), the expression must be less than the smallest value returned by
the subquery . If you use the equal operator (=), all of the values returned by the
subquery must be the same and the expression must be equal to that value. And
if you use the not equal operator (o). the expression must not equal any of the
values returned by the subquery. However, a not equal condition can be restated
using the NOT IN operator, which is usually easier to read. As a result, it's a
better practice to use the NOT IN operator for this type of condition.
The query in this figure shows how to use the greater than operator with the
ALL keyword. Here, the subquery selects the invoice_total column for all the
invoices w ith a vendor_id value of 34. This results in a list of two values. Then,
the main query retrieves the rows from the Invoices table that have invoice totals
greater than both of the values returned by the subquery. In other words, this
query returns all the invoices that have totals greater than 1083.58. which is the
largest invoice for vendor number 34.
When you use the ALL keyword, the comparison evaluates to true if the
subquery doesn't return any rows. In contrast, the comparison evaluates to false
if the subquery returns only null values.
In many cases, you can rewrite a condition that uses the ALL keyword so it's
easier to read. For example, you could rewrite the query in this figure to use the
MAX function like this:
WHERE invoice total >
(SELECT MAX(invoicetotal)
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor_id ■ 34)
As a result, we recommend replacing the ALL keyword with an equivalent
condition whenever it makes the query easier to read.
 Chapter? How to code subqueries 201

How the ALL keyword works

Condition Equivalent expression Description
x > ALL (1, 2) x > 2 Evaluates to true if x is greater than the
largest value returned by the subquery.
x < ALL (1, 2) x < 1 Evaluates to true if x is less than the small­
est value returned by the subquery.
x ■ ALL (1, 2) (X ■ 1) AND (X ■ 2) Evaluates to true if the subquery returns a
single value that's equal to x or if the sub­
query returns multiple values that are the
same and these values are all equal to x.
x <> ALL (1, 2) X NOT IN (1, 2) Evaluates to true if x is not one of the
values returned by the subquery.

Get invoices greater than the largest invoice for vendor 34

SELECT vendor name, invoice number, invoicetotal
FROM invoices i JOIN vendors v ON i.vendor id ■ v.vendor id
WHERE invoicetotal > ALL
(SELECT invoicetotal
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor id = 34)
ORDER BY vendor name

The result of the subquery

rvo*ce_totai

> 116.54
:ca3.58

The result set

vendor .name nvoee.number nvoce.totai A

► Bettelsmanr Industry Sva. Inc 509786 5940.25

Cahners Pubi^riQ Company 587*056 2184.50
Computer* arid 367447 2433.00
Data Reproductions Corp 40318 21842.00 V

(25 row)

Description
• You can use the ALL keyword to test if a condition is true for all of the values
returned by a subquery.
• If no rows are returned by the subquery, a comparison that uses the ALL keyword is
always true.
• If all of the rows returned by the subquery contain a null value, a comparison that
uses the ALL keyword is always false.

Figure 7-5 How to use the ALL keyword

202 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to use the ANY and SOME keywords

Figure 7-6 shows how to use the ANY and SOME keywords to test whether
a comparison is tine for any of the values returned by a subquery. Since both
of these keywords work the same way. you can use whichever one you prefer.
Although this book uses the ANY keyword in its examples, you can substitute
the SOME keyword for the ANY keyword to get the same results.
The example in this figure shows how you can use the ANY keyword
with the less than operator. This statement is similar to the one you saw in the
previous figure, except that it retrieves invoices with invoice totals that are less
than at least one of the invoice totals for a given vendor. Like the statement in
the previous figure, this condition can be rewritten using the MAX function, as
follows:
WHERE invoice total <
(SELECT MAX(invoicetotal)
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor id ■ 115)
Since this statement is easier to read, we recommend using statements like this
one instead of statements that use the ANY keyword whenever possible.
 Chapter 7 How to code subqueries 203

How the ANY keyword works

Condition Equivalent expression Description
x > ANY (1, 2) X > 1 Evaluates to true if x is greater than the
smallest value returned by the subquery.
x < ANY (1, 2) x < 2 Evaluates to true if x is less than the largest
value returned by the subquery.
x = ANY (1, 2) x IN (1, 2) Evaluates to true if x is equal to any of the
values returned by the subquery.
x <> ANY (1, 2) (x <> 1) OR (x <> 2) Evaluates to true if x is not equal to at least
one of the values returned by the subquery.

Get invoices smaller than the largest invoice for vendor 115
SELECT vendor name, invoice number, invoicetotal
FROM vendors JOIN invoices ON vendors.vendorid ■ invoices.vendor_id
WHERE invoicetotal < ANY
(SELECT invoice total
FROM invoices
WHERE vendorid = 115)

The result of the subquery

n voice _to tai

► 6.00
6.00
25.67
6.00

The result set

vendor .name invoice .number invoice.totai

► Federal Express Corporation 963253251 15.50

Pacific Bel 111-92R-10096 16.33
Roadway Package System, Inc 25022117 6.00
CompuServe 21-474B363 9.95
Federal Express Corporator 4-321-2596 10.00 w

(17 rows)

Description
• You can use the ANY keyword to test if a condition is true for at least one of the
values returned by a subquery.
• If the subquery doesn't return any values, or if it only returns null values, a compar­
ison that uses the ANY keyword evaluates to false.
• The SOME keyword works the same as the ANY keyword.

Figure 7-6 How to use the ANY and SOME keywords

204 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to code correlated subqueries

So far. all of the subqueries in this chapter have been uncorrelated subque­
ries. An uncorrelated subquery is executed only once for the entire query.
However, you can also code a correlated subquery that’s executed once for each
row that’s processed by the main query. This type of query is similar to using a
loop to do repetitive processing in a procedural programming language like PHP
or Java.
Figure 7-7 shows how correlated subqueries work. The example retrieves
rows from the Invoices table for those invoices that have an invoice total that’s
greater than the average of ail the invoices for the same vendor. To do that, the
WHERE clause of the subquery refers to the vendor_id value of the main query.
That way, only the invoices for the current vendor are included in the average.
Each time MySQL processes a row in the main query, it substitutes the
value in the vendor_id column for the column reference in the subquery. Then,
MySQL executes the subquery based on that value. For example, if the
vendor_id value is 95, MySQL executes this subquery:
SELECT AVQ(invoicetotal)
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor id ■ 95
After MySQL executes this subquery, it uses the returned value to determine
whether to include the current invoice in the result set. For example, for vendor
95, the suhquery returns a value of 28.501667. Then, My SQL compares that
value with the invoice total of the current invoice. If the invoice total is greater
than that value. MySQL includes the invoice in the result set. Otherwise, it
doesn't. MySQL repeats this process until it has processed each of the invoices
in the Invoices table.
In this figure, the WHERE clause of the subquery qualifies the vendor_id
column from the main query with the alias that’s assigned to the Invoices table
in that query. This is necessary because this statement uses the same table in the
sub and main queries. So, the use of a table alias avoids ambiguity. However, if a
subquery uses a different table than the main query, a table alias isn t necessary.
Since correlated subquerics can be difficult to code, you may want to test
a subquery separately before using it within another SELECT statement. To do
that, however, you’ll need to substitute a literal value for the variable that refers
to a column in the outer query. That’s what I did to get the average invoice total
for vendor 95. Once you're sure that the subquery works on its own. you can
replace the literal value with a reference to the outer query so you can use it
within a SELECT statement.
 Chapter 7 How to code subqueries 205

Get each invoice amount that s higher

than the average for each vendor
SELECT vendor id, invoice^numberr invoicetotal
FROM invoices i
WHERE invoicetotal >
(SELECT AVG(invoicetotal)
FROM invoices
WHERE vendorid ■ i.vendor id)
ORDER BY vendor id, invoicetotal

The value returned by the subquery for vendor 95

28.501667

The result set

vendor Jd rwacejofbef nvoKe_totol A

83 31359783 1575.00
95 m^jR-iooes 32 TO
95 111-9 2R-10C93 39.77

95 111-93^-10092 45.21
110 P-0259 26881.40

(3 6 rows)

Description
• A correlated subquery is a subquery that is executed once for each row in the
main query. In contrast, an uncorrelated subquery is executed only once. All of the
subqueries in the previous figures are uncorrelated subqueries.
• A correlated subquery refers to a value that's provided by a column in the main
query. For each different value that's returned by the main query for that column,
the suhquery returns a different result.
• To refer to a column in the main query, you can qualify the column with a table
name or alias. If a correlated subquery uses the same table as the main query, you
can use table aliases to remove ambiguity.

Figure 7-7 How to code correlated subqueries

206 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to use the EXISTS operator

Figure 7-8 shows how to use the EXISTS operator with a subquery. This
operator tests whether the subquery returns a result set. In other words, it tests
w hether the result set exists. When you use this operator, the subquery doesn’t
actually return a result set to the outer query. Instead, it returns an indication of
w hether any row s satisfy the search condition of the subquery. Because of that,
queries that use this operator execute quickly.
You typically use the EXISTS operator with a correlated subquery as shown
in this figure. This query retrieves all the vendors in the Vendors table that don’t
have invoices in the Invoices table. Although this query returns the same vendors
as the queries show n in figure 7-3, it executes more quickly than either of those
queries.
In this example, the correlated subquery' selects all invoices that have the
same vendor_id value as the current vendor in the outer query. Because the
subquery doesn't actually return a result set, it doesn’t matter what columns
are included in the SELECT clause. As a result, it’s customary to just code an
asterisk.
After the subquery is executed, the search condition in the WHERE clause
of the main query uses the NOT EXISTS operator to test wrhether any invoices
were found for the cunent vendor. If not. the vendor rowr is included in the result
set.
 Chapter 7 How to code subqueries 207

The syntax of a subquery that uses the EXISTS operator

WHERE [NOT] EXISTS (subquery)

Get all vendors that don't have invoices

SELECT vendorid, vendor name, vendor state
FROM vendors
WHERE NOT EXISTS
(SELECT *
FROM invoices
WHERE vendorid ■ vendors.vendor_id)

The result set

vendor jd vendor .name vendorstate

33 Nieisor OH
35 Cal State Termte CA
36 Gray! ft CA
38 VentLre Cornfnmcatjons Inti NV

39 Custom Pfmttng Company MO

40 Nat Assoc of Coflege Stores OH

(88 rows)

Description
• You can use the EXISTS operator to test if at least one row is returned by a
subquery.
• You can use the NOT EXISTS operator to test if no rows are returned by a
subquery.
• When you use these operators with a subquery, it doesn't matter what columns you
specify in the SELECT clause. As a result, you typically just code an asterisk (*).

Figure 7-8 How to use the EXISTS operator

208 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to code subqueries

in other clauses
Now that you know how to code subqueries in the WHERE clause of a
SELECT statement, you’re ready to learn how to code them in the HAVING,
FROM, and SELECT clauses.

How to code subqueries in the HAVING clause

When you code a HAVING clause, you specify a search condition just as
you do when you code a WHERE clause. That includes search conditions that
contain subqueries. To learn how to code subqueries in a HAVING clause, then,
you can refer back to figures 7-3 through 7-8.

How to code subqueries in the SELECT clause

Figure 7-9 shows how to use subqueries in the SELECT clause. To do
that, you code the suhquery in place of a column specification. As a result, the
subquery must return a single value for that column.
In most cases, you code correlated subqueries in the SELECT clause. In this
figure, for example, the suhquery calculates the maximum invoice date for each
vendor in the Vendors table. To do that, the subquery refers to the vendor_id
column from the Vendors table in the main query.
Subqueries coded in the SELECT clause are ty pically difficult to read. As a
result, you shouldn t use them if you can find a more readable solution. In most
cases, you can replace the subquery w ith a join. In this figure, for example, the
first query can be restated as show n in the second query. This query joins the
Vendors and Invoices tables, groups the rows by vendor_name. and uses the
MAX function to calculate the maximum invoice date for each vendor. As a
result, this query is easier to read.
 Chapter 7 How to code subqueries 209

Get the most recent invoice date for each vendor

SELECT vendorn&met
(SELECT MAX(invoice date) FROM invoices
WHERE vendor id » vendors.vendor_id) AS lateet.inv
FROM vendors
ORDER BY latest inv DESC

The result set

latestjriv A
vendor_name

► Federal Express Corporator 2022-08-02

BLe Cross 2022-08 -01
Malloy UtToqr apung Inc 2022*07*31
Cardral Busness Media, Inc. 2022-07-28
Zyka Design 2022-07-25 V

(122 rows)

The same query restated using a join

SELECT vendor name, MAX(invoicedate) AS latest_inv
FROM vendors v
LEFT JOIN invoices i ON v.vendorid ■ i.vendorid
GROUP BY vendor name
ORDER BY latest inv DESC

Description
• When you code a subquery in the SELECT clause, the subquery must return a
single value, and you typically use a correlated subquery.
• A query that includes a subquery in its SELECT clause can typically be restated
using a join instead of the subquery. Because a join is usually faster and easier to
read, subqueries are seldom coded in the SELECT clause.

Figure 7-9 How to code subqueries in the SELECT clause

210 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to code subqueries in the FROM clause

Figure 7-10 shows how to code a subquery in the FROM clause. To do that,
you code a subquery in place of a table specification. \\ hen you code a subquery
in the FROM clause, it can return a result set that contains any number of rows
and columns. This result set is sometimes referred to as an inline view.
Subqueries are typically used in the FROM clause to create inline views that
provide summarized data to another summary query. In this figure, for example,
the subquery returns a result set that contains the vendor state, the vendor name,
and the sum of invoice totals for each vendor. To do that, it groups the vendors
by state and name. Once the subquery returns this result set, the main query
groups the result set by vendor state and gets the largest sum of invoice totals for
a vendor in each state.
When you code a subquery in the FROM clause, you must assign a table
alias to the subquery. This is required even if you don't use the table alias in the
main query. In this figure, for example, the query assigns a table alias of 11 for
temporary table) to the subquery.
In addition, you should assign a column alias to all calculated columns in
a subquery. In this figure, for example, the subquery assigns a column alias
of sum_of_invoices to the result of the SUM function. That makes it easier to
refer to these columns from other clauses in the subquery if you need to do
that. It also makes it possible to refer to the column from the main query. In
this example, for instance, the sum_of_invoices column is referred to by the
SELECT clause.
 Chapter 7 How to code suhqueries 211

Get the largest sum of invoice totals for a vendor in each state
SELECT vendoratate, MAX (sximofinvoices) AS maxsumofinvoices
FROM
<
SELECT vendor state, vendor name,
SUM(invoicetotal) AS sum ofinvoices
FROM vendors v JOIN invoices 1
ON v.vendorid ■ i.vendor_id
GROUP BY vendor_fltate, vendorname
I t
GROUP BY vendor_state
ORDER BY vendor state

The result of the subquery (an inline view)

vendor .state vendor .name sum-Ofjnvoces *

B NV Urrted Parcel Service 23177.96

TN Federal Express Corporation 4378.02
CA Evans Executone Inc 95.00
CA Zylca Design 6940.25
AZ »Vete Fargo Bank 662.00
CA Pacific Bell 171.01
CA Roadway Package System, inc 43.67
CA Fr emo County Tax ColectD' 856.92 V

(34 rows)

The result set

►
vendor -State

AZ
ma m _sum .ofjn voces

662.00
1
CA 7125.34

DC 600.00
----------------- J
(10 rows)

Description
• A subquery that's coded in the FROM clause returns a result set that can be referred
to as an inline view.
• When you code a subquery in the FROM clause, you must assign an alias to it.
Then, you can use that alias just as you would any other table name or alias.
• When you code a subquery in the FROM clause, you should use an alias for any
columns in the subquery that perform calculations. Then, the inline view can use
these aliases as the column names of the table, and the main query can refer to the
columns by these names.

Figure 7-10 How to code subqueries in the FROM clause

212 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to work with complex queries

So far. the examples you’ve seen of queries that use suhqueries have been
relatively simple. However these ty pes of queries can get complicated in a hurry,
particularly if the subqueries are nested. Because of that, you'll want to be sure
that you plan and test these queries carefully. In a moment, you'll learn how to
do that. But first, this chapter presents an example of a complex query.

A complex query that uses subqueries

Figure 7-11 presents a complex query that uses multiple subqueries. The first
subquery is used in the FROM clause of the outer query to create a result set that
contains the state, name, and total invoice amount for each vendor in the Vendors
table. This is the same subquery that was described in figure 7-10.
The second subquery is also used in the FROM clause of the outer query to
create a result set that's joined with the first result set. This result set contains
the state and the sum of invoice totals for the vendor in each state that has the
largest sum of invoice totals. To create this result set, a third subquery is nested
w ithin the FROM clause of the subquery. This subquery is identical to the first
subquery.
After this statement creates the two result sets, it joins them based on the
columns in each table that contain the state and the the sum of invoice totals.
The final result set includes the state, name, and the sum of invoice totals for
the vendor in each state with the largest sum of invoice totals. This result set is
sorted by state.
At this point, you might be wondering if there is an easier solution to this
problem. For example, you might think that you could solve the problem by
joining the Vendors and Invoices tables, grouping by vendor state, and calcu­
lating the sum of invoices for each vendor. However, if you group by vendor
state, you can’t include the name of die vendor in the result set. And if you group
by vendor state and vendor name, die result set includes all vendors, not just
the top vendor from each state. As a result, the query presented here is a fairly
straightforward way of solving the problem.
When you code a complex subquery, it's often helpful to include comments.
You can use comments to describe the different part> of the query without
changing how the query operates. To code a single-line comment, you start the
line w ith two dashes (—).
In this figure, the query includes three comments. The first comment identi­
fies the first subquery', the second comment identifies the second subquery, and
the third comment identities the third subquery. These comments make it easier
to read die main query by making it easier to identify die three subqueries and
determine what they do. For example, these comments clearly show that the
subqueries diat have aliases of tl and t2 return the same result set.
 Chapter 7 How to code suhqueries 213

A complex query that uses three subqueries

SELECT tl.vendor state, vendor_name, tl.sum of_invoices
FROM
(
-- sum of invoice totals by vendor
SELECT vendor_state, vendor name,
SUM(invoice total) AS sum of invoices
FROM vendors v JOIN invoices i
ON v.vendor id ■ i.vendor id
GROUP BY vendor state, vendor name
) tl
JOIN
(
— top sum of invoice totals by state
SELECT vendor_statef
MAX(sum of_invoices) AS sum of invoices
FROM
(
-- sum of invoice totals by vendor
SELECT vendor state, vendor name,
SUM(invoicetotal) AS sum of invoices
FROM vendors v JOIN invoices i
ON v.vendor_id ■ i.vendorid
GROUP BY vendor state, vendor_name
) t2
GROUP BY vendor state
) t3
ON tl.vendor state = t3.vendor state AND
tl.sum of invoices ■ tl.sum of_invoices
ORDER BY vendor state

The result set

vendor _state vendor _name SLm_of_n voices

► A2 Wefc Fargo Bank 662.00

CA Digiiai Dreamworks 7125.34
DC Refer s SoentJ-fic & Pro Books 600.00
MA Dean Witter Reyndds 1367.50

(10 rows)

Description
• This query retrieves the vendor from each state that has the largest sum of invoice
totals. To do that, it uses three subqueries.
• This query uses comments to clearly identify its three queries.
• The subqueries named tl and t2 return the same result set. This result set includes
the vendor state, name, and sum of invoice totals.
• The subquery named Jt3 returns a result set that includes the vendor state and the
largest sum of invoices for any vendor in that state. To do that, this subquery uses a
nested subquery named t2.
• The subqueries named 11 and t3 are joined on both the vendor_state and sum_of_invoices
columns.

Figure 7-11 A complex query that uses subqueries

214 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

A procedure for building complex queries

To build a complex query like the one in the previous figure, you can use a
procedure Lke the one in figure 7-12. To start, you should state the question in
plain language so you're clear about what you want the query to answer. In this
case, the question is, “Which vendor in each state has the largest sum of invoice
totals?”
Once you're clear about the problem, you can outline the query using
pseudocode. Pseudocode is code that represents the intent of the query, but
doesn't necessarily use SQL code The pseudocode shown in this figure, for
example, uses part SQL code and pail English. This pseudocode identifies the
three columns returned by the main query, two subquenes. and even the join
condition for the two subqueries.
The next step in the procedure is to code and test the subquenes to be sure
they work the way you want them to. For example, this figure shows the code
for the first subquery along with its result set. This returns all of the data that
you want, but it also includes extra rows that you don't want. To remove the
extra rows from the first query, you can code the second subquery shown <n this
figure. This subquery uses the first subquery as a nested subquery. Although this
removes the extra rows, it also removes the vendor_name column.
Once you’re sure that both subqueries work the way you want them to, you
can use them in the main query. For example, the pseudocode in this figure
shows that you should join the result sets returned by the subqueries on the
vendor_state and sum_of_invoices columns. In addition, the code in the previous
figure shows how these two subqueries are used in the main query. This allows
you to get all of the columns you wrant in the final result set without any of the
extra rows that you don't want.
Writing complex queries can be difficult, but following a procedure like the
one shown in this figure can make it a little easier. At first, you might not be able
to use pseudocode to identify subqueries. In that case, it's OK to skip ahead to
step 3 and begin experimenting with possible subquenes. This may give you
some ideas for how to solve the problem. Once you get these subquenes working
correctly, you can begin coding a main query, and you can cut and paste the
subquenes into the main query .
 Chapter 7 How to code subqueries 215

A procedure for building complex queries

1 State the problem to be solved by the query in plain language.
2. Use pseudocode to outline the query.
3. Code the subqueries and test them to be sure that they return the correct data.
4. Code and test the final query.

The problem to be solved by the query in figure 7-11

Which vendor in each state has the largest sum of invoice totals?

Pseudocode for the query

SELECT vendor state, vendor name, sum of invoices
FROM (subquery returning vendor_state, vendor, name, sum of lnvoices)
JOIN (subquery returning vendor state, largest sum of invoices)
ON vendor state AND sum of_invoices
ORDER BY vendor state

The code for the first subquery

SELECT vendor state, vendor name, SUM(invoice total) AS sum of invoices
FROM vendors v JOIN invoices i
ON v.vendor id - i.vendor id
GROUP BY vendor state, vendor name

The result set for the first subquery

vendor .state vendor .name sum.ofjn voces

» NV anted Parcel Servce 23177%

TN Federal Express Corporator 4378.02
CA Evans Exeojtnre Inc 95.00
______________ J

(34 rows)

The code for the second subquery

SELECT vendor state, MAX(sumof invoices) AS sum of invoices
FROM
(
SELECT vendor state, vendor name,
SUM(invoice_total) AS sum pf_invoices
FROM vendors v JOIN invoices i
ON v.vendor_id ■ i.vendor id
GROUP BY vendor state, vendor name
) t
GROUP BY vendor state

The result set for the second subquery

vendor .state sum.of.rrvotces A

► NV 23177.96
TN 4378.02
CA 712S.34 V

(10 rows)

Figure 7-12 A procedure for building complex queries

216 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to work with

common table expressions
A common table expression <(TE) allows you to code an expression that
defines a named temporary result set. You can use CTEs to simplify complex
queries that use subqueries. This can make your code easier to read and
maintain. In addition, you can use a CTE to loop through nested structures.

How to code a CTE

Figure 7-13 shows how to use a CTE to simplify the complex query
presented in figure 7 -11. To start, the statement for the query begins with the
WITH keyword to indicate that you are about to define a CTE. Then, it speci­
fies summary as the name for the first result set, followed by the AS keyword,
followed by a SELECT statement enclosed in parentheses that defines the result
set In this figure, for example, this statement returns the same result set as the
subqueries named tl and t2 that were presented in figure 7-11.
After the first CTE is defined, this example continues by defining a second
CTE named top_in_state. To start, a comma is coded to separate the two CTEs.
Then, this query specifies top_in_state as the name for the second result set,
followed by the AS keyword, followed by a SELEC’T statement enclosed in
parentheses that defines the result set. This SELECT statement refers to the
summary result set that was defined by the first CTE. When coding multiple
CTEs like this, a CTE can refer to any C I'Es in the same WITH clause that are
coded before it, but it can’t refer to CTEs coded after it. As a result, this state­
ment wouldn't work if the two CTEs were coded in the reverse order.
Finally, the SELECT statement that’s coded immediately after the two CTEs
uses both of these CTEs just as if they were tables. To do that, this SELECT
statement joins the two result sets, specifies the columns to retrieve, and speci­
fies the sort order. To avoid ambiguous references, each column is qualified
by the name for the CTE. If you compare figure 7-13 with figure 7-11,1 think
you’ll agree that the code in figure 7-13 is easier to read. That's partly because
the result sets defined by the subqueries aren’t nested within the SELECT state­
ment. In addition. I think you’ll agree that the code in figure 7-13 is easier to
maintain. That's because this query reduces code duplication by only coding the
summary subquery in one place, not in two places.
When using the syntax shown here to define CTEs, you must supply distinct
names for all columns defined by the SELECT statement, including calculated
values. That way. it’s possible for other statements to refer to the columns in the
result set. Most of the time, that’s all you need to know to be able to work with
CTEs. For more information about working with CTEs. you can look up “WITH
Syntax (Common Table Expressions)” in the documentation for MySQL.
 Chapter 7 How to cade subqueries 217

The syntax of a CTE

WITH [RECURSIVE] eta n&nfil AS (subqueryl)
[, cte name2 AS (subquery2)]
(...]
sql_fitatement

Two CTEs and a query that uses them

WITH summary AS
(
SELECT vendor^tate, vendor name, SUM(invoice total) AS sum of invoices
FROM vendors v JOIN Invoices i
ON v.vendor id ■ i.vendor id
GROUP BY vendor state, vendor name
),
topinstate AS
<
SELECT vendor state, MAX(sumof invoices) AS sum of_invoices
FROM summary
GROUP BY vendor state
)
SELECT summary.vendor_atate, summary.vendor name,
top in state.sum of invoices
FROM summary JOIN topinstate
ON summary.vendor state ■ top in state.vendor state AND
summary.sum of invoices ■ top in state.sum of invoices
ORDER BY summary.vendor state

The result set

vendor-State vendor _name gunjjfjnvoices

A2 Weis Fargo Bank 662.00

CA D-gtai Dreamworks 7125.34
DC Reiter's Saenftfic & Pro Books 600.00
MA Dean Witter Reynolds 1367.50
MI Maloy uthographng Inc 119892.41
NV Unted Parcel Service 23177.96
OH Edward Data Services 207.78
PA Cardinal Business Media, Inc. 265.36

(10 rows)

Description
• A common table expression (CTE} is a SELECT statement that creates one or more
named temporary result sets that can be used by the query that follows.
• To use a CTE, you code the Wil 11 keyword followed by the definition of the CTE.
Then, immediately alter the CTE. you code the statement that uses it.
• To code multiple CTEs. separate them with commas. Then, each CTE can refer to
itself and any previously defined CTEs in the same WITH clause.
• To code a recursive CTE. include the RECURSIVE keyword after the WITH
keyword as shown in figure 7-14.
• Although you can use CTEs with INSERT. UPDATE, and DELETE statements,
you’re most likely to use them with SELECT statements.

Figure 7-13 How to code a CTE

218 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to code a recursive CTE

A recursive query is a query that is able to loop through a result set and
perform processing to return a final result set. Recursive queries are commonly
used to return hierarchical data such as an organizational chart in which a parent
element may have one or more child elements, and each child element may have
one or more child elements. Prior to MySQL 8.0. a recursive query required
using inline views, cursors, and logic to control the flow of the recursive steps.
With MySQL 8.0 and later, you can use a recursive CTE to code recursive
queries more easily. Figure 7-14 shows how.
The top of this figure shows an Employees table where the manager_id
column is used to identify the manager for each employee. Here, Cindy Smith is
the top level manager since she doesn't have a manager, Elmer Jones and Paulo
Local io report to Cindy, and so on.
The recursive CTE shown in this figure returns each employee according
to their level in the organization chart for the company. To do that, this state­
ment begins by defining a CTE named employees_cte. Note here that the
WITH clause includes the RECURSIVE keyword. This is required for recursive
common table expressions. If you forget this keyword, you'll get error code
1146: "Table ‘table_name’ doesn’t exist”.
Within the CTE, two SELECT statements are joined by the UNION ALL
operator. Here, the first SELECT statement uses the IS NULL operator to return
the first row of the result set. Because this statement doesn't refer to the name of
the CTE. it is non-recursive.
The second SELECT statement creates a loop by retelling to the name of the
CTE. Specifically, this statement joins the Employees table to the employees_cte
result set that’s defined by the CTE. Because of that, it is a recursive SELECT
statement that loops through each row m the Employees table. With each loop, it
adds 1 to the ranking column and appends the current result set to the final result
set. For example, on the first loop, it appends Elmer Jones and Paulo Locario
to the final result set. On the second loop, it appends Ralph Simonian. Thomas
Hardy, Olivia Hernandez, and Rhea 0*Leaiy to the final result set. And so on.
When coding a recursive CTE, you must follow some rules. First, you must
supply a name for each column defined by the CTE. To do that, you |ust need to
make sure to specify a name for each column in the non-recursive query. Second,
the rules for coding a union that you learned in chapter 4 still apply. In particular,
the two SELECT statements must have the same number of columns and the
columns must have compatible data types.
Most of the time, that's all you need to know to be ahle to work with recur­
sive CTEs. However, the goal of this topic is to show a simple recursive CTE to
give you a general idea of how they work. For more information about working
w ith recursive CTEs, you can start by looking up “WITH Syntax (Common
Table Expressions)” in the documentation for MySQL and then clicking on the
“Recursive Common Table Expressions" fink.
 Chapter 7 How to code subqueries 219

The Employees table

employee jd last_name *T3t_name department _ntrriber manager jd

► 1 Smith Cindy 2
2 Jones Smer 4 i
3 SrwMar Rafoh 2 2
4 Hernandez oirvia 1 9
5 Aaronsen Robert 2 4
6 Watson Dense 6 8
7 Harfiy Thomas 5 2
8 O'Leary Rhea 4 9
9 locarto Paufo 6 t

A recursive CTE that returns hierarchical data

WITH RECURSIVE employeeacta AS
<
-- Nonrecursive query
SELECT employee id,
CONCAT(first name, 1 last name) AS employee name,
1 AS ranking
FROM employees
WHERE managerid IS NULL
UNION ALL
-• Recursive query
SELECT employees.employee id,
CONCAT(first name, 1 •, last name),
ranking * 1
FROM employees
JOIN employees_cte
ON employees.manager id ■ employees cte.employee id
)
SELECT ♦
FROM employees cte
ORDER BY ranking, employee id

The final result set

employee jd employee _name ranking

» 1 Qndy Smith 1
2 E>xr Jones 2
9 Pado Lorar o 2
3 Ralph Simonian 3
4 OlMa Hernandez 3
7 fhomas Hardy 3
8 Rhea Oleary 3
5 Robert Aaronsen 4
6 Dense Watson 4

Description
• A recursive query is a query that can loop through a result set and perform processing to
return a final result set. A recursive CTE can be used to create a recursive query.
• A recursive CTE contains a non-recursive SELECT statement followed by a recursive
SELECT statement, and these two statements must be connected by the UNION or
UNION ALL operator.

Figure 7-14 How to code a recursive CTE

220 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Perspective
Subqueries are a powerful tool that you can use to solve difficult problems.
Before you use a subquery, however, remember that a subquery can often be
restated more clearly by using a join. It so, you'll typically want to use a join
instead of a subquery.
If you fmd yourself coding the same subqueries in multiple places, you
should consider creating a view tor that subquery as described in chapter 12.
This will help you develop queries more quickly since you can use the view
instead of coding the subquery again. In addition, since views typically execute
more quickly than subqueries, this may improve the performance of your
queries.

Terms
subquery comment
introduce a subquery pseudocode
nested subquery common table expression (CTE)
correlated subquery recursive query
uncorrelated subquery recursive CTE
inline view

Exercises
1. Write a SELECT statement that returns the same result set as this SELECT
statement, but don't use a join. Instead, use a subquery in a WHERE clause
that uses the IN keyword.
SELECT DISTINCT vendor, name
FROM vendors JOIN invoices
ON vendors.vendor_id ■ invoices.vendor id
ORDER BY vendorname

2. Write a SELECT statement that answers this question. Which invoices have
a payment total that’s greater than the average payment total for all invoices
with a payment total greater than 0?
Return the invoice_number and invoice_total columns for each invoice. This
should retuin 20 rows.
Sort the results by die invoice_total column in descending order.
3. Write a SELECT statement that returns two columns from the
General_Ledger_Accounts table: account_number and account_description.
Return one row for each account number that has never been assigned to any
hne item in the lnvoice_Line_Items table. To do that, use a subquery intro­
duced with the NOT EXISTS operator. This should retuin 54 rows.
Sort the results by the account_number column.
 Chapter 7 How to code subqueries 221

4. Write a SELECT statement that returns four columns: vendor_name. invoice_id.

invoice_sequence. and line_item_amount.
Return a row for each tin® item of each invoice that has more than one line
item in the lnvoice_Line_ltems table. Hint. Use a suhquery that tests for
invoice_sequtnce > 1. This should return 6 rows.
Sort the results by the vendor_name. invoice_id, and invoice_sequcnce
columns.
5. Write a SELECT statement that returns two columns: vendorjd and the
largest unpaid invoice for each vendor. To do this, you can group the result set
by the vendorjd column. This should return 7 rows.
Write a second SELECT statement that uses the first SELECT statement in its
FROM clause. The main query should return a single value that represents the
sum of the largest unpaid invoices for each vendor.
6. Write a SELECT statement that returns the name, city, and state of each
vendor that's located in a unique city and state. In other words, don't include
vendors that have a city and state in common w ith another vendor. This
should return 38 rows.
Sort the results by the vendor_state and vendor_city columns.
7. Use a correlated subquery to return one row per vendor, representing the
vendor's oldest invoice (tire one with the earliest date). Each row should
include these four columns: vendor_name. invoice_number. invoice_date. and
invoice_total. This should return 34 row s.
Sort the results by the vendor_name column.
8. Rewrite exercise 7 so it gets the same result but uses an inline view instead of
a correlated subquery .
9. Rewnte exercise 5 so it uses a common table expression iCTE) instead of an
inline view.
 8
How to work
with data types
So far. you have been using SQL statements to work with the three most
common types of data: strings, numbers, and dates. Now; this chapter takes a
more in-depth look at the data types that are av ailable with MySQL and shows
some basic skills for working with them. When you complete this chapter,
you'll have a thorough understanding of the data types, and you'll know how to
use some functions to convert one data type to another.

The data types........ ........ .......................................................... 224

Overview................... _................................ _................. ...... „.................224
The character types............................................................. 226
The integer types....................... ....................................................................... 228
The fixed-point and floating-point types........................................................ 230
The date and time types.................................... ................................................ 232
The ENUM and SET types.............................................................................. 236
The binary types........................ ........ ................._.................238
The large object types........................................................... ........ _.................238
How to convert data...... ................................... .......... .........240
How implicit data conversion works.............................................................. 240
How to convert data using the CAST and CONVERT functions..............242
How to convert data using the FORMAT and CHAR functions............... 244
Perspective............................................................
224 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

The data types

A column's data type specifies the kind of information the column is
intended to store. In addition, a column’s data type determines the operations
that can be performed on the column.

Overview
The MySQL data types can be divided into the categories shown in
figure 8-1. To start, the character data types are intended for storing a string of
one or more characters, which can include letters, numbers, symbols, or special
characters. The terms character, string, and text are used interchangeably to
describe this type of data.
The numeric data types are intended for storing numbers that can be used
for mathematical calculations. As you’ll see in this chapter, MySQL can store
numbers in a variety of formats. At a basic level, you can divide numbers into
two categories: integers and real numbers. Integers are numbers that don’t have a
decimal point, and real numbers are numbers that have a decimal point.
The date and time data types are intended for storing dates, times, or
both dates and times. These data types are typically referred to as dau/tune or
temporal data types.
Since the first three categories are the most widely used, this book focuses
on these data types. However. MySQL also pros ides binary data types that are
useful for storing encryption keys and hash values, as well as smaller image,
audio, and video files. It also provides large object (LOB) data types that are
useful for storing larger image, audio, and video files, as well as large amounts
of character data. And it provides spatial data types that are useful for storing
geographical values such as global positioning sy stem (GPS) data. These data
types are referred to as geometry types because they define a point or group of
points that represent any location or area in the world.
Finally. MySQL provides the JSON data type, which is used to store
JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) documents. Although you can store JSON
documents in a character column, the JSON data type provides two advantages.
First, when you store a JSON document in a JSON column, the document is
automatically validated. Then, if it’s invalid, an error occurs. Second, the internal
storage format provides for quick access to the document.
 Chapter 8 How to work with data types 225

Data types
Category Description
Character Strings of character data
Numeric Numbers that don't include a decimal point (integers) and
numbers that include a decimal point (real numbers)
Date and time Dates, times, or both
Binary Strings of binary data (bytes)
Large Object (LOB ) Large strings of character or binary data
Spatial Geographical values
JSON JSON documents

Description
• MySQL provides data types for storing many ty pes of data.
• Numbers that don't include a decimal point are known as integers.
• Numbers that include a decimal point are known as real numbers.
• The date and time data types are often referred to as the date/time or temporal data
types.
• I’he binary data types are useful for storing bytes of data that can’t be represented
as character strings, such as encryption keys, hash values, and smaller image,
audio, and video files.
• The large object (LOBi data types are useful for storing images, audio, video, and
large amounts of text.
• The spatial data types are useful for storing geometric or geographical values
such as global positioning system iGPS} data. These data types are referred to as
geometry types.
• The JSON data type is used for storing JavaScript Object Notation (JSON)
documents.

Figure 8-1 Data type overview

226 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

The character types

Figure 8-2 presents the two most common character data types supported by
MySQL. CHAR and VARCHAR. These data types store strings of characters.
You use the CHAR type to store fixed-length strings. Data stored using this
data type always occupies the same number of bytes regardless of the actual
length of the string. To do that. MySQL appends spaces to the string if necessary
so it is the correct length.
The CHAR data type is typically used to define columns that have a fixed
number of characters. For example, the vendor_state column in the Vendors table
is defined as CHAR(2) because it always contains 2 characters. However, if 2
characters are stored <n a CHARi 10) column. MySQL appends eight spaces to
the string so it contains 10 characters.
You use the VARCHAR data type to store variable-length strings. Data
stored using this data ty pe occupies only the number of bytes needed to store
the string plus an extra byte to store the length of the string. This data type
is typically used to define columns whose lengths vary from one row to the
next. For example, the vendor_name column in the Vendors table is defined as
VARCHAR(50) because the length of each vendor’s name varies.
With MySQL 8.0 and later, the CHAR and VARCHAR types use the
utflimM character set by default. This character set uses up to four bytes to
store each character. As a result, it's referred to as a multiple-byte character set.
This allows the utf8mb4 character set to support the characters specified by the
Unicode standard, which includes most characters from most of the world's
languages.
When you use the utf8mb4 character set with a CHAR type. MySQL must
reserve 4 bytes for each character. As a result, MySQL uses 8 bytes for the
CHARt2) type, and 40 bytes for the CHARi 10) type.
However, when you use the VARCHAR type, MySQL doesn't need to
reserve space for each character. As a result, if you are using English letters,
MySQL only uses I byte per character, plus 1 byte to store the length of the
string. For example, when you store a string of *CA’, MySQL only uses 3 bytes.
This shows that you can typically save storage space by using the VARCHAR
type.
With MySQL 5.6 and 5.7. the CHAR and VARCHAR types used the
utf8mb3 character set. This character set is similar to the utf8mb4 character set.
but it can only use up to 3 bytes to store each character. Because of that, it’s not
able to store supplemental characters and amojis. Note that this character set is
deprecated in MySQL 8.0 and will be removed in a future release.
With MySQL 5.5 and earlier, the CHAR and VARCHAR types used
the latinl character set by default. This character set uses one byte to store
each character. As a result, it’s referred to as a single-byte character set. This
character set supports all of the characters that are used in English and by most
western European languages However, it doesn’t support other characters such
as Middle Eastern script letters and Korean, Chinese, and Japanese ideographs.
 Chapter 8 How to work with data types 227

The character types

Type bytes Description
CHAR (M) Mx4 Fixed-length strings of character data where M is the number of
characters, between 0 and 255. With the utf8mb4 character set
MySQL must reserve four bytes for each character in a CHAR
column because that's the maximum possible length.
VARCHAR (M) L+l Variable-length strings of character data w here M is the maxi­
mum number of characters, between 0 and 255. For English and
Latin characters, the number of bytes used to store the string is
equal to length of the string (L) plus 1 byte to record its length.

How the character types work with utf8mb4

Data type Original value Value stored Bytes used
CHAR(2) 'CA' •CA' 8
CHAR(10) 'CA' 'CA ' 40
VARCHAR(10) 'CA' •CA' 3
VARCHAR(20) 'California• 'California' 11
VARCHAR(20) 'New York' 'New York' 9
VARCHAR(20) "Murach's MySQL" "Murach's MySQL" 15

How the utf8mb4 character set works

• Basic Latin letters (A-Z), digits, and punctuation signs use I byte.
• Most European and Middle East script letters use 2 bytes.
• Most Korean, Chinese, and Japanese ideographs use 3 bytes.
• Supplemental characters and emojis use 4 bytes.

Description
• The CHAR type is used for fixed-length strings. A column with this type uses the
same amount of storage for each value regardless of the actual length of the string.
• The VARCHAR type is used for variable-length strings. A column with this type uses
a varying amount of storage for each value depending on the length of the string.
• By default. MySQL 8.0 uses the utftbnM character set for the CHAR and
VARCHAR types. This character set is a multiple-byte character set. It typically
uses 1 byte per character, but can use up to 4 bytes per character. However, the
utf8mb4 format provides for all characters in most languages by providing support
for all of the characters in the Unicode standard.
• By default. MySQL 5.6 and 5.7 use the utf8mb3 character set for the CHAR and
VARCHAR types, which can use up to 3 bytes per character.
• By default. MySQL 5.5 and earlier use the latinl character set for the CHAR and
VARCHAR types. This character set is a single-byte character set that supports all
of the characters that are used in English and by most w estern European languages.
• To leam how to change the character set. see chapter 11.

Figure 8-2 The character types

228 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

In most cases, it makes sense to use the utf8mb4 character set. That way,
your database supports most characters in most languages as well as emojis.
However, if you want to use the CHAR type and you only need to support
English and western European languages, you may want to use the latin 1
character set to keep storage requirements to a minimum. In chapter 11. you'll
learn how to change the character set for a database.
Although you typically store numeric values using numeric types, the
character types may be a better choice for some numeric values. For example,
you typically store zip codes, telephone numbers, and social security numbers
in character columns even if they contain only numbers. That's because their
values aren't used in numeric operations. In addition, if you store these numbers
in numeric columns. MySQL may strip leading zeros in some situations, which
isn’t what you want.
In figure 8-2, the first five examples use single quotes to specify a string
literal. However, the sixth example uses double quotes to specify a string literal.
This allows the string literal to include a single quote, and it shows that you
can use single or double quotes for string literals. Although it’s common to use
single quotes, double quotes are useful if you need to include a single quote in
the string.

The integer types

Figure 8-3 shows the integer types, which are numbers that don’t include a
decimal point. The integer data types differ in the amount of storage they use and
the range of values they can store. Since the INT type can store a wide range of
numbers and only requires 4 bytes of storage, it's the most commonly used of
the integer types.
By default, the integer types can store positive and negative numbers.
However, you can include the UNSIGNED attribute for an integer type to
prevent negative values from being stored in the column In that case, the range
of acceptable positive values for the column is doubled.
The INTEGER type is a synonym for the INT type. As a result, you can use
these types interchangeably. However, it’s a common programming practice to
use INT as an abbreviation for INTEGER.
The BOOL and BOOLEAN types are synonyms forTINYINT. When you
work with these types, you can use a value of 0 to store false values and a value
of 1 to store true values. To make that more intuitive, you can use the FALSE
keyword, which is an alias for 0. and the TRUE keyword, which is an alias for I
 Chapter 8 How to work with data types 229

The integer types

Type Bytes Value ranges
BIGINT 8 Signed: -9.223.372,036,854,775.808 to 9.223.372.036.854.775,807
Unsigned: Oto 18.446.744.073.709.551.615
INT 4 Signed: -2,147.483.648 to 2.147.483.647
Unsigned: 0 to 4394.967.295
ME DI UM I NT 3 Signed: -8388.608 5to 8.388.607
Unsigned: Oto 16.777315
SMALLINT 2 Signed: -32.768 and 32.767
Unsigned: 0 to 65.535
TINY I NT 1 Signed: -128 to 127
Unsigned: 0 to 255

How the UNSIGNED attribute works

Data type Original value Value stored Value displayed
INT 99 99 99
INT -99 -99 -99
INT UNSIGNED 99 99 99
INT UNSIGNED -99 (error) (enor)

Description
• The integer types store numbers without any digits to the right of the decimal point.
• If the UNSIGNED attribute for the integer is set, it changes the range of acceptable
values. If you try to store a negative integer in a column with the UNSIGNED attr i­
bute, an error occurs.
• The INTEGER type is a synonym for the INT type.
• The BOOL and BOOLEAN types are synonyms for T1NYINT. You can use these
types to store true and false values, where 0 represents a false value and any
non-zero number represents a true value.
• The TRUE and FALSE keywords are aliases for 1 and 0 respectively.

Figure 8-3 The integer types

230 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

The fixed-point and floating-point types

Figure 8-4 presents the data types for storing real numbers, which are
numbers that have digits to the right of the decimal point. To start, you can use
the DECIMAL type to store fixed-point numbers, which are numbers that have a
fixed number of digits to the right of the decimal point.
The number of digits a value has to the right of the decimal point is called
its scale, and the total number of digits is called its precision. You can customize
the precision and scale of the DECIMAL type so they're right for the data to be
stored. For instance, if you need to store monetary values, it’s common to use
two digits to the right of the decimal place as shown in the first three examples.
When you use the DECIMAL type, MySQL uses a varying number of bytes
to store the value. In general, it packs 9 digits into 4 bytes However, it stores
the digits to the left and right of the decimal point separately, and it can use
fewer than 4 bytes if there are fewer than 9 digits. As a result DECIMAL(9, 2)
requires 5 bytes, while DECIMAL! 18. 9) requires 8 bytes.
In contrast to the DECIMAL type, the DOUBLE and FLOAT types store
floating-point numbers. These data types provide for very large and very small
numbers, but with a limited number of significant digits. The FLOAT type can
be used to store a single-precision number, which provides for numbers with up
to 7 significant digits. The DOUBLE type can be used to store a
double-precision number, which provides for numbers with up to 15 significant
digits.
To express the value of a floating-point number, you can use scientific
notation. To use this notation, you type the letter E followed by a power of 10.
For instance. 3.65Et9 is equal to 3.65 x 10’, or 3,650.000.01)0. Conversely,
3.65E-9 is equal to 3.65 x 10’, or 0.00000000365 If you have a mathematical
background, of course, you're already familiar with this notation.
Because the precision of the integer types and the DECIMAL type is exact,
these data types are considered exact numeric types. In contrast, the DOUBLE
and FLOAT types are considered approximate numeric types because they may
not represent a value exactly. That can happen, for example, when a number
is rounded to the appropriate number of significant digits, in this figure, for
instance, the last example shows that the FLOAT type rounds the original value
and only stores 7 significant digits. For business applications, you typically
use the exact numeric types, as there’s seldom the need to work with the very
large and very small numbers that the floating-point data types are designed
for. However, for scientific applications, you may sometimes need to use the
DOUBLE and FLOAT types.
1’he DECIMAL. DOUBLE, and FLOAT types have numerous synonyms.
Sometimes these synonyms are helpful because they make it easier to work with
data from other databases. However, w hen working with a MySQL database,
most programmers use the DECIMAL. DOUBLE, and FLOAT types.
 Chapter 8 How to work with data types 231

The fixed-point type

Type Bytes Description
DECIMAL (M, D) Vary Fixed-precision numbers where M specifies the maximum number
of total digits (the precision) and D specifies the number of digits
to the right of the decimal (the scale). M can range from 1 to 65.
D can range from 0 to 30 but can’t be larger than M. The default
for D is 0.

The floating-point types

Type Bytes Description
DOUBLE 8 Double-precision floating-point numbers from -1.7976x1 O’4* to 1.7976x10*".
FLOAT 4 Single-precision floating-point numbers from -3.4028x10M to 3.4O28X1O3*.

How the fixed-point (exact) and floating-point (approximate) types work

Data type Original value Value stored Bytes used
DECIMAL(9f 2) 1.2 1.20 5
DECIMAL!9,2) 1234567.89 1234567.89 5
DECIMAL(9,2) >1234567.89 >1234567.89 5
DECIMAL*18,9) 1234567.89 1234567.890000000 8
DOUBLE 1234567.89 1234567.89 8
FLOAT 1234567.89 1234570 4

Description
« Real numbers can include digits to the right of the decimal point. The precision of
a real number indicates the total number of digits that can be stored, and the scale
indicates the number of digits that can be stored to the right of the decimal point.
• The DECIMAL type is considered an exact numeric type because its precision is
exact.
• The DOUBLE and FLOAT types store floating-point numbers, which have a
limited number of significant digits. These data types are considered approximate
numeric data types because they may not represent a value exactly.
• The DEC. NUMERIC, and FIXED types are synonyms for the DECIMAL type.
• The REAL and DOUBLE PRECISION types are synonyms for the DOUBLE type.

Figure 8-4 The fixed-point and floating-point types

232 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

The date and time types

Part 1 of figure 8-5 presents the five date and time ty pes supported by
MySQL. You can use the DATE type to store a date without a time. You can
use the TIME type to store a time without a date. And you can use either the
DATETIME or TIMESTAMP types to store both a date and a time.
You typically use the TIMESTAMP type to keep track of when a row was
inserted or last updated. For example, you might use this type to keep track
of the entries on a blog. MySQL makes that easy by automatically setting the
TIMESTAMP column to the current date and time whenever a row is inserted or
updated. If that’s not what you want, you can use the DATETIME type instead.
The problem with the TIMESTAMP type is that it can only store dates up
to the year 2038. This is known as the year 2038 problem, the Y2K38 problem,
and the Unix Millennium bug. As a result, if you want your database to be able
to store dates that go beyond 2038, you should use the DATETIME type instead
of the TIMESTAMP type. Otherwise, you can use the TIMESTAMP type since
it only requires 4 bytes to store a TIMESTAMP value, compared to 8 bytes for a
DATETIME value.
If you need to store a year w ithout any other temporal data, you can use the
YEAR type. Prior to MySQL 5.7.5. a YEAR column could store a 2-digit year,
and 1-digit entries were converted to two digits. With MySQL 5.7.5 and later,
however, the YEAR type only stores 4-digit years from 1901 to 2155. Entries
with one and two digits are still acceptable, but they are converted to 4-digit
years as indicated in this figure. Note that, by default, a numeric literal of 0 or 00
is converted to (XXX). To store the value 2000 in a YEAR column, you must code
it as a string.
 Chapter 8 How to work with data types 233

The date and time types

Type Bytes Description
DATE 3 Dates from January 1. 1000 through December 31,9999. The
default format for display and entry is “yyyy-mmdd“.
TIME 3 Times in the range -838:59:59 through 838:59:59. The default
format for display and entry' is “hh:mm:ssM.
DATETIME 8 Combination date and time from midnight January 1, 1970 to
December 31. 9999. The default format for display and entry
is **yyyy-mm dd hh:mm:ss".
TIMESTAMP 4 Combination date and time from midnight January 1, 1970 to
January 19, 2038. The default format is *yyyy-mm-dd hh:mm:ss”.
YEAR 1 Years in 4 <iigit format. Allowable values are from 1901 to 2155.

Description
• A column of the TIMESTAMP type is automatically updated to the current date
and time when a row is inserted or updated. If a table has multiple TIMESTAMP
columns, only the tirst one is updated automatically.
• The TIMESTAMP type can only store dates up to the year 2038. This is known
as the year 2038 problem. the Y2K38 problem, and the Unix Millennium bug. To
fix this problem, use the DATETIME type instead of the TIMESTAMP type and
update the value manually as needed.
• MySQL 5.7.5 and later support only 4-digit years. It you enter a 1-digit or 2-digit
year, it will be converted to a 4-digit year. Values from 0 to 69 are converted to
2000 to 2069. and values from 70 to 99 are converted to 1970 to 1999.
• For a value of 0 or 00 to be stored as 20CX) in a YEAR column, you must enter it as
a string. Otherwise, it’s stored as 0000.

Figure 8-5 The date and time types (part 1 of 2)

234 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

When you work with the date and time types, you need to know how to code
date and time literals. Part 2 of figure 8-5 shows how to do that. The default date
format for MySQL is “yyyy-mm-dd". which is why we’ve used this format in
most of the examples in this book. By default. My SQL doesn’t support other
common date formats such as “mm-dd-yy”, If you attempt to use an unsupported
format. MySQL returns an error.
You also need to he aware of the two-digit year cutoff that’s defined on your
system. When you code a two-digit year, the two-digit year cutoff determines
how MySQL interprets the year. By default. MySQL interprets the years (X)
through 69 as 2(XX) through 2069. and it interprets the years 70 through 99 as
1970 through 1999. Usually, that’s what you want. However, the two-digit year
cutoff can be modified if necessary. In general, it’s considered a good coding
practice to use four-digit years. That way, you can be sure that MySQI. is
interpreting the year correctly.
Prior to MySQL 8.0.29. you could use almost any punctuation character as
a delimiter between date and time parts. For example, it was common to use a
slash as a separator between date parts. With MySQL 8.0.29 and later, however,
you should only use a hyphen as a separator between date parts and a colon
as a separator between time parts. That’s because the use of other punctuation
characters has been deprecated. If you don’t use delimiters, you can code a
DATE or TIME value as a numeric literal. In that case, you don t need to use
single quotes.
When storing a date in a DATE column, the values are loosely checked for
valid data. For instance, months must be in the range 0-12 and days must be
in the range 0-31. For illegal dates, such as February 31, MySQL returns an
error. However. MySQL allows you to store unconventional date values, such as
“2018-12-00". which represents a month and year without a specific day.
I’he default time format for MySQL is “hh:mm:ss”. using a 24-hour clock.
Many of the same rules for coding date literals also apply to time literals. Like
dates. MySQL checks times for validity. For illegal times, such as “19:61:11”,
MySQL returns an error.
The default date/time format for MySQL is a combination of the date and
time formats. Most of the rules for coding date/time literals are a combination
of the rules for coding date and time literals. In addition, if you don’t specify
a time when storing a TIMESTAMP or DATETIME value, the time defaults to
00:(X):(X), which is midnight.
 Chapter 8 How to work with data types 235

How MySQL interprets literal date/time values

Literal value Value stored in DATE column
'2022-08-15■ 2022-08-15
•2022-8-15' 2022-08-15
•22-8-15' 2022-08-15
•20220815* 2022-08-15
20220815 2022-08-15
■8-15-22' (error)
•2022-02-31’ (error)
Litoral value Value stored in TIME column
•7:32' 07:32:00
•19:32:11' 19:32:11
• 193211' 19:32:11
193211 19:32:11
• 19:61:11' (error)

Literal value Value stored in DATETIME or TIMESTAMP column

•2022-08-15 19:32:11* 2022-08-15 19:32:11
•2022-08-15' 2022-08-15 00:00:00

Description
• You can specify date and time values by coding a literal value. In most cases, you
enclose the literal value in single quotes.
• For dates, MySQL uses the ’‘yyyy-mm-dd” format. For times. MySQL uses the
“hh:mm:ss” format, using a 24-hour clock.
• By default. MySQL does not support common date formats used by other systems
such as “mm/dd/yy" and “mon/dd/yyyy”.
• By default. MySQL mteiprets 2-digit years from (*0 to 69 as 2(J00 to 2069 and the
years from 70 to 99 as 1970 to 1999.
• MySQL interprets hyphens and colons as delimiters between date and time parts
respectively. If you don't use any delimiters, you can code values as numetic literals
w ithout quotes.
• If you don’t specify a time when storing a DATETIME or TIMESTAMP value,
MySQL stores a time value of 00:00:00 (12:00 midnight).
• If you don’t specify seconds u hen storing a TIME value. MySQL stores 00 for the
seconds.
• When storing date and time values, MySQL loosely checks the values to make sure they
are valid. For example, months must be in the range 0-12, days must be in the range
0-31, and so on If MySQL detennines that a date or time isn’t valid, it returns an error.
• If MySQL can’t interpret a date or time value, it returns an error or a warning.

Figure 8-5 The date and time types (part 2 of 2)

236 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

The ENUM and SET types

The ENUM and SET types can be considered character data types since they
allow you to restrict the values for a column to a set of strings that you specify
w hen you create the column. Although these types represent strings. MySQL
stores these values internally as integers, which reduces the number of bytes
needed to store each string. Figure K-t» shows how these types work.
The main difference between the ENUM and SET types is that an ENUM
column stores an integer that represents exactly one value, but a SET column
stores an integer that can represent from zero to 64 different values. In other
words, an ENUM column can consist of only one member in a set of values,
while the SET column may consist of none, any. or all, members in a set.
Another difference is that an ENUM column can specify up to 65,535 acceptable
values, but a SET column is limited to 64 values.
Because it's difficult to change the acceptable values for an ENUM or SET
column, it s a best practice to use these types only w'hen you're sure that the
acceptable values won't change. In addition, because using these types w ith a
large number of acceptable values makes them unwieldy, it's a best practice to
use them only w ith a manageable number of acceptable values.
You can use the ENUM type to store values that are mutually exclusive. For
example, yes, no, or maybe; delivery or pickup: cash, credit, or debit; small,
medium, or large, paper or plastic.
When you define an ENUM column, each acceptable value is assigned an
index that represents the position of the value in the set, starting al I. In the
second table in this figure, for example, the index values fora column defined
as ENUMf’Yes'.'No'.Maybe*) are 1.2, and 3. So if the stung ‘Maybe’ is inserted
into the column, a value of 3 is stored in the column
To store a value in an ENUM column, you code a single text string. If the
string is one of the acceptable values for the column, MySQL stores the index of
that value. Otherwise, an error occurs and the row isn’t inserted.
You can also add a row to a table without specifying a value for an ENUM
column. Then. MySQL assigns a null value if they're allowed or the first value in
the set of acceptable values if they're not. As a result, if you want MySQL to use
a specific value as the default value for a column that doesn't allow null values,
you should code that value as the first value in the set.
You can use a SET column when you want to choose more than one value
from a set of values, such as the toppings on a pizza, the software on a computer,
or the features of a car. To store values in a SET column, you code a single string
with one or more values separated by commas but no spaces. Then, if all the
values are acceptable, MySQL stores a representation of those values. Otherwise,
an error occurs and the row isn’t inserted. Since commas are used to separate
values. you can't use commas within a value when you define the SET column.
Each acceptable value in a SET column is represented by a binary' number.
For example, the first value is represented by the binary number 1. which is
equivalent to the decimal number 1. the second value by the binary number 10.
which is equivalent to the decimal number 2: and the third value by the binary
number 100. which is equivalent to the decimal number 4.
 Chapter 8 How to work with data types 237

The ENUM and SET types

Type Uytes Description
ENUM(vail,val2, ) 1-2 Stores an integer from 1 to 65,535 that represents
the index of one string value from a list of acceptable
values where the first string value has an index of 1.
SET(vail,val2,...) 1-8 Stores the decimal equivalent of a binary number that
represents from 0 to 64 acceptable string values.

How an ENUMfYes','No','Maybe') column works

Value Value stored Value displayed
•Yes’ 1 •Yes •
•No’ 2 •No*
1Maybe* 3 ’Maybe *
• Possibly* (error)
a a (error)

How a SET('Pepporoni','Mushrooms'.'Olives') column works

Value Value stored (binary) Value displayed
1 Pepperoni 1 1 (00000001) 1 Pepperoni *
* Mushrooms 1 2 (00000010) 1 Mushrooms *
•Olives 1 4 (00000100) 'Olives'
1 Olives tPepperoni• 5 (00000101) Pepperonif Olives
'Olives,Olives,Mushrooms 1 6 (00000110) * Mushrooms 9 Olives 1
a i 0 (00000000) । ।
1 Pepperoni f Sausage 1 (error)

Description
• The ENUM and SET types restrict the values you can store to the set of values
specified when the column is created.
• To specify a value for an ENL'M column, you code a single text string. If the string
contains an unacceptable value, an error occurs and the row isn't inserted.
• If you don't specify a value for an ENUM column when you insert a row; MySQL
assigns a default value. If the column allows null values. MySQL assigns a null
value. If it doesn’t allow null values. MySQL assigns the first value in the set of
acceptable values.
• To specify values for a SET column, you code a single string with the values separated
by commas but no spaces. If any of the values are unacceptable, the row' isn't inserted.
• If you don’t specify a value for a SET column w hen you insert a row. MySQL
assigns a null value if the column allows null values. Otherwise, an error occurs
and the row isn't inserted.
• MySQL stores the values you specify for a SET column using the order specified in
the column definition, and it does not store duplicate values.
Figure 8-6 The ENUM and SETT types
238 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Note that each binary number consists of only 0’s and 1 ’s. Because a SET
column has a minimum of one byte and each byte contains 8 bits that can each
store tlie value 0 or 1, each byte can represent up to eight values. If a bit has a
value of 1, it indicates that the associated string value is stored in the column. If
it has a value of zero, the string value isn't stored in the column.
The third table in figure 8-6 illustrates how this works. Here, the SET
column has three possible values: Pepperoni. Mushrooms, and Olives. If the
value 'Pepperoni* is inserted into this column, a value of 1 is stored in tlie
column, which is represented by a single byte with its bits set to(KXXXXX)l. If
two values are stored in the column, the bits for each value are added together.
So Olives (100) and Pepperoni (1) is stored in a single byte with its bits set to
00000101, which is equivalent to a decimal value of 5.
When storing multiple values in a SET column, the order of the values
doesn’t matter. That's because MySQL stores the values in the same order as
in the column definition. It also doesn't matter if you repeat a value because
MySQL doesn t store duplicate values. Because you don’t have to store any
values in a SET column, you can also assign an empty string to it.

The binary types

Figure 8-7 presents the binary types. BINARY and VARBINARY. These
types are like the CHAR and VARCHAR types, except they store strings of
fixed- and variable-length binary data instead of character data. They are often
used to stored encryption keys and hash values, but they can also be used to store
small image, audio, and video files.
If you insert a value that is shorter than the specified number of bytes into
a BINARY column, it’s padded on the right. Because that requires extra storage
and can cause problems with retneval operations. VARBINARY columns are
typically preferred over BINARY columns.

The large object types

Figure 8-7 also presents the large object (LOB) types. These data types are
designed to store large amounts of binary or character data.
The BLOB (binary large object} types store strings of binary data. These
data types arc often used to store images, audio, and video. However, the BLOB
types can be used to store any type of binary data, including the binary data
that's normally stored in application files such as PDF files or Word files.
The TEXT types wrork similarly to the BLOB types, but they store strings of
characters. As a result, they are sometimes referred to as character large object
(CLOBi types. These data types can be used to store large amounts of character
data, including data that's normally stored m text, XML. or JSON files, although
MySQL provides a data type specifically for JSON.
To read and write data from a column defined with a BLOB or TEXT type,
you typically use another programming language such as Java or PI IP. As a
result, we don’t use these types in this book. To leam more about these types,
you can refer to the MySQL Reference Manual.
 Chapter 8 How to work with data types 239

The binary data types

Type □ytes Description
BINARY (M) M Fixed-length strings of binary data, where M is the number of
bytes between 0 and 255.
VARBINARY(M) L+l Variable-length strings of binary data, w here M is the maximum
number of bytes between 0 and 255. The number of bytes used
to store the string is equal to length of the string (L) plus 1 byte
to record its length.

The large object types

Type Bytes Description
LONGBLOB L+4 Variable-length strings of binary data up to 4GB.
MEDIUMBLOB L+3 Variable-length strings of binary data up to 16MB.
BLOB L+2 Vari able-length strings of binary data up to 65 KB.
TINYBLOB L+l Variable-length strings of binary data up to 255 bytes.

LONGTEXT L+4 Variable-length strings of characters up to 4GB.

MEDIUMTEXT L+3 Vari able-length strings of characters up to 16MB.
TEXT L+2 Vari able-length strings of characters up to 65 KB.
TINYTEXT L+l Variable-length strings of characters up to 255 bytes.

Description
• The BINARY and VARBINARY types store strings of fixed- and variable-length
binary data respectively.
• If you store a string in a BINARY column and its length is less than the maximum
size of the column. MySQL pads the string on the right so it contains the specified
number of bytes.
• The BLOB types store strings of binary data and are referred to as binary large
object iBLOB) types.
• The TEXT types store strings of character data and are sometimes referred to as
character large object (CLOB) types.
• The data in BLOB and TEXT types is never padded.

Figure 8-7 The large object types

240 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to convert data

As you work with the various data types, you’ll find that you frequently
need to convert data from one tyrpe to another. Although MySQL performs many
conversions automatically, it doesn't always perform the conversion the way you
want. Because of that, you need to be aware of how data conversion works, and
you need to know when and how to specify the type of conversion you want.

How implicit data conversion works

Before MySQL can operate on two values. it must convert those values to
the same data type. To understand how this works, consider the three expressions
shown in figure 8-8.
In die first example, die second column joins a string literal of to the
invoice_total column, which is defined with the DECIMAL type. As a result.
MySQL converts the DECIMAL value to its corresponding characters, appends
those characters to the S character, and stores them as a CHAR type.
In the second example, the second column divides the INT literal of 989319
by the VARC1IAR type that’s stored in the invoice_number column. As a result,
MySQL attempts to convert the invoice_number column to an INT type before
it performs the division operation. If the invoice_number column contains only
numbers, this works as you would expect. However, if the invoice_number
column contains letters or special characters, MySQL converts only tire numeric
characters that precede the letters or special characters. For example, in the first
row m the result set. MySQL only converts the numbers before the dash m the
invoice_number column.
In the third example, the second column adds an INT literal of 1 to the
invoice_date column, which is defined with the DATE type. As a result. MySQL
converts the DATE value in the invoice_date column to an INT value before it
performs the addition. In the result set. the first column uses the DATE type,
which includes dashes between the parts of the date. The second column, on the
other hand, uses the INT type, which doesn't include dashes between parts of the
date.
Notice in the third row of this result set that after 1 is added to the date,
the date is invalid. Because MySQL doesn't check if the resulting date is valid
when you perform an arithmetic operation like this, you’re not likely to use the
arithmetic operators with dates. Instead, you'll use the functions for performing
calculations on dates that are presented in the next chapter.
When MySQL performs a conversion automatically, it’s called an implicit
conversion. However, if you want to control how a conversion is performed,
you can code an explicit conversion. To do that, you can use the CAST and
CONVERT functions shown in the next figure.
 Chapter 8 How to work with data types 241

SELECT statements that implicitly convert data from one type to another
Number to string
SELECT invoice total, CONCATOS', invoice total)
FROM invoices
COfJCATff, A
iHvacetntal
rtvocejotitf)

3613.33 $3813.33
40.20 (40.20
138.75 $136.75
144.70 $144.70 V

String to number
SELECT invoice number, 989319/invoice number
FROM invoices
989319/nvoice_rwiijer A

989319-457 1
263253241 0.0037580505988908225
963253234 0.0010270601385803393
2-000 2993 494659.5
V
963253251 0.001027060 lg454241^

Date to number
SELECT invoice data, invoice date ♦ 1
FROM invoices
nvoce_datr "TMJce_d.it* ♦ 1
2022-08-02 20220803
2022-08-01 20220602
2022-07-31 20220732
2022-07-30 20220731
7077-07-78 70270729

Description
• When MySQL automatically converts one data type to another, it’s known as an
implicit conversion.
• If you code an expression that involves values with different data types, MySQL
implicitly converts them when it evaluates the expression.
• If you use a string in a numeric expression. MySQL attempts to convert the string
to a number before evaluating the expression. If the string starts with a letter
or special character. MySQL returns a value of zero. If it starts with a number.
MySQL returns that number and each successive number until it encounters a letter
or special character.
• If you add or subtract an integer to or from a DATE value. MySQL implicitly
converts the DATE value to an integer value.

Figure 8-8 How implicit data conversion works

242 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to convert data using the CAST

and CONVERT functions
Because MySQL's rules tor implicit conversion are more flexible than those
for other SQL databases, you generally don't need to explicitly convert data
from one type to another. 1 lowever. whenever necessary, you can use the CAST
and CONVERT functions to convert, or cast, an expression to the data type you
specify as shown in figure 8-9. Since CAST is an ANSI-standard function, it is
used more frequently than CONVERT, but both functions work equally well for
most tasks.
The first SELECT statement shows how to use the CAST function. Here,
the fourth column in the result set casts the DATE values of the invoice_date
column to CI IAR values. Although the fourth column looks the same as the
second column, it stores a CHAR value, not a DAT E value. In this case. MySQL
converted all of the characters in the DATE value to a CHAR value. If that's
not what you want, you can truncate the number of characters in the result by
specifying a value less than 10 after the CHAR keyword.
The fifth column in the result set casts the DECIMAL values in the
mvoice_total column to signed INT values. Before the digits to the right of
the decimal point are dropped, the numbers are rounded to the nearest whole
number. For brevity, this statement only uses the SIGNED keyword. For clarity,
it could also include the optional INTEGER keyword immediately after the
SIGNED keyword.
The second SELECT statement in this figure shows how to use the
CONVERT function. If you compare this statement to the first SELECT state­
ment. you'll see that it uses a slightly different syntax. However, both SELECT
statements accomplish the same task.
 Chapter 8 How to work with data types 243

The syntax of the CAST function

CAST(expression AS cast type)

The syntax of the CONVERT function

CONVERT(expression, casttype)

The cast types you can use in the CAST and CONVERT functions
Cast type Description
CHAT[(M)] A string of characters where N is the maximum number of characters.
DATE A DATE value.
DATETIME A DATETIME value.
TIME A TIME value.
SIGNED [INTEGER] A signed INT value. The INTEGER keyword is optional.
UNSIGNED [INTEGER] An unsigned INT value. The INTEGER keyword is optional.
DECIMAL [ (M[,DJ )] A DECIMAL value where M specifies the precision and D specifies
the scale.

A statement that uses the CAST function

SELECT invoicaid, invoice date, invoicetotal,
CAST(invoice date AS CHAR(IO)) AS char date,
CAST(invoicetotal AS SIGNED) AS integertotal
FROM invoices
rsvoicejd nvoce_date invoce.totai dw.date nteger .total A

► 1 2022-04-03 3613.33 2022-04-00 3813

2 2022-04-10 40.20 2022-04-10 40
3 2022-04-13 138.75 2022-04-13 139
4 2022-04-16 144.70 2022-04-16 145
5 2022-04-16 15.50 2022-04-16 16 V

A statement that uses the CONVERT function

SELECT invoice id, invoice date, invoice total,
CONVERT(invoice date, CHAR(10)) AS char date,
CONVERT(invoicetotal, SIGNED) AS integer.total
FROM invoices
rvotce jd mvore.date rvoice .total char .date rtegef.total A

► 1 2022-04-08 3813.33 20 22-04-03 3813

2 2022-04-10 40.20 2022-04-10 40
3 2022-04-13 138.75 2022-04-13 139
4 2022-04-16 144.70 2022-04-16 145
5 2022-04-16 15.50 2022-04-16 16 V

Description
• You can use the CAST or CONVERT function to perform an explicit conversion.
This allows you to convert, or cast, an expression from one data type to another
• CAST is an ANSI-standard function and is used more frequently than CONVERT.

Figure 8-9 How to convert data using the CAST and CONVERT functions
244 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to convert data using the FORMAT

and CHAR functions
in addition to the CAST and CONVERT functions. MySQL piovides some
functions that perform other types of data conversion. In particular, it provides
the FORMAT and CHAR functions shown in figure 8-10.
You can use the FORMAT function to convert a number to a string of
characters. This function uses commas to group the thousands to the left of
the decimal point. This makes large numbers easier to read. In addition, the
FORMAT function rounds the number to the specified number of decimal
places. If you specify 0 decimal places, the function returns a string that doesn't
include a decimal point.
The CHAR function returns a binary string for each specified integer.
This function is typically used to output ASCII (American Standard Code
for Information Interchange) control characters that can’t be typed on your
keyboard. The three most common control characters are presented in this figure.
These characters can be used to format output so it’s easy to read. In this figure,
for example, the SELECT statement uses the CHARt 13) and CHARi 10) control
characters to start new lines after the vendor name and vendor address in the
output.
 Chaptcr8 How to work with data types 245

The FORMAT and CHAR functions

Function Description
FORMAT(number,decimal) Converts the specified number to a character string
with grouped digits separated by commas, rounded to
the specified number of decimal digits. If decimal is
zero, then the decimal point is omitted.
chap.<; valuel [, value?] .. .) Converts one or more numbers to a binary string, bach
number is interpreted as an integer between 0 and 255.

The FORMAT function

The CHAR function for common control characters

A statement that uses the CHAR function to format output

SELECT CONCAT(vendor name, CHAR(13,10), vendor address1, CHAR(13,10),
vendor city, •, vandor.fltatti, * vendor zip.code)
FROM vendora
WHERE vendor id ■ 1

US Postal Service
Attn: Supt. Window Services
Madison, WI 53707

Description
• The CHAR function is typically used to insert control characters into a character
string.

Figure 8-10 How to convert data using the FORMAT and CHAR functions
246 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

In this chapter, you learned about the different MySQL data types. In
addition, you learned how to use some functions to convert data from one type
to another. In the next chapter, you'll leam some of the additional functions for
working with data.

Terms
data type latin 1 character set
character data types integer types
string fixed-point number
text scale
numeric data types precision
integer floating-point number
real number significant digits
date and time data types single-precision number
date/time data types double-precision number
temporal data types scientific notation
large object ( LOB) data types exact numeric types
spatial data types approximate numeric types
global positioning system (GPS) year 2038 problem
geometry ty pes Y2K38 problem
J SON data type Unix Millennium bug
JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) BLOB (Binary Large Object)
fixed-length string character large object (CLOB)
variable-length string implicit conversion
utf8mb4 character set explicit conversion
multiple-byte character set cast
Unicode standard ASCII (American Standard
utfKmb3 character set Code for Information
single-byte character set Interchange)
 Chapter 8 How to work with data types 247

Exercises
1. Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the Invoices
table:
The :nvoice_total column
A column that uses the FORMAT function to return the invoice_total
column with 1 digit to the right of the decimal point
A column that uses the CONVERT function to return the invoice_total
column as an integer
A column that uses the CAST function to return the invoice_total column
as an integer
2. V\ rue a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the Invoices
table:
The invoice_date column
A column that uses the CAST function to return the invoice_date column
with its full date and time
A column that uses the CAST function to return the invoice_date column
with just the year and the month
 9
How to use functions
In chapter 3, you were introduced to some of the scalar functions that you
can use in a SELECT statement. Now, this chapter expands on that coverage
by presenting many more of the scalar functions, as well as some specialized
window functions. When you complete this chapter, you'll have a thorough
understanding of the functions that you can use with MySQL.

How to work with string data___ __ ...........___ ___ __ .....250

A ^imman of the string functions...................................... ........................... 250
Examples that use siring functions.................................................................. 252
How to sort by a string column that contains numbers.................................254
How to parse a string.........................................................................................256
How to work with numeric ........ 258
Hou to use the numeric functions................................................................... 258
How to search for floating point numbers........„........................... 260
How to work with date/time data....... ........................ ..262
How to get the current date and time.............................................................. 262
How to parse dates and times with date/time functions............................. 264
How to parse dates and times with the EXTRACT function...................... 266
Hou to format dales and limes........................................................... 268
Hou to perform calculations on dates and times.......................................... 270
How to search for a date.................................................................................. 272
How to search for a time...................................................................................274
Other functions you should know about..... ....................276
Howto use the CASE function......................................................................276
How to use the IF. IFNULL. and COALESCE functions........ ................. 278
How to use the regular expression functions.......................... .............. 280
How to use the ranking functions.................................................................. 284
How to use the analytic functions................................................................. 288
Perspective..................... ....................................—._____ 292
250 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to work with string data

The figures that follow show how to use the most useful functions that
MySQL provides for working with string data. In addition, it shows how to solve
two common problems that can occur when you work with string data.

A summary of the string functions

Figure 9-1 summarizes the most useful string functions that are available
with MySQL. To start, it summarizes the CONCAT function that you learned
about in chapter 3. Then, it summarizes a related function, the CONCAT_WS
function, that you can use to specify a separator string that goes between tlic
other strings that you are concatenating. (\VS stands for “with separator”.)
The next three functions allow you to remove, or trim, characters from the
beginning or end of the string. To remove spaces from the left or right side of a
stung, you can use the I TRIM or RTRLM function. To remove spaces from both
sides of a string, you can use the TRIM function. You can also use the TRIM
function h< remove characters other than the space character from the left or
right side of a string.
To find the number of characters in a string, you can use the LENGTH
function. However, this function counts spaces at the beginning of the string
(leading spaces), but not spaces at the end of the string (trailing spaces). As a
result, you need to take this into account if the string ends with spaces.
To locate the first occurrence of a substring within another string, you can
use the LOCATE function. This function returns an integer value that indicates
the position of the substring. Note that you can start the search at a position other
than the beginning of the string by including the optional start argument. This
function is often used within other functions such as the SUBSTRING function.
The next four functions return a substring of the specified stung. To start, you
can use the LEFT and RIGHT functions to get the specified number of characters
from the left or right side of a string. You can also use the SUBSTR1NG_INDEX
function to get characters from the left or right side of a string. This function
returns the characters before or after a delimiter string occurs the specified number
of times. Or, you can use the SUBSTRING function to get the specified number of
characters from anywhere in a string.
You can use the next two functions to modify the specified string. First, you
can use the REPLACE function to replace a substring within the string with
another substring. Second, you can use the INSERT function to insert another
string into the string.
Finally, you can use the last seven functions to transform the string in
other ways. To start, you can use the REVERSE function to reverse the order
of the characters in a string. You can use the LOWER and UPPER functions to
convert the characters in a stung to lower or uppercase. You can use the LPAD
and RPAD functions to pad a string on the left or right until it's a specified
length. You can use the SPACE function to return a string that repeats the space
character the specified number of times. And you can use the REPEAT function
to repeat any string the specified number of times.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 251

Some of the string functions

Function Description
CONCAT(BtrlL, atr2]...) Concatenates the specified strings. If one of the strings
is null, then the result is null.
CONCAT WStscp.strlr, 8tr2] ...) Concatenates the strings with the specified separator
string added in between. If one of the strings is null
or empty; it's ignored. If the separator is null, then the
result is null.
LTRIM(str) Returns the string with any leading spaces removed.
RTRIM(str) Returns the string with any trailing spaces removed.
TRIM ( [ [BOTH|LEADING I TRAILING] Returns the string w ithout leading or trailing occur-
[remove] FROM] str) re nee s of the specified remove string. If remove string
is omitted, spaces are removed.
LENGTH(Btrl Returns the number of characters m the string.
LOCATE (find, search [ , start ] ) Returns the position of the first occurrence of the find
string in the search string, starting at the specified start
position. If the start position is omitted, the search
starts at the beginning of the string. If the string isn't
found, the function returns zero.
LEFT (str,length) Returns the specified number of characters from the
beginning of the string.
RIGHT(str,length) Returns the specified number of characters from the
end of the string.
SUBSTRING INDEX(str,delimiter. Returns the substring before the specified number of
count) occurrences of the specified delimiter string. If count
is positive, it returns from the beginning of the string.
If count is negative, it returns from the end of the string.
SUBSTRING(str,start[.length]) Returns the specified number of characters from the
string starting at the specified start position. If length
is omitted, it returns from the start position to the end
of the string.
REPLACE(search,find,replace) Returns the search string with all occurrences of the
find string replaced with the replace string.
INSERT(str,start,length,insert) Returns the string with the specified insert string
inserted into it starting at the specified start position
and replacing the specified length.
REVERSE(str) Returns the string with the characters in reverse order.
LOWER(Str) Returns the string converted to lowercase letters.
UPPER(Str) Returns the string converted to uppercase letters.
LPAD(str,length,pad) Returns the string padded on the left with the specified
pad string until it's the specified length. If the string is
longer than the length, it's truncated.
RPAD(str,length,pad) Returns the string padded on the right with the speci­
fied pad string until it's the specified length. If the
string is longer than the length, it's truncated.
SPACE(count) Returns the space character repeated count times.
REPEAT(str,count) Returns the specified string repeated count times.

Figure 9-1 A summary of the string functions

252 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Examples that use string functions

The table in figure 9-2 presents examples of most of the string functions.
Then, the SELECT statement below the table shows how you can use the
CONCAT_WS and RIGHT (unctions to format columns m a result set. In
this case, the second column uses the CONCAT_WS function to retrieve two
columns from the Vendors table and separate them with a comma and a space.
The third column in the result set lists the vendor's phone number without an
area code. To accomplish that, this column uses the RIGHT function to extract
the eight rightmost characters of the vendor_phone column. This assumes that
the area code is enclosed hi parentheses and that all of the phone numbers are
stored in the same format. Since the vendor_phone column is defined with the
VARCHAR<50) data type, this isn’t necessarily the case.
This SELECT statement also shows how you can use a function in a
WHERE clause. This WHERE clause uses the LEFT function to select only
those rows that begin with an area code of "(559". Again, this assumes that the
area code is enclosed in parentheses and that the phone numbers are all in the
same format.++
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 253

String function examples

A SELECT statement that uses three functions

SELECT vendor name,
CONCAT WS(', *, vendor_contact_last_name,
vendor contact_flrat_name) AS contact name,
RIGHT(vendor phone, 8) AS phone
FROM vendors
WHERE LEFT(vendor phone, 4) = '(559'
ORDER BY contact name
vendor _name iantac_nane phone A

» Dnstas Groom & McCormdc Aarorsen, Thom 555-8484

/ale Industrial Trucks-R ere Aieras, Aexardro 555-2993
Lou Gentles Hower Basket Anun, Trisha 555-6643
Pols tar Aranovitd), Robert 555-2631 v

Figure 9-2 Examples that use string functions

254 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to sort by a string column

that contains numbers
Figure 9-3 presents solutions to a common problem that can occur when
you attempt to sort numeric data that's stored in a column w ith a character data
type. To illustrate die problem, look at the first example in this figure. Here,
the emp_id column in the Stnng_Samplc table, which contains numeric IDs. is
defined with a character type. Because of that, when you sort by this column, the
rows aren’t in numeric sequence. That’s because MySQL interprets the values as
characters, not as numbers.
One way to solve this problem is to convert the values in the emp_id column
to integers for sorting purposes. This is illustrated in the second SELECT state­
ment in this figure, which uses the CAST function. As you can see, the rows are
now sorted in numeric sequence. The third example is similar, but it implicitly
casts the character values to integers by adding 0 to the values.
Another way to solve this problem is to pad the numbers with leading zeros
or spaces, as shown by the last example. Here, the LPAD function is used to pad
the emp_id column with zeros so the result always contains two digits. Then, the
numbers that start with a zero appear at the beginning of the sort sequence, so
the rows are returned in numeric sequence.
Of course, if you know that a column w ill always contain numbers, you'll
typically detine it with a numeric type If that isn't possible, though, you can
solve the sorting problem by using one of the techniques shown in this figure.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 255

How to sort by a string column that contains numbers

Sorted by the empjd column
SELECT *
FROM string sample
ORDER BY emp_id
empjd ere name
» 1 Uzbeth Danen
17 Lance Pros-Potte*
2 Darnel O*Sdlvan
30 Jean Pad Renard
I3
Aisha won Strung

Sorted by the emp id column explicitly cast as an integer

SELECT *
FROM string sample
ORDER BY CAST(emp id AS SIGNED)
1
emp_ri emp_name

► 1 Uzbeth Danen
2 Darnel O'Sdivan
3 Aisha won Strung
17 Lance Pros-Potte*
20 Jean Pad Renard

Sorted by the empjd column implicitly cast as an integer

SELECT *
FROM string sample
ORDER BY emp id ♦ 0
e-rp jd emD_narne

» 1 Uzbetr Danen
2 Darnel O'SiAvan
3 Aisha won Strung
17 Lance Pros -Potter
20 Jean Pad Renard

Sorted by the empjd column after it has been padded with leading zeros
SELECT LPAD(emp id, 2, 'O’) AS emp id, emp name
FROM stringsample
ORDER BY emp id
empjd emojwne

» 01 Uzbeth Darter
02 Darnel O'Sdlvan
03 Aisha von Strung
17 Lance Pnos-Potter
20 Jean Pad Renard

Description
• 'rhe empjd column in the String-Sample table used in the examples above is
defined with the type VARCI1AR(3). Therefore, the numeric values it contains are
stored as character strings.

Figure 9-3 How to sort by a string column that contains numbers

256 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to parse a string

Another problem you may encounter when working with suing data occurs
when two or more values are stored in the same string. For example, the
cmp_name column in the SUmg.Sample table contains both a first and a last
name. If you wrant to work with the first and last names independently, you have
to parse the string using the su ing functions. Figure 9-4 shows how this works.
The first example uses the SUBSTRING_1NDEX function to parse the first
and last names. To start, the second column uses the SUBS! RING_INDEX
function to return all characters from the start of the string in the emp_name
column up to the first space in that column. Then, the third column uses the
SUBSTRING_INDEX function to return all characters from the end of the
stung in the emp_name column up to the last space in that column To do that, a
negative value is coded for the count parameter.
Unfortunately, this example doesn’t work correctly for all rows. In particular,
the last name for the fifth row should probably be “von Strump" not “Strump”.
To solve this problem, you can someumes use the SUBSTRING function as
shown by the third example.
But first, it’s helpful to understand how the LOCATE function works as
illusUated by the second example. Here, the second column returns an integer
value for the location of the first space. Then, the third column returns the
location of the second space. To get the location of the second space, this
LOCATE function uses a nested LOCATE function as its thud parameter. This
starts the search at the character after the first space.
The third example uses the SUBSI RING function to parse a string. To start,
the second column uses the SUBSTRING and LOCATE functions to return all
characters from the beginning of the string to the first space. Then, the third
column uses the SUBSTRING and LOCATE functions to return all characters
after the first space to the end of the string.
Unfortunately, this example also doesn't work correctly for all rows. In
particular, the last name for the fourth row should probably be “Renard” not
“Paul Renard”. However, this example does return “von Strump" not “Strump'
for the last row, which is probably correct.
As you review these examples, you can focus on hew the string functions are
used. As I’ve indicated, though, this code doesn’t work correctly for all names.
This illustrates the importance of designing a database so this type of problem
doesn't occur. You'll learn more about that in the next chapter. For now. just
realize that if a database is designed correctly, you won't have to worry about
this type of problem. Instead, this problem should occur only if you're importing
data from another file or database system.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 257

How to use the SUBSTRING .INDEX function to parse a string

SELECT emp naiM,
SUBSTRING INDEX(emp name. 1 1) AS first name,
SUBSTRINGINDEX(emp name, 1 -1) AS last name
FROM string sample
emp_name hrst.name last.name
► Labe th Daren LsAeth Danen
Darnel OSubvan Darnd OSdKan
Lance Pmos-Potter Lance Pinos-Potter
Jean Paul Renard Jean Renard
Alisha von Strump Aisha Strump

How to use the LOCATE function to find a character in a string

SELECT emp nam®.
LOCATE(1 1, emp name) AS £irst_space.
LOCATE(' emp_name. LOCATE(1 emp name) ♦ 1) AS secondspace
FROM string sample
e’rp_name frjt_s»ce second .space

» Lobeth Dar en 8 0
Darnel OSubvan 8 0
Lance Pinos -Potter 6 0
Jean Paul Renard 5 10
Altsha vtn Strump 7 11

How to use the SUBSTRING function to parse a string

SELECT amp name.
SUBSTRING(amp name. 1. LOCATE(’ amp name) - 1) AS first name.
SUBSTRING(emp name. LOCATE(1 amp name) ♦ 1) AS last name
FROM string sample
emp .name frat .name last .name
» Lobe^i Daren Labe th Danen
Darnel 0 Subvan Darnd OSUlvan
Lance Pros -Potter Lance Pinos -Potter
Jean Pad Renard Jeai Paul Renard
Alisha von Strump Aloha van Stnnp

Description
• If a string consists of two or more components, you can parse it into its individual
components. To do that, you can use the SUBSTRING-INDEX. SUBSTRING, and
LOCATE functions.

Figure 9-4 How to parse a string

258 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to work with numeric data

In addition to the string functions, MySQL provides several functions for
working with numeric data. Although you'll probably use only a couple of these
functions regularly, you should be aware of them in case you ever need them.

How to use the numeric functions

Figure 9-5 summarizes some of the numeric functions that MySQL
provides. The function you’ll probably use most often is the ROUND function
that you saw back in chapter 3. This function rounds a number to the precision
specified by the length argument. Note that you can round the digits to the left
of the decimal point by coding a negative value for this argument However,
you're more likely to code a positive number to round the digits to the right of
the decimal point.
Another function that you might use regularly is the TRUNCATE function.
This function works like the ROUND function, but it truncates the number
instead of rounding to the nearest number. In other words, this function chops off
the end of the number without doing any rounding. For example, if you round
19.99 to the nearest integer, you get a value of 20. However, if you truncate
19.99. you get a value of 19.
You can use the next two functions. CEILING and FLCXJR. to get the
smallest integer greater than or equal to a number and the largest integer less
than or equal to a number. You can use the ABS function to get the absolute
value of a number. And you can use the SIGN function to return a value that
indicates if a number is positive, negative, or zero.
You can use the next two functions, SQRT and POW ER, to calculate the
square root of a number or raise a number to a specified power. And you can
use the last function. RAND, to generate a floating-point number with a random
value between 0 and 1.
In addition to the functions shown in this figure. MySQL provides many
other functions for performing mathematical calculations, including trigono­
metric calculations. If you need a function that isn’t shown here, you can search
for the function in the MySQL Reference Manual.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 259

Some of the numeric functions

Function Description
ROUND(number [ t length] ) Returns the number rounded to the precision specified by length.
If length is 0. the decimal digits are omitted. This is the default.
If length is negative, the digits to the left of the decimal point are
rounded.
TRUNCATE(number flength) Returns the number truncated to the precision specified by length.
If length is 0. the decimal digits are omitted.
CEILING(number) Returns the smallest integer that is greater than or equal to the
number.
FLOOR(numbe r) Returns the largest integer that is less than or equal to the number.
ABS(number) Returns the absolute value of the number.
SIGN(number) Returns -1 for a negative number. 1 for a positive number, and 0
if the number is zero.
SQRT(number) Returns the square root of the number.
POWER(number.power) Returns the number raised to the specified power.
RAND([integer]) Returns a random floating-point number between 0 and 1. If inte­
ger is omitted, the function returns a series of different numbers
every time. Otherw ise, integer supplies a seed value, and the
function returns the same series of numbers.

Examples that use the numeric functions

Note
• If an error occurs, each of the numeric functions returns a null value.

Figure 9-5 How to use the numeric functions

260 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to search for floatingpoint numbers

In n chapter 8, you learned that floating-point types such as the DOUBLE
and FLOAT types store approximate values, not exact values. That means that
you don't want to search for exact values when you're working with floating­
point numbers. If you do. you'll miss values that are approximately equal to the
value you're looking for.
To illustrate, consider the Float_Sample table from the EX database shown
in figure 9-6 This table includes a column named tloat_value that's defined with
the DOUBLE type. Now, consider what would happen if you selected all the
rows where the value of float_value is equal to 1 as show n by the first SELECT
statement. In that case, the result set includes only the second row, even though
the table contains two other rows that have values approximately equal to 1.
This figure shows two ways to search for approximate values. First, you can
search for a range of values. In this figure, for example, the second SELECT
statement searches for values between .99 and LOL Second, you can search
for values that round to an exact value. This is illustrated by the third SELECT
statement. Both of these statements return the three rows from the Float_Sample
table that are approximately equal to 1.
Note that both of these statements only check whether the numbers are equal
down to two decimal places. However, if you want, you can modify these state­
ments to check for more decimal places.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 261

The Float_Sample table

float jd float _vakje
» Il 0.999999999999999

2 1
3 1 000000000000001
4 1234.56789012345
5 999.04440209348
6 24.04849

A search for an exact value

SELECT ♦
FROM float sample
WHERE float_value ■ 1
floatjd float _vabe

» 2 1

How to search for approximate values

Search for a range of values
SELECT *
FROM float sample
WHERE float value BETWEEN 0.99 AND 1.01
float jd float _vaLe

I 1 0.999999999999999
2 1
3 i.ooooooooooooooi

Search for rounded values

SELECT *
FROM floatsample
WHERE ROUND(float value, 2) = 1.00
float jd float _vnLe

► 1 0.999999999999999
2 1
3 1.000000000000001

Description
• Because floating-point values are approximate, you'll want to search for approximate
values when working with floating-point data types such as the DOUBLE and FLOAT
types.

Figure 9-6 How to search for floating-point numbers

262 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to work with date/time data

In the topics that follow, you’ll learn how to use some of the functions that
MySQL provides for working with dates and times. As you’ll see. these include
functions for extracting different pans of a date/time value and for performing
operations on dates and times. In addition, you'll learn how to perform different
types of searches on date/time values.

How to get the current date and time

Figure 9-7 presents some of the date/time functions and shows how they
work. The NOW. CURDATE. and CURTIME functions return the local dates
and/or times based on your system's clock. 11 owe ver, if a session time zone
has been set, the value returned by the CURDATE and CURTIME functions is
adjusted to accommodate that time zone.
The UTC_DATE and UTC_T.fMB functions work similarly, but they return
the Universal Time Coordinate (UTC) date, also known as Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT). Although you probably won’t use the UTC functions often, they're
useful if your system operates in different time zones. That way. the date/time
values always reflect Greenu ich Mean Time, regardless of the time zone in
which they're entered. For example, a date/time value entered at 11:00 a.m. Los
Angeles time is given the same value as a date/time value entered at 2:00 p.m.
New York time. That makes it easy to compare and operate on these values.
When you use functions to get the current date and time, you should be
aware that the SYSDATE and CURRENT_TIMESTAMP functions are synony­
mous with the NOW function, and the CURRENT_DATE and CURRENT..
TIME functions are synonymous with the CL’RDATE and CURTIME functions.
In practice, the NOW. CURDATE. and CURTIME functions are typically used
by MySQL programmers because they've been around the longest and because
they’re shorter, which makes them easier to type. However, the CURRENT­
TIMESTAMP. Cl RRENT_DATE. and CURRENTTIME functions are the
ANSI standard, so they’re more likely to work w ith other databases. As a result,
if portability is a priority for you, you might want to use these functions..
When you use the NOW. SYSDATE. CURDATE. and CUR LIME functions,
you must enter an empty set of parentheses after the name of the function as
shown by this figure. However, when you use the other functions shown in this
figure, the parentheses are optional. For example, you can code the
CURRENT_DATE function like this:
CURREKT DATE
The advantage of coding the empty set of parentheses is that it clearly indicates
that the code is calling a function. The disadvantage is that it requires a little
more typing.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 263

Functions that get the current date and time

Function Description
KOW( ) Returns the current local dale and time based on the system’s clock.
SYSDATE()
CURRENT TIMESTAMP()
CURDATE() Returns the current local date.
CURRENT DATE()
CURTIME() Returns the current local time.
CURRENT TIME ( )
UTC DATE ( ) Returns the current date in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).
UTC TIME() Returns the current time in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).

Examples

Description
• Parentheses are required after the NOW, SYSDATE, CURDATE, and CURI’IME
functions.
• Parentheses are optional after the UTC_DATE, UTC !IME.
CURRENT,! I.MESTAMP. CURRENT_DATE, and CURRENT-TIME functions.

Figure 9-7 How to get the current date and time

264 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to parse dates and times

with date/time functions
Figure 9-8 shows you how to use some of MySQL's functions to parse dates
and times. When you use these functions, you can retrieve any of the date or
time parts listed m this figure.
If you need to get an integer value for part of a date/time value, you can use
the first group of functions as shown by the first group of examples in this figure.
For example, you can use the DAYOFWEEK function to return a number that
represents the day of the week. You can use the MONTH function to return a
number that represents the month. And you can use die HOUR function to return
a number that represents the hour. However, if you need to get the name of a day
or month as a string, you can use the DAYNAME or MONTHNAME functions
as shown by the second group of examples in this figure.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 265

Some of the date/time parsing functions

Function Description
DAYOFMONTH(date) Returns the day of the month as an integer.
month(data) Returns the month as an integer.
YEAR(data) Returns the 4 dig it year as an integer.
HOUR(t ime) Returns the hours as an integer.
MINUTE(timo) Returns the minutes as an integer.
SECOND(tIna) Returns the seconds as an integer.
DAYCFWEEK(date) Returns the day of the week as an integer where 1 =Sunday,
2=Monday. etc.
QUARTER(data) Returns the quarter of the year as an integer between 1 and 4.
DAYOFxEAR(date) Returns the day of the year as an integer.
WEEK(data[,first]) Returns the week of the year as an integer. If the first argument is 0.
the week starts on Sunday. If the first argument is 1, the week starts
on Monday.
LAST DAY(data) Returns the last day of the month as an integer.
DAYNAME (date) Returns the name of the day of the week as a string.
MONTHNAME(data) Returns the name of the month as a string.

Examples

Description
• The argument for the date functions can be either a DATE value or a DATETIME
value.
• The argument for the time functions can be either a TIME value or a DATETIME
value.

Figure 9-8 How to parse dates and times with date/time functions
266 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to parse dates and times

with the EXTRACT function
in the previous Figure, you learned about some common date/time functions
for parsing dates and times. In addition to these (unctions, you can use the
EXTRACT function to parse dates and times as shown by figure 9-9. Because
this function is part of the ANSI standard, you may want to use it to make your
code more portable. Or, you may just prefer how tliis function works.
When you use the EXTRACT function, you can code any of the date/time
units shown in this figure, followed by the FROM keyword and a date/time
value. Then. MySQL extracts the specified unit from the date/tx:ne value and
returns an integer value that corresponds to that unit. For example, you can use
the MONTH unit to get an integer for the month. You can also use some units to
get multiple parts of the date. For example, you can use the
1 !OL’R_SECOND unit to get an integer that represents the hours, minutes, and
seconds parts of a date/time value. In that case, the returned integer contains one
or two digits for the hour (a leading zero is dropped ), two digits for the minute,
and two digits for the second.
Of course, the EXTRACT function won't work correctly if you don’t
specify a date/time value that makes sense for the specified unit. For example,
if you specify the SECOND unit for a DATE value, the EXTRACT function
won t work correctly. Conversely, if you specify the MONTH unit for a TIME
value, the EXTRACT f unction won't work correctly. However, if you specify
a DATETIME value as shown by this figure, the EXTRACT function should
always work correctly.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 267

The EXTRACT function

Function Description
EXTRACT(unit FROM date I Returns an integer that corresponds to the
specified unit for the specified date/time.

Date/time units
Unit Description
SECOND Seconds
MINUTE Minutes
HOUR Hours
DAY Day
MONTH Month
YEAR Year
MINUTE SECOND Minutes and seconds
HOUR MINUTE Hour and minutes
DAY HOUR Day and hours
YEAR MONTH Year and month
HOUR SECOND Hours, minutes, and seconds
DAY MINUTE Day. hours, and minutes
DAY SECOND Day. hours, minutes, and seconds

Examples that use the EXTRACT function

Figure 9-9 How to parse dates and times with the EXTRACT function
268 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to format dates and times

Figure 9-10 shows how to use the DA1'E_F( >RMAT f unction to format dates
and times. This function accepts two parameters. The first parameter speci­
fies the DATE or DATETIME value that you want to format. Then, the second
parameter specifies a format string that includes special codes for formatting
the various parts of the date or time. To use one of these codes within the format
string, you code the percent sign (%) followed by a single case-sensitive letter.
In this figure, for instance, the first example uses the %m code to get the
numeric month, the %d code to get the numeric day. and the %y code to get the
two-digit year. This example also uses front slashes (/) to separate the month
day, and year.
The next three examples use other formatting codes, but they work similarly
to the first example. Namely, the fonnat string contains some date/time format­
ting codes to display the different parts of the date. In addition, it contains other
characters such as spaces, commas, or dashes to separate the different parts of
the date.
This figure also shows how to use the TIME_F( )RMAT function to format
TIME values. This function is illustrated by the last two examples. Although
you can also use the T1ME_FORMAT function to format the time part of a
DATETIME value, it’s more common to use the DATE_FORMAT function to do
that as shown by the fourth example.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 269

Two functions for formatting dates and times

Function Description
DATE FORMAT(date,format) Returns a string for the specified DATE or DATETIME
value with the formatting specified by the format string.
TIME FORMAT(tine,format) Works like the DATE_FORMAT function but accepts
TIME or DATETIME values, and the format string can
only specify times, not dates.

Common codes for date/time format strings

Code Description
Xm Month, numeric (01... 12)
Xc Month, numeric (1... 12)
XM Month name (January...December)
Xb Abbreviated month name (Jan...Dec)
Xd Day of the month, numeric (00...3I)
Xe Day of the month, numeric (0...31)
XD Day of the month with suffix (1st 2nd. 3rd. etc.)
*y Year, numeric. 2 digits
XY Year, numeric. 4 digits
xw Weekday name (Sunday...Saturday)
Xa Abbreviated weekday name (Sun...Sal)
XH Hour (00...23)
Xk Hour (0...23)
Xh Hour (01... 12)
XI Hour (1... 12)
Xi Minutes (00...59)
Xr Time. 12-hour (hh:mm:ss AM or PM)
XT Time. 24-hour (hh:mm:ss)
XS Seconds (00...59)
Xp AM or PM

Examples

Figure 9-10 How to format dates and times

270 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to perform calculations

on dates and times
Figure 9-11 shows you how to use the DATE_ADD. DATL_Sl B and
DATEDIFF functions to perform calculations on dates and times. You can use
the DATE_ADD function to add a specified number of date parts to a date In
this figure, for instance, the first three examples show how you can add days,
months, or seconds to a date/time value.
You can also use the DATE_ADD function to subtract date parts from a
date/time value. To do that, you code the expression argument as a negative
value as shown by the fourth example. This performs the same calculation as the
DATE. SUB function shown in the fifth example.
When you use these date functions. MySQL checks for dates that include
leap years and returns a null value if a date doesn't exist. For example, 2020 was
a leap year, so it has a day for February 29. However. 2022 wasn’t a leap year, so
it doesn't have a day for February 29. As a result, when the sixth example adds
one year to February 29. 2020. MySQL returns February 28, 2021. On the other
hand, the seventh example tries to add one year to an invalid date (February 29.
2022). As a result. MySQL returns a null value.
The eighth example shows how to use the DATE_ADD function with the
DAY_HOUR unit to add the specified number of days and hours to a date/time
value. Here, the example adds 2 days and 12 hours to the specified date.
If you need to find the number of days between two date/time values, you
can use the DATEDIFF function as shown by the second group of examples.
Note that this function only returns days, not hours, minutes, or seconds. This
is true even if the arguments are DATETIME values that include time values,
as shown by the second DATEDIFF example. When you use the DATEDIFF
function, you typically specify the later date as the first argument and the earlier
date as the second argument. That way. the result of the function is a positive
value. If you code the earlier date as the first argument, the result is a negative
value as shown by the third DATEDIFF example.
The last group of examples shows how to use the TO_DAYS and
TIME_TO_SEC functions to perform calculations on dates and times. To start,
the TO DAYS example shows how you can use this function to calculate the
number of days between two dates. This performs the same calculation as the
first two DATEDIFF examples. Since the DATEDIFF function is easier to write
and read, you’ll typically use it instead of the TC)_DAYS function for this type of
calculation.
The last example shows how to use the TIME_TO_SEC function to calculate
the number of seconds between two times. This type of calculation can be useful
when you're working with time values.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 271

Some of the functions for calculating dates and times

Function Description
DATE ADD (date , INTERVAL expression unit) Returns a DATE or DATETIME value
equal to the specified date plus the speci­
fied interval.
DATE SUB(date.INTERVAL expression unit) Returns a DATE or DATETIME value
equal to the date minus the specified
interval.
DATEDIFFIdatal, dat«2) Returns the number of days from one
date to the other. For DATETIME values,
this function ignores the time parts of the
value.
TO DAYS(date) Returns the number of days since the year
0. This function does not return reliable
results for dates before 1582.
TIHE TO SEC(time) Returns the number of seconds elapsed
since midnight, which is useful for calcu­
lating elapsed time.

Examples

Description
• If the expression you specify in the DATE_ADD function is a negative integer, the
interval is subtracted from the date.
• If the expression you specify in the DATE_SUB function is a negative integer, the
interval is added to the date.

Figure 9-11 How to perform calculaLons on dates and times

272 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to search for a date

Figure 9-12 illustrates a problem you can encounter when searching for
dates in a column that's defined with the DATETIME data type. The examples in
this figure use a table named Date_Sample. This table includes a date_id column
that's defined with the INT type and a start date column that's defined with
the DATETIME type. The time components in the first three rows in this table
have a zero value In contrast, the time components in the next three rows have
non-zero time components.
The problem occurs when you try to search for a date value. In this figure,
for instance, the first SELECT statement searches for rows in the Date_Sample
table with a date of '2022-02-28'. Because this code doesn't specify a time
component, MySQL adds a zero time component ('00:00:00') when it converts
the date string to a DATE TIME value. However, because the row with this date
has a non-zero time value. MySQL doesn't return any rows for this statement.
To solve this problem, you can use one of the three techniques shown in
this figure. First, you can search tor a range of dates that includes only the date
you’re looking for as shown by the second SELECT statement in this figure. The
WHERE clause in this statement searches for dates that are greater than or equal
to the date you’re looking for and less than the date that follow's the date you're
looking for. Because a time component of zero is implicitly added to both of the
dates in the search condition, this statement returns the one row with the date
you want.
Because this SELECT statement doesn't use any functions in the WHERE
clause, it provides the most efficient technique for searching for dates. That’s
particularly true if the start_date column is indexed. By contrast, die second
technique uses the MONTH, DAYOFMONTH. and YEAR functions in the
WHERE clause to search for just far those components. And the third technique
uses the DATE_FORMAT function in the WHERE clause to return a formatted
string that only contains the month, day. and year.
If you want, you can use other date functions to search for a date. For
example, you can use the EXTRACT function shown earlier in this chapter.
Whenever possible, though, you should avoid using functions so the search is as
efficient as possible.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 273

The contents of the Date_Sample table

datejd slart_date

► 1 1986-03-0 1 00:00:00
2 2006-02-28 00:00:00
3 2010-10-31 00:00:00
4 2022-02-28 10:00:00
5 2023-02-28 13:58:32
6 2023-03-0109:02:25

A SELECT statement that fails to return a row

SELECT *
FROM date sample
WHERE start date - 12022-02-281
datejd start date

Three techniques for ignoring time values

Search for a range of dates
SELECT *
FROM datesample
WHERE start date >= ’2022-02-28' AND startdate < '2022-03-01'
datejd start_date

» 4 2022-02-28 10:00:00

Search for month, day, and year integers

SELECT *
FROM date sample
WHERE MONTH(start date) = 2 AND
DAYOFMONTH(start-date) =28 AND
YEAR(start-date) - 2022
datejd start_date

► 4 2022-02-28 10:00:00

Search for a formatted date

SELECT *
FROM date sample
WHERE DATEFORMAT(start-date, ,%m-%d-VY') ■ '02-28-2022'
datejd start.date

4 2022-02-28 10:00:00

Description
• You can search for a date in a DATETIME column by searching for a range of
dates, by using functions to specify' the month, day. and year of the date, or by
searching for a formatted date. Of these techniques, searching for a range of dates
is the most efficient.

Figure 9-12 How to search for a date

274 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to search for a time

Just like when you search for a date in a DATETIME column, you can
encounter problems when you search for a time in a DATETIME column. In the
first SELECT statement in figure 9-13, for example, you can see that searching
for a time value in a DATETIME column without specifying a date component
causes an error. At least that's what happens with MySQL 8.0.16 and later. With
earlier versions of MySQL, this statement caused a warning and MySQL used
the default date of January 1, 1990. In that case, though, the SELECT statement
didn’t return a row' even though one row matches the specified time.
The second SELECT statement shows one way to search for a time in a
DATETIME column. Here, the WHERE clause uses the DATE_FORMAT
function to return a string for the start_date column in the hh:mm:ss format.
Then, the WHERE clause compares this string to a literal string of 10:00:00.
The third SELECT statement in this figure shows another way to search
for a time. This statement works similarly to the second statement, but it uses
the EXTRACT function to extract an integer that represents the hours, minutes,
and seconds in the start_date column. Then, the WHERE clause compares this
integer to an integer value of 100000. Although this approach might run slightly
faster, it's also more difficult to read. As a result, I recommend using the first
approach unless performance is critical.
The fourth and fifth SELECT statements show that you can use a similar
technique to search tor a range of times. Here, the fourth statement uses the
HOL'R function to search for a particular hour of the day. and the fifth statement
uses the EXTRACT f unction to search for times between two times. Of course,
you could also use the DATE_FORMAT function to get the same results.
Before I go on. you should realize that many of the problems that can occur
when searching for dates and times can be avoided by designing the database
properly. For example, if you know that only the date portion of a date/tiine
value is significant, you can store the date in a column with the DATE type.
Conversely, if you know that only the time portion of a date/time value is
significant, you can store the time in a column with the TIME type. That way,
you won't need to use functions in your searches, and you can create an index
for the search column to significantly speed searches.
However, if both the date and time are significant you can store them in
a column with the DATETIME type. Then, you can use the techniques shown
in this figure and the previous figure to search for dates and times. Remember,
though, that if you need to use functions in your searches, MySQL can’t use the
column’s index and the search will run significantly slower.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 275

The contents of the Date_Sample table

datejd start

► 1 1936-03-01 00:00:00
2 2006-02-28 00:00:00
3 2010-10-31 00:00:00
4 2022-02-28 10:00:00
5 2023-02-28 13:58:32
6 2023-03-0 1 09:02:25

A SELECT statement that causes an error

SELECT * FROM date sample
WHERE fltart date - ’10:00:00'

Error
Error Code: 1525. Incorrect DATETIME value: '10:00:00*

Examples that ignore date values

Search for a time that has been formatted
SELECT * FROM date sample
WHERE DATE FORMAT(Start date, 'XT') - •10:00:00'
datejd start_date

» 4 2022-02-28 10:00:00

Search for a time that hasn't been formatted

SELECT * FROM datesample
WHERE EXTRACT(HOUR SECOND FROM fltart date) - 100000
datejd startdate

► 4 2022-02-28 10:00:00

Search for an hour of the day

SELECT * FROM date cample
WHERE HOUR(fltart date) - 9
date _id start.date

► 6 2023-03-0109:02:25

Search for a range of times

SELECT * FROM date sample
WHERE EXTRACT'.HOUR MINUTE FROM Start_date) BETWEEN 900 AND 1200
datejd start.date

► 4 2022-02-28 10:00:00
6 2023-03-0109:02:25

Description
• You can search for a time in a DATETIME column without specifying a date by
using date/time functions to get the time part of the DATETIME value. Then, you
can use the time parts in your WHERE clause.

Figure 9-13 How to search for a tme

276 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Other functions you should know about

This topic describes other functions that you should know about. That
includes the CASE, IF. IFNULL, and COALESCE functions. It also includes the
regular expression and specialized window functions that are new with MySQL
8.0.

How to use the CASE function

Figure 9-14 presents the two versions of the CASE function. I hi> function
returns a value that’s determined by the conditions you specify. The easiest way
to describe how this function works is to look at the two examples shown in this
figure.
The first example uses a simple CASE function. W hen you use this function.
MySQL compares the input expression you code in the CASE clause with
the expressions you code in the WHEN clauses. In this example, the input
expression is a value in the terms_id column of the Invoices table, and the
when expressions are the valid values for this column. When MySQL finds an
expression in a WHEN clause that's equal to the input expression, it returns the
expression specified in the matching THEN clause. For example, if the value
of the temis_id column is 3. this function returns a value of ‘"Net due 30 days.”
Although it’s not shown in this example, you can also code an ELSE clause at
the end of the CASE function. Then, if none of the expressions in the WHEN
clause are equal to the input expression, the function returns the value specified
in the ELSE clause.
The second example uses a searched CASE function to determine the status
of the invoices in the Invoices table. To do that, the CASE function uses the
DATEDIFF and NOW functions to get the number of days between the current
date and the invoice due date. If the difference is greater than 30, the CASE
function returns the value “Over 30 days past due.” Otherw ise. if the difference
is greater than 0. the function returns the value “I to 30 days past due.” Note
that if the condition in the first WHEN clause is true, the condition in the second
WHEN clause is also true. In that case, the function returns the expression
associated with the first condition since this condition is evaluated first. In other
words, the sequence of the conditions is critical to getting the correct results. If
neither of the conditions is true, the function returns the value “Current ’
The simple CASE function is typically used w ith columns that can contain a
limited number of values, such as the terms_id column used in the first example.
By contrast, the searched CASE function can be used for a wide variety of
purposes. For example, this function can be used to test for conditions other than
equal, such as greater than or less than. This is shown in the second example,
which couldn't be coded using the simple syntax. In addition, each condition in
a searched CASE function can be based on a different column or expression. Of
course, CASE functions can be more complicated than the tines that are shown
here, but this should give you an idea of w hat you can do with this function.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions QlTI

The syntax of the simple CASE function

CASE inputexpression
WHEN when expression 1 THEN result.expression 1
[WHEN when expression 2 THEN result_expression 2]•..
[ELSE else result expression]
END

A SELECT statement that uses a simple CASE function

SELECT invoice numberf termsid,
CASE terms id
WHEN1 THEN'Netdue10days1
WHEN 2 THEN 'Net due 20 days1
WHEN 3 THEN 'Net due 30 days*
WHEN 4 THEN 'Net due 60 days1
WHEN 5 THEN 'Net due 90 days*
END AS terms
FROM invoices
invoice jMaribef ter ms .id terrs A

► 989319-457 3 Net due 30 days

263253241 3 Net due 30 days
963253254 3 Net due X days
2-000-2993 3 Net due 30 days
963253251 3 Net due X days V

The syntax of the searched CASE function

CASE
WHEN conditional expression 1 THEN result expression 1
[WHEN conditional expression^ THEN result expression 2]...
[ELSE else result expression]
END

A SELECT statement that uses a searched CASE function

SELECT invoice, number, invoice total, invoicedatet invoice due date,
CASE
WHEN DATEDIFF(NOW( ) , invoice due date) > 30
THEN 'Over 30 days past due*
WHEN DATEDIFF(NOW(), invoiceduedate) > 0
THEN *1 to 30 days past due1
ELSE 1 Current *
END AS invoice status
FROM invoices
Where invoicetotal - payment total - credit-total > 0
rtvotce .number nvoke .total nvoce.date nvoce .due .date n voce .status A

> 39104 85.31 2022-07-10 2022-08-09 Over X days past due

963253264 5125 2022-07-18 2022-08-17 Over X days past due
31361833 579.42 2022-07-21 2022-08-10 Over X days past due
263253268 59.97 2022-07-21 2022-08-20 Over Xdays past due
26325327'0 67.92 2022-07-22 2022-08-21 Over X days past due V

Description
• The CASE function returns a value that's deter mined by the specified conditions.

Figure 9-14 How to use the CASE function

278 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to use the IF, IFNULL,

and COALESCE functions
Figure 9-15 presents thiee functions IF. IFNULL. and COALESCE. To
start, you can use the IF function to test a condition and return one value if the
condition is tiue or another value if the condition is false. For instance, the first
example uses the IF function to return a string value of “Yes” if the vendor_city
column is equal to a value of “Fresno”. Otherwise, the IF function returns a
value of “No”.
Both the IFNULL and COALESCE functions let you substitute non-null
values for null values. Although these functions are similar, the COALESCE
function is more flexible because it lets you specify a list of values. Then, it
returns the first non-null value in the list. In contrast the IFNULL function only
lets you specify two expressions. If the first expression is not null, it returns that
expression. Otherwise, it returns the second expression.
The second example uses the IFNULL function to return the value of the
paymeni_date column if that column doesn’t contain a null value. Otherwise, it
returns a string that says “No Payment”. The third example performs the same
operation using the COALESCE function.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 279

The syntax of the IF function

IF (test expression, if true expression, else__expression)

A SELECT statement that uses the IF function

SELECT vendor name,
IF(vendor_city ■ 'Fresno1, ’Yes', 'No') AS is_city_fresno
FROM vendors
vendor _narre is_aty_fresno A

Towne Advertiser's Mating Svcs No

BFI Industries Yes
Pazfc Gas & Becmc NO
Paeons Mobie Lode And Key Yes
Bi Marvn Bectnc Inc Yes V

The syntax of the IFNULL function

IFNULL(teat expression, replacement value)

A SELECT statement that uses the IFNULL function

SELECT payment date,
IFNULL(payment date, 'No Payment') AS new date
FROM invoices
new .date A
payment .date

No Payment
2022-08-13 2022-08-13
2022-08-20 2022-08-20
2022-08-07 2022-08-07
No Payment V

The syntax of the COALESCE function

COALESCE(expression1[, expression 2]...)

A SELECT statement that uses the COALESCE function

SELECT payment, date,
COALESCE(payment date, 'No Payment') AS new date
FROM invoices
payment_date newjdate
esc No Payment
2022-08-13 2022-08-13
2022-03-20 2022-08-20
2022-08-07 2022-08-07
No Payment

Description
• The IF function returns one value if the test expression is true and another value if
the test expression is false.
• The IFNULL and COALESCE functions let you substitute non-null values for null values.
• The IFNULL function returns the first expression if it isn’t null. Otherwise, it
returns the replacement value you specify.
• The COALESCE function returns the first expression in the list that isn’t null. If all
of the expressions are null, this function returns a null value.

Figure 9-15 How to use the IF, IFNULL, and COALESCE functions
230 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to use the regular expression functions

In chapter 3, you learned how to use the REGEXP operator to work with
string patterns known as regular expressions to determine which values in a
column satisfy a condition. With MySQL 8.0, you can also use the regular
expression functions shown in the first table in figure 9-16 to work with string
patterns. Although these functions have arguments in addition to the ones shown
here, these are the ones you’ll use most often.
All of the regular expression functions use a pattern to search a string
expression. The REGEXP_L1KE function works like the REGEXP operator. It
returns 1 if the pattern is found or 0 if it isn't. Because ot that, you can use this
function in a Boolean expression.
If you use the REGEXP INSTR function and the pattern is found, the index
of the first character in the matching substring is returned. If the pattern isn’t
found, 0 is returned.
The REGEXP_SUBSTR function returns the first substring that matches
the pattern. If a matching substiing isn't found, it returns a null value. And the
REGEXP_REPLACE function replaces any occurrences of the pattern it finds
with another string.
To create a string pattern, you can use the special characters and constructs
shown in the second table in this figure. The first six are the same as the ones
presented in chapter 3. However, the last two constructs weren’t presented in
chapter 3. The first one lets you match zero or more occurrences of a single
character, and the second one lets you match zero or more occurrences of a
sequence of characters.
The third table in this figure show's how the regular expression functions
work. Here, all five of the functions operate on the stung expression “abcl23”.
Then, the first example uses the REGEXP_L1KE function to determine if this
expression contains the substring “123”. Since it does, the result is I. The second
example is similar, but it checks if the substring “123" is at the beginning of the
expression. Since it’s not, this function returns 0.
The third example uses the REGEXP_INSTR function to get the index of
the first character of the substring 123 that occurs in the string expression. In this
case, the substring starts at the fourth character in the expression, so the function
returns 4.
The fourth example uses the REGEXP_Sl’BSTR function to get a substring
of the characters in the string expression. Here, the pattern indicates that the
substring consists of any letter, followed by any number of digits at the end of
the string expression. That returns the value “cl23”.
The last example uses the REGEXP_REPLACE function to replace the
number I or 2 with the number 3. That returns the value “abc333”.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 281

The syntax of the regular expression functions

Function description
REGEXPLIKE(expr, pattern) Returns 1 (true) if the string expression matches the pa!
tern. Otherwise, returns 0 (false).
REGEXP INSTR(expr, pattern Returns the index of the first character of the
[, start]) substring in the string expression that matches the pat­
tern. starting at the specified start position. If the start
position is omitted, the search starts at the beginning of
the string. If the pattern isn't found, the function returns
0.
REGEXP SUBSTR(expr, pattern Returns the first substring of the string expression
[, start]) that matches the pattern starting at the specified posi­
tion. If the start position is omitted, the first substring is
returned. If the pattern isn't found, the function returns
a null value.
REGEXP REPLACE(expr, pattern, Returns the siring expression with all occurrences of
replace[, start]) the pattern replaced with the replace string.

Regular expression special characters and constructs

Character/Construct Description
A
Matches the pattern to the beginning of the value being tested.
$ Matches the pattern to the end of the value being tested.
• Matches any single character.
[charlist] Matches any single character listed within the brackets.
[charl-char2] Matches any single character within the given range.
1 Separates two string patterns and matches either one.
char* Matches zero or more occurrences of the character.
(charlist)* Matches zero or more occurrences of the sequence of characters in
parentheses.

Examples of the regular expression functions

Description
• The regular expression functions use a string pattern to search a string expression. These
patterns can use special characters and constructs, which are case-insensitive by default.

Figure 9-16 How to use the regular expression functions (part 1 of 2)

282 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

To help you understand how you can use the regular expression functions
in SQL statements, part 2 of figure 9-16 presents three SELECT’ statements that
use them. The first example uses the REGEXPJNSTR function in the SELECT
clause to return the index of the first space in the vendor_city column. The same
REGEXP„1NSTR function is also used in the WHERE clause so only the cities
that have a space in their names are included m the result set.
The second example uses the REGEXP_SUBSTR function in the SELECT
clause to get the substring “San” or “Los” that appears at the beginning of the
vendor_city column. Then, it uses the same function in the WHERE clause so
if the function returns a null value, the row isn’t included in the result. In other
words, only the cities that start with “San” or “Los" are included.
The third example uses the REGEXP_REPLACE function in the SELECT
clause to replace the value “Street” that occurs anywhere in the vendor_address 1
column with the value “St”. Note that because patterns are case-insensitive by
default, the pattern STREET will match both uppercase and lowercase letters
as shown here. This example also uses the REGEXP_L1KE function in the
WHERE clause so only vendors with a vendor_address 1 column that contains
the pattern are included in the result set. As you saw in chapter 3, this WHERE
clause can also be coded using the REGEXP operator like this:
WHERE vendor addressl REGEXP 'STREET'
Although these examples are relatively simple, they should give you an idea
of what you can do with the regular expression functions. For more information
on these functions and the special characters and constructs you can use with
them, see the documentation for MySQL.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 283

A statement that uses the REGEXP .INSTR function

SBLECT DISTIMCT vendor city, RKQEXP IHS7R(vendor city, • ■ ) AS space index
FROM vendors
WHERE REGEXP INSTR(vendor_city, 1 ') > 0
ORDER BY vendor_city
1
A
vendor _cty space jndex
► Am Arbor 4
Auburn Hits 7
Carol Stream 6
East&wwck 5
Fort Washrgton 5
Los Angeies 4 V

(17 rows)

A statement that uses the REGEXP SUBSTR function

SELECT vendor_cityf REGEXP SUBSTR(vendorcity, IASAN|LOS') AS city natch
FROM vendors
WHERE REGEXP SUBSTR(vendor city, 'aSAN|LOS') IS NOT NULL
A
vendor _oty a ty .match
B Los Anqeies Los
Santa Ana San
San Ft arciko San
San Diego San V

(12 rows)

A statement that uses the REGEXP REPLACE

and REGEXP LIKE functions
SELECT vendor name, vendor address1,
REGEXP REPLACE(vendor_address1, 1 STREET 19 'St1) AS new address1
FROM Vendors
WHERE REGEXP LIKE(vendor address1, 'STREET1)
vendor .name vendor .add" ess 1 new .address 1

> Expedata Inc 4420 N. Rrst Street. Suite 138 4420 N. Frst St, Sute 103
Fresno Photoengraving Company 1952 *H' Street 1952 *H’St
Nat Assoc of Colege Stores 500 East Lor an Street SOO East Lor an St
The Fresno Bee 1626 E Street 1626 E St
The Presort Center 1627 T-Street 1627 T St
Reiter's Sceneftc & Pro Books 202 IK Street Ma 202 IK St Nw

(4 rows)

Description
• The REGEXP_L1KE function works just kkc the REGEXP operator that you
learned about in chapter 3.
• The REGEXP_REPLACE function replaces the occurrences of the regular expres­
sion pattern only in the result set. The database table remains unchanged.

Figure 9-16 How to use the regular expression functions (part 2 of 2)

284 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to use the ranking functions

It you’ve read chapter 6, you already know how to code aggregate window
functions In addition to those w indow functions, you can code non-aggregate
window functions, sometimes called specialized window Junctions. These
functions can be divided into two groups: the ranking functions you II learn
about in this figure and the analytical functions you'll learn about in the next
figure.
Figure 9-17 shows how to use the four ranking functions that were intro­
duced w ith MySQL 8.0. These functions provide a variety of ways for ranking
the rows that are returned by a result set. All four of these functions have a
similar syntax and work similarly.
The first example shows how to use the ROW_NUMBER function. Here,
the SELECT statement retrieves two columns from the Vendors table. The
first column uses the ROW_Nl’MBER function to sort the result set by the
vendor_name column and to number each row m the result set. To show that
the first column has been sorted and numbered correctly, the second column
displays the vendor name.
To accomplish the sorting and numbering, you code the name of the
ROW_NL’MBER function, followed by a set of parentheses and an OVER
clause. If you read chapter 6, you know that the OVER clause can include
a PARTITION BY clause and an ORDER BY clause. When you code a
ROW NUMBER function or any of the other ranking functions, the ORDER
BY clause is required. It specifies the sequence of the rows within each
partition. In this example, for instance, the ORDER BY clause sorts by the
vendor_name column in ascending sequence.
Of course, you can code more complex ORDER BY clauses whenever that’s
necessary. In addition, you can code an ORDER BY clause that applies to the
entire result set. In that case, the ORDER BY clause within the ranking function
is used to number the rows and the ORDER BY clause outside the ranking
function is used to sort the rows after the numbering has been applied.
The second example shows how to use the optional PARTITION BY clause
of a ranking function. This clause specifies a column that's used to divide
the result set into groups called partitions In this example, for instance, the
PARTITION BY clause uses the vendor_state column to group vendors by state.
Then, the ORDER BY clause sorts these vendors by name within each state.
You can also use the PARTITION BY clause when a SELECT statement
joins one or more tables like this:
SELECT vendor name, invoicenumber,
ROW NUMBER () OVER (PARTITION BY vendor name
ORDER BY invoice number) AS 'row number*
FROM vendors JOIN invoices
ON vendors.vendor_id ■ invoices.vendor id;
I lere. the invoices w ill be grouped by vendor and sorted within each vendor by
invoice number. As a result, if a vendor has three invoices, these invoices will be
sorted by invoice number and numbered from 1 to 3.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 285

The syntax of the four ranking functions

ROW NUMBER() OVER([partitionclause] orderclause)
RANKO OVER( [partition clause] order clause)
DENSE RANK() OVER([partition clausa] orderclause)
NTILE(integer expression) OVER([partition clause] orderclauee)

A query that uses the ROW NUMBER function

SELECT ROW NUMBER() OVER(ORDER BY vendor name) AS 'row number',
vendor name
FROM vendors
row jurnber vendor .name

1 Abbey Office Furnshings

2 American Booisefiers Assoc
3 Amencan Express
4 ASC Sens
5 Ascorn Hasler Mating Systems

A query that uses the PARTITION BY clause

SELECT ROW NUMBER() OVER(PARTITION BY vendor State
ORDER BY vendor name) AS •row number•, vendor namef vendorstate
FROM vendors
row .nixnber vendor name vendor.state

» 1 AT AT AZ
2 Computer Lixary AZ
3 Weis Fargo Bank AZ
1 Abbey Office Fumings CA
2 Amer car Excess CA
3 ASCSgra CA

Description
• The ROW_NUMBER. RANK. DENSE_RANK. and NT1LE functions were intro­
duced with MySQL 8.0. They are sometimes referred to as ranking functions.
• The ORDER BY clause determines the sequence of the rows within the partitions.
• The optional PARTITION BY clause specifies the column that’s used to divide the
result set into groups called partitions.
• The ROW_N(JMBER function returns the number of the current row within its
partition, starting at 1 for the first row in each partition.

Figure 9-17 How to use the ranking functions (part 1 of 2)

286 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

The first example m part 2 of figure 9-17 shows how the RANK and
DENSE_RANK functions work. You can use these functions to rank the rows in
a result set. In this example, both the RANK and the DENSE. RANK functions
sort all invoices in the Invoices table by the invoice_total column. Since the
first three rows have the same invoice total, both of these functions give these
three rows the same rank. 1. However, tile fourth row has a different value. To
calculate the value for this row. the RANK function adds I to the total number
of previous rows. In other words, since the first three rows are tied for first place,
the fourth row gets fourth place and is assigned a rank of 4.
The DENSE_RANK function, on the other hand, calculates the value for the
fourth row by adding 1 to the rank for the previous row. As a result, this function
assigns a rank of 2 to the fourth row. In other words, since the first three rows are
tied for first place, the fourth row gets second place.
The second example shows how the NTILE function works. You can use
this function to divide the rows in a partition into the specified number of
groups. When the rows can be evenly divided into groups, this function is easy
to understand. For example, if a result set returns 100 rows, you can use the
NTILE function to divide this result set into 10 groups of 10. However, w'hen the
rows can't be evenly div ided into groups, this function is a little more difficult to
understand.
In this figure, for example, the NTILE function is used to divide a result set
that contains 5 rows. Here, the first NTILE function divides this result set into
2 groups with the first having 3 rows and the second having 2 rows. The second
NT'ILE function divides this result set into 3 groups w ith the first having 2 rows,
the second having 2 rows, and the third having 1 row. And so on. Although this
doesn’t result in groups with even numbers of rows, the NTILE function creates
the number of groups specified by its argument.
In this figure, the examples for the RANK. DENSE_RANK. and NTILE
functions don't include PARTITION BY clauses. As a result, these functions
are applied to the entire result set. However, whenever necessary, you can use
the PARTITION BY clause to div ide the result set into groups as shown by the
second example for the ROW_NUMBER function.
Although it’s not shown here, you should know that you can also code a
frame clause on the OVER clause for any of the ranking functions. However,
you're not likely to do that. If you haven't already read chapter 6 and you want to
learn more about how frames work with window functions, though, you can refer
back to that chapter.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 287

A query that uses the RANK and DENSE_ RANK functions

SELECT RANK(} OVER (ORDER BY lnvolc«_total) AS 'rank',
DENSE .RANKO OVER (ORDER BY invoicetotal) AS •densarank■,
invoicatotal, invoicenumber
FROM invoices
A
rar* dense .rank nvopce _totai TIVOCejXJTtjCf

1 1 6.00 25022117
1 1 6.00 24863706
1 1 6.00 24780512
4 2 9.95 21-4748363
4 2 9.95 21-4923721 V

Description
• The RANK and DENSE_RANK functions both return the rank of each row within
the partition of a result set.
• If there is a tie. both of these functions give the same rank to all rows that are tied.
• To determine the rank for the next distinct row, the RANK function adds 1 to the
total number of rows, while the DENSE_RANK function adds 1 to the rank for the
previous row.

A query that uses the NTILE function

SELECT terms description,
NTILE(2) OVER (ORDER BY terms id) AS tile2.
NTILE(3) OVER (ORDER BY terms id) AS tile3.
NTILE(4) OVER (ORDER BY terms id) AS tiled
FROM terms
terra _descr ctor t*e2 *>c3 tte4

• Net due 10 days 1 1 1

Net due 20 days 1 1 1
Netdje 30 days 1 2 2
Net due 60 days 2 2 3
Net due 90 days 2 3 4

Description
• The NTILE function divides the rows in a partition into the specified number of
groups and returns the group number of each row.
• If the rows can't be evenly divided into groups, the later groups may have one less
row than the earlier groups.

Figure 9-17 How to use the ranking functions (part 2 of 2)

288 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

How to use the analytic functions

Figure 9- 1 8 shows how to use the analytic functions that were introduced
with MySQL 8.0. These functions let you perform calculations on ordered sets
of data. Note that all of the examples in this figure use the Sales_Reps and
Sales_Totals tables in the EX database. These, tables are related by the rep_id
column in each table.
The IIRST_VALUE, LAST_VALLrE. and NTH_VALUE functions let you
return the first, last, and nth values in an ordered set of values. The first example
uses these functions to return the name of the sales rep u ith the highest, second
highest, and lowest sales for each year. To do that, the OVER clause is used to
group the result set by year and sort the rows w ithin each year by sales total in
descending sequence. Then, the expression that's specified for the functions
causes the name for the first, second, and last rep w'ithin each year to be
returned.
When you code the NTH_VALUE function, you include a numeric literal
as the second argument of the function to indicate which row you want to
retrieve the value from. In this example, the value is returned from the second
row in the partition. To return this value for all rows in the partition, you have to
include the RANGE clause as show n here. If you don't include this clause, the
NTH_VALUE function returns NULL for all rows before the nth row In this
figure, for example, the NTH_VALUE function would return NULL for the first
row for each year, but it would return the second highest sales for the second
row' and all following rows.
You also have to include the RANGE clause for the LAST_VALUE function
to return the value you want. If you don’t include this clause, the LAST_VALUE
function will return the last value for each group specified by the ORDER BY
clause. In this case, that means that the function would return the last rep name
for each sales total. Since all of the sales totals are different, though, the function
would simply return the name of the rep in each row. which isn’t what you want.
So, if you sorted the result set by a column that contains duplicate values, you
would typically include the RANGE clause but not the PARTITION BY clause.
Instead of the RANGE clause, you can code a ROWS clause on a
I1RST_VALUE. LAST_VALUE, or NTH_VALUE function. This clause lets
you specify the row's to include relative to the current row. If you haven't already
read chapter 6, you can refer to that chapter to learn how to code the ROWS and
RANGE clauses.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 289

The syntax of the analytic functions

(FIRST VALUE| LAST VALUE I NTH VALUE)(scalar expression!, numericliteral])
OVER ([partitionclause] orderclause [frame_clause])
(LEAD |LAG)(scalar,exprecsion [, offset [, default]])
OVER ([partitionclause] order_clause)
(PERCENT RANK() j CUME DIST()) OVER ([partition_clause] ordarclause)

The columns in the Sales. Reps and Sales_Totals tables

Column name Data type Column name Data type
rep_id INT rep_id INT
repfirstname VARCHAR(50) sales_year YEAR
replasiname VARCHAR(50) sales-total DECIMALS)

A query that uses the FIRST VALUE, NTH VALUE, and

LAST VALUE functions
SELECT sales year, CONCAT(repfirst name, • rep last_name) AS rep name,
salestotal,
FIRST VALUE(CONCAT(repfirst name, 1 ■, rep.last name))
OVER (PARTITION BY sales_year ORDER BY sales_total DESC)
AS highest-Sales,
NTH VALUE(CONCAT(repfirst name, 1 •, replast name), 2)
OVER (PARTITION BY salea year ORDER BY sales_total DESC
RANGE BETWEEN UNBOUNDED PRECEDING AND UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING)
AS secondhighest,sales,
LAST VALUE(CONCAT(repfirst name, 1 replaat name))
OVER (PARTITION BY sales year ORDER BY sales_total DESC
RANGE BETWEEN UNBOUNDED PRECEDING AND UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING)
AS lowestsales
FROM sales_totalG JOIN sales reps ON sales totals.repid ■ sales reps.repld
sales _yea* re©_name saies Jotal hghesl_sa*es second-highest_>a*es lowest _sales

► 3020 Jonathon Thomas 1274356.38 Jonathon Thomas Andew Markasan Sonja Martnez
2020 Andrew Markasun 1032875.40 Jonathon Thomas Ande* Markasan Sonja Martnez
2020 Sonja Martnez 978465.99 Jonathon Thomas Anden Markasan Sonja Martnez
2021 Andrew Mancasiar 1132744.56 Andrew Markasan Sonja Martnez Lyda Kramer
2021 Sonja Martinez 974853.81 Andew Markasan Sonja Martnez Lyda Kramer
2021 Jonathon Thomas 923746.85 Andrew Markasan Sonja Martnez Lyda Kramef
2021 Philo Winters 655786.92 Andrew Markasan Sonja Martnez Lyda Kramer
3021 Lyda Kramer 422347.86 Andew Markasan Sonja Martnez Lyda Kramer
2022 Jonathon Thomas 998337.46 Jonathon Thomas Sonja Martinez Lyda Kramer
2022 Sonja Martinez 887695.75 Jonathon Thomas Sonja Martnez Lyda Kramer
2022 Philo Writers 72443.37 Jonathon Thomas SonjaMartnez Lyda Kramer
2022 Lyda Kramer 45182.44 Jonathon Thomas Sonja Martnez Lyda Kramer

Description
• The FIRS!LVALUE, LAST_VALUE. NTH VALUE, LEAD. LAG. PERCENT_RAN’K.
and CL’ME_DIST functions are sometimes referred to as analytic functions. They were
introduced with MySQL 8.0.
• The FIRST_VALUE, LAST_VALL’E. and NTH.VALUE functions return the first,
last, and nth value in a sorted set of values. When you use the PARTITION UY
clause with LAST_VALUE or NTH_VALL"E. you typically include the ROWS or
RANGE clause as well to define a subset of the current partition.
Figure 9-18 How to use the analyte functions (part 1 of 2)
290 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

The LEAD and LAG functions let you refer to values in other rows of the
result set. The LAG function is illustrated by the first example in part 2 of figure
9-18 Here, the OVER clause is used to group the result set by the rep Jd column
and sort it by the sales_year column. Then, the LAG function in the fourth
column gets the sales total from one row prior to the current row (the offset).
Since the rows are sorted by year for each sales rep. that means that the function
retrieves the sales rep's sales for the previous year. The fifth column uses the
same function, but it subtracts the result of this function from the current sales to
show the change m sales from the previous year. The LEAD function is similar,
but it lets you refer to values in following rows rather than previous rows.
Notice that the value of the LAG function for the first row for each sales rep
is 0.00. That’s because there isn't a row for the prior year. By default, this value
is null. Because I wanted to calculate the change for each row in the result set,
though. I used the third argument of the LAG function to set the default to 0.
The second example shows how to use the PERCENT_RANK and
CUME_DIST functions Both of these functions groups the rows by year and
sorts them by sales total in ascending sequence.
The PERCENT_RANK function calculates a percent that indicates the
rank of each row within a partition. The result of this function is always a value
between 0 and I
The CL'ME_D1ST function is similar, but it calculates the percent of values
that are less than or equal to the current value. This function represents the
cumulative distribution of the values. I he cumulative distribution is calculated
by dividing the number of rows with the current value or a lower value by the
total number of rows in the partition.
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 291

A query that uses the LAG function

SELECT rep id, sales year, saleatotal AS current Bales,
LAG(salestotal, 1, 0) OVER (PARTITION BY rep id ORDER BY sales year)
AS last sales,
sales total - LAG(sales total, 1, 0)
OVER (PARTITION BY rep id ORDER BY salesyear) AS 'change'
FROM sales totals
repjd M>es_year current .sates last_Mles dyrsge A

► 1 2020 1274356.33 0.00 1274856.38

1 2021 923746.35 1274356.38 ■351109.53

1 2022 998337.46 923746.85 74590.61

2 2020 973465.99 0.00 978465.99
2 2021 974353.81 973465.99 *3612.18 V

A query that uses the PERCENT_RANK and CUME_DIST functions

SELECT sales year, rep id, sales total,
PERCENT RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY sales year ORDER BY sales-total)
AS pct rank,
CUMEDISTO OVER (PARTITION BY sales_year ORDER BY sales_total)
AS ' cume diet*
FROM sales totals
s^es-year repjd pctjank cumejfct

► 2020 2 978465.99 0 0.3333333333333333

2020 3 1032875.48 0.5 0.6666666666666666
2020 1 1274856.38 1 1
2021 5 422847.86 0 0.2
2021 4 655786.92 0.25 0.4
2021 1 923746.85 0.5 0.6
2021 2 974853.81 0.75 0.8
2021 3 1132744.56 1 1
2022 5 45182.44 0 0.25
2022 4 72443.37 0.3333333333333333 0.5
2022 2 887695.75 0 66666€6€£6€£€6£6 0.75
2022 1 998337.46 1 1

Description
• The LEAD function retrieves data from a following row in a result set, and the
LAG function retrieves data from a previous row in a result set.
• The PERCENT_RANK function calculates the rank of the values in a sorted set of
values as a percent The CI’ME_D1ST function calculates the percent of the values
in a sorted set of values that are less than or equal to the current value.

Figure 9-18 How to use the analytic functions (part 2 of 2)

292 Section 2 More SQL skills as you need them

Perspective
In this chapter, you teamed about the different functions that you can use
to operate on MySQL data. At this point, you have all of the skills you need to
develop SQL code at a professional level.
However, there's a lot more to learn about MySQL. In the next section of
this book, then, you'll learn the basic skills for designing a database. Even if
you never need to design your own database, understanding this material will
help you work more efficiently with databases that have been designed by
others.

Terms
LTTC (Coordinated Universal Time)
GMT (Greenwich Mean Time)
format string
string pattern
regular expression
regular expression functions
specialized window functions
ranking functions
partition
analytic functions
cumulative distnbution

Exercises
1 Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the Invoices table.
The invoice_total column
A column that uses the ROUND function to return the invoice_total
column with 1 decimal digit
A column that uses the ROUND function to return the invoice_total
column with no decimal digits
A column that uses the TRUNCAT E function to return the invoice_total
column w ith no decimal digits
2. Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the Date_Sample
table in the EX database:
The start_date column
A column that uses the DATE_EORMAT function to return the start_date
column with its month name abbreviated and its month, day, and two-digit
year separated by slashes
A column that uses the DATE_FORMAT function to return the start_date
column with its month and day returned as integers with no leading zeros, a
two-digit year, and all date parts separated by slashes
 Chapter 9 How to use functions 293

3. Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the Vendors table:
The vendor name column
The vendor_name column in all capital letters
The vendor_phone column
A column that displays the last four digits of each phone number
When you get that working right, add the columns that follow to the result set.
This is more difficult because these columns require the use of functions within
functions.
The vendor_phone column with the parts of the number separated by dots,
as in 555.555.5555
A column that displays the second word in each vendor name if there is one
and blanks if there isn't
4. Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the Invoices table:
The invoice_number column
The invoice_date column
The invoice_date column plus 30 days
The payment_date column
A column named days_to_pay that shows the number of days between the
invoice date and the payment date
The number of the invoice date's month
The four-digit year of the invoice date
When you have this working, add a WHERE clause that retrieves just the
invoices for the month of May based on the invoice date, not the number of
the invoice month.
5. Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the String_Sample
table of the EX database:
The emp_name column
A column that displays each employee’s first name
A column that displays each employee's last name
Use regular expression functions to get the first and last name. If a name
contains three parts, every thing after the first part should be considered part of
the last name. Be sure to provide for last names with hyphens and apostrophes.
Hint: To include an apostrophe in a pattern, you can code a \ in front of it or
you can enclose the pattern in double quotes.
6. Write a SELECT statement that returns these columns from the Invoice table
of the AP database:
The invoice_number column
The balance due for each invoice with a balance due greater than zero
A column that uses the RANKO function to rank the balance due in
descending sequence
Section 3

Database design
and implementation
For large applications, a developer who specializes in database design
may be responsible for designing and creating the databases that are
used by production applications. This developer may also be responsible
for designing and creating the databases that are used for testing those
applications. Then, a database administrator (DBA) may be responsible for
maintaining these databases. For smaller applications, programmers are
often asked to fill one or both of these roles. In other words, programmers
often need to design, create, and maintain the databases that are used for
testing and production.
So. whether you're a database designer, a database administrator, or
a SQL programmer, you need the skills and knowledge presented in this
section. That's true even if you aren't ever called upon to design, create, or
maintain a database. By understanding what's going on behind the scenes,
you’ll be able to use SQL more effectively.
In chapter 10, you'll learn how to design a database. In chapter 11,
you'll learn how to use the Data Definition Language (DDL) statements to
create and maintain databases, tables, and indexes. Finally, in chapter 12,
you’ll learn how to create and maintain views, which are database objects
that provide another way to look at tables.
 10
How to design a database
In this chapter, you’ll learn how to design a new database. This is useful
information whether or not you ever design a database on your own. To illus­
trate this process. I'll use the accounts payable (AP) database that you’ve seen
throughout this book.

How to design a data structure.................. ............... ........... 298

The basic steps for designing a data structure................................................ 298
How to identify the data elements................................................ 300
How to subdivide the data elements............................................ _.................302
How to identify the tables and assign columns..............................................304
Hou to identify the primary' and foreign keys........................................... 306
How to enforce the relationships between tables....................................... .. 308
How normalization works............................................................ ................... 310
Hou to identify the columns to be indexed.....................................................312
How to normalize a data structure.................... 314
The seven normal forms........... ...... __3I4
Hou to apply the first norma) form.............. ................................................... 316
How to apply the second normal form............................................................ 318
How to apply the third normal form.................................... ........ ....................320
When and how to denormalize a data structure...................... 322
How to use MySQL Workbench for database design..... 324
Hou to open an existing EER model...............................................................324
Hou to create a new EER model.............. ~....... ....... -................. 324
Hou to uork with an EER model................................................................. 326
Hou to work with an EER diagram ........................................ ..328
Perspective................................. ....M.......M....33O
298 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to design a data structure

Databases are often designed by database administrators ( DBAs) or design
specialists. This is especially true for large, multiuser databases. How well this
is done can directly affect your job as a MySQL programmer In general, a
well-designed database is easy to understand and query, while a poorly designed
database is difficult to work with. In fact, when you work with a poorly designed
database, you will often need to figure out how it is designed before you can
code your queries appropriately.
The topics that follow present a basic approach for designing a data struc­
ture. We use that term to refer to a model of the database rather than the database
itself. Once you design the data structure, you can use the techniques presented
in the next two chapters to create a database with that design. By understanding
the right way to design a database, you'll work more effectively as a MySQL
programmer.

The basic steps for designing a data structure

In many cases, you can design a data structure based on an existing
real-world system. The illustration at the top of figure 10-1 presents a conceptual
view of how this works. Here, you can see that all of the information about the
people, documents, and facilities within a real-world system is mapped to the
tables, columns, and rows of a database system.
As you design a data structure, each table represents one object, or entity, m
the real-world system. Then, within each table, each column stores one item of
information, or attribute, for the entity, and each row stores one occurrence, or
instance, of the entity.
This figure also presents the six steps you can follow to design a data
structure. You'll learn more about each of these steps in the topics that follow. In
general, though, step 1 is to identify all the data elements that need to be stored
in the database. Step 2 is to break complex elements down into smaller compo­
nents whenever that makes sense. Step 3 is to identify the tables that will make
up the system and to determine which data elements are assigned as columns in
each table. Step 4 is to define the relationships between the tables by identifying
the primary and foreign keys. Step 5 is to normalize the database to reduce data
redundancy. And step 6 is to identify the indexes that are needed for each table.
To model a database system after a real-world system, you can use a
technique called entity-relationship (ER) modeling. 1 have applied some of the
basic elements of this technique to the diagrams presented in this chapter. As a
result, you 11 be learning some of the basics of this modeling technique as you
read this chapter.
 Chapter 10 How to design a database 299

A database system is modeled after a real-world system

The six basic steps for designing a data structure

Step 1: Identify the data elements
Step 2: Subdivide each element into ns smallest useful components
Step 3: Identify the tables and assign columns
Step 4: Identify the primary and foreign keys
Step 5: Review whether the data structure is nonnalized
Step 6: Identify the indexes

Description
• A relational database system should model the real-world environment where it’s
used. The job of the designer is to analyze the real-world system and then map it
onto a relational database system.
• A table in a relational database typically represents an object, or entity, in the real
world. Each column of a table is used to store an attribute associated with the
entity, and each row represents one instance of the entity.
• To model a database and the relationships between its tables after a real-world
system, you can use a technique called entity-relationship (ER) modeling. Some of
the diagrams you'll see in this chapter apply the basic elements of ER modeling.

Figure 10-1 The basic steps for designing a data structure

300 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to identify the data elements

The first step for designing a data structure is to identity the data elements
required by the system. You can use several techniques to do that, including
analyzing the existing system it there is one. evaluating comparable systems, and
interviewing anyone who will be using the system. One particularly good source
of information is the documents used by an existing system.
In figure 10-2. for example, you can see an invoice that’s used by an
accounts payable system. We'll use this document as the main source of infor­
mation for the database design presented in this chapter. Keep in mind, though,
that you'll want to use all available resources when you design your own
database.
If you study this document, you'll notice that it contains information about
three different entities: vendors, invoices, and line items. First, the form itself
has preprinted information about the vendor who issued the invoice, such as the
vendor's name and address. It this vendor were to issue another invoice, this
information wouldn't change.
This document also contains specific information about the invoice. Some
of this information, such as the invoice number, invoice date, and invoice total,
is general in nature. Although the actual information will vary from one invoice
to the next, each invoice will include this information. In addition to this general
information, each invoice includes information about the items that were
purchased. Although each line item contains similar information, each invoice
can contain a different number of line items.
One of the things you need to consider as you review a document like this
is how much information your system needs to track. For an accounts payable
system, for example, you may not need to store detailed data such as the infor­
mation about each line item. Instead, you may just need to store summary data
like the invoice total. As you think about what data elements to include in the
database, then, you should have an idea of what information you'll need to get
back out of the system.
 Chapter 10 How to design a database 301

An invoice that can be used to identify data elements

Acme Fabrication. Inc
Custom Contraptions. Contrivances and Confabulations Invoice Number: 101-1088
1234 West Industrial Way East Los Angeles California 90022 Invoice Date: 10/05/18
800 555.1212 fax 562.555.1213 www aanefabrication.com Terms: Net 30

•
’"Part No. Qty. Description Unit Price Extension

CUST345 12 Design service, hr 100.00 1200.00

457332 7 Baling wire, 25x3ft roll 79.90 559.30
50173 4375 Duct tape, black, yd 1.09 4768.75
328771 2 Rubber tubing, 100ft roll 4.79 9.58

CUST281 7 Assembly, hr 75.00 525.00

CUST917 2 Testing, hr 125.00 250.00

Sales Tax 245.20

\________ >
Your salesperson: Ruben Goldberg, ext 4512 $7,557.83

Accounts receivable: Inigo Jones, ext 4901

Thanks for your business!

The data elements identified on the invoice document

Vendor name Invoice date Item extension
Vendor address Invoice terms Vendor sales contact name
Vendor phone number Item part number Vendor sales contact extension
Vendor fax number Item quantity Vendor AR contact name
Vendor web address Item description Vendor AR contact extension
Invoice number Item unit price Invoice total

Description
• Depending on the nature of the system, you can identify data elements in a variety
of ways, including interviewing users, analyzing existing systems, and evaluating
comparable systems.
• The documents used by a real-world system, such as the invoice shown above, can
often help you identify the data elements of the system.
• As you identify the data elements of a system, you should begin thinking about
the entities that those elements are associated with. That will help you identify the
tables of the database later on.

Figure 10-2 How to identify the data elements

302 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to subdivide the data elements

Some of the data elements you identify in step I of the design procedure will
consist of multiple components. The next step, then, is to divide these elements
into then smallest useful values. Figure 10-3 shows how you can do that.
I he first example in this figure shows how you can divide the name of the
sales contact for a vendor. Here, the name is divided into two elements: a first
name and a last name. When you divide a name like this, you can easily perform
operations like sorting by last name and using the first name in a salutation, such
as “Dear Ruben." In contrast, if the full name is stored m a single column, you
have to use the string functions to extract the component you need. But as you
learned in the last chapter, that can lead to inefficient and complicated code.
In general, then, you should separate a name like this whenever you'll need
to use the name components separately. Later, when you need to use the full
name, you can combine the first and last names using concatenation. However,
you should also be aware that some cultures use different naming styles. Does
your database need to distinguish betu'een the presence of a middle name and a
person with two last names? Deciding early on how' your system will handle a
name like Antoine Marie Jean-Baptiste Roger can save you a lot of headaches in
the future.
1‘hc second example shows how you typically divide an address. Notice
in this example that the street number and street name are stored in a single
column. Although you could store these components in separate columns, that
usually doesn't make sense since these values are typically used together. 1 hat’s
what I mean when I say that the data elements should be divided into their
smallest useful values.
With that guideline in mind, you might even need to divide a single string
into two or more components. A bulk mail system, for example, might require a
separate column for the first three digits of the zip code. And a telephone number
could require as many as four columns: one for the area code, one for the
three-digit prefix, one for the four-digit number, and one for the extension.
As in the previous step, knowledge of the real-world system and of the
information that will be extracted from the database is critical. In some circum­
stances. it may be okay to store data elements with multiple components in a
single column. That can simplify your design and reduce the overall number of
columns. In general, though, most designers divide data elements as much as
possible. That way. it's easy to accommodate almost any query, and you don t
have to change the database design later on when you realize that you need to
use just part of a column value.
 Chapter 10 /low to design a database 303

A name that's divided into first and last names

Vendor sales contact name
Ruben Goldberg

1
Vendor contact last
Goldberg

An address that's divided into street address, city, state, and zip code

1234 Went Industrial Way East Los Angeles California 90022

Description
• If a data element contains two or more components, you should consider subdi­
viding the element into those components. That way, you won't need to parse the
element each time you use it.
• The extent to which you subdivide a data element depends on how it will be used.
Because it's difficult to predict all future uses for the data, most designers subdivide
data elements as much as possible.
• When you subdivide a data element, you can easily rebuild it when necessary by
concatenating the individual components.

Figure 10-3 How to subdivide the data elements

304 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to identify the tables and assign columns

Figure 10—-I presents the three main entities for the accounts payable system
and lists the possible data elements that can be associated with each one. In
most cases, you'll recognize the main entities that need to be included in a data
structure as you identify the data elements. As I reviewed the data elements
represented on the invoice document in figure 10-2. for example. I identified
the three entities shown in this figure: vendors, invoices, and invoice line items.
Although you may identify additional entities later on in the design process, it’s
sufficient to identity the main entities at this point. These entities will become
the tables of the database.
After you identify the main entities, you need to determine which data
elements are associated with each entity. These elements will become the
columns of the tables. In many cases, the associations are obvious. For example,
it’s easy to determine that the vendor name and address are associated w ith the
vendors entity and the invoice date and invoice total are associated with the
invoices entity. Some associations, however, aren’t so obvious. In that case, you
may need to list a data element under two or more entities In this figure, for
example, you can see that the invoice number is included in both the invoices
and invoice line items entities and the account number is included in all three
entities. Later, when you normalize the data structure, you may be able to
remove these repeated elements. For now. though, it's okay to include them.
Before 1 go on. I want to point out the notation I used in this figure. To start,
any data elements I included that weren't identified in previous steps are shown
in italics. Although you should be able to identify most of the data elements in
the first two steps of the design process, you'll occasionally think of additional
elements during tire third step. In this case, since the initial list of data elements
was based on a single document. I added several data elements to this list.
Similarly, you may decide during this step that you don't need some of the
data elements you’ve identified. For example. I decided that I didn't need the fax
number or web address of each vendor. So I used strikethrough to indicate that
these data elements should not be included.
Finally. I identified the data elements that are included in two or more tables
by coding an asterisk after them. Although you can use any notation you like for
this step of the design process, you'll want to be sure that you document your
design decisions. For a complicated design, you will probably want to use a
CASE f computer-aided software engineering) tool.
By the way, a couple of the new data elements 1 added may not be clear to
you if you haven't w orked with a corporate accounts payable system before.
“Terms" refers to the payment terms that the vendor offers. For example, the
terms might be net 30 (the invoice must be paid in 30 days) or might include
a discount for early payment. "Account number” refers to the general ledger
accounts that a company uses to track its expenses. For example, one account
number might be assigned for advertising expenses, while another might be for
office supplies. Each invoice that's paid is assigned to an account, and in some
cases, different line items on an invoice are assigned to different accounts.
 Chapter 10 How to design a database 305

Possible tables and columns for an accounts payable system

Vendors Invoices Invoice line items
Vendor name Invoice number* Invoice number*
Vendor address Invoice date Item part number
Vendor city Terms* Item quantity
Vendor state Invoice total Item description
Vendor zip code Payment date Item unit price
Vendor phone number Payment total Item extension
V^errdor tax number Invoice due date Account number*
Vendor web address Credit total Sequence number
Vendor contact first name Account number^
Vendor contact last name
Vendor contact phone
Vendor AR hMl name
Vendor AR laM name
Vendor Aft phone
Terms*
Account number*

Description
• After you identify and subdivide all of the data elements for a database, you should
group them by the entities with which they're associated. These entities will later
become the tables of the database, and the elements will become the columns.
• If a data element relates to more than one entity, you can include it under all of the
entities it relates to. Then, when you normalize the database, you may be able to
remove the duplicate elements.
• As you assign die elements to entities, you should omit elements that aren't needed,
and you should add any additional elements that are needed.

The notation used in this figure

• Data elements that were previously identified but aren't needed are crossed out.
• Data elements that were added are displayed in italics.
• Data elements that are related to two or more entities are followed by an asterisk
• You can use a similar notation or develop one of your own. You can also use a
CASE (computer-aided software engineering) tool if one is available to you.

Figure 10-4 How to identify the tables and assign columns

306 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to identify the primary and foreign keys

Once you identify the entities and data elements of a system, the next step is
to identify the relationships between the tables. To do that, you need to identify
the primary and foreign keys as shown m figure 10-5.
As you know, a primary key is used to uniquely identify each row in a table.
In some cases, you can use an existing column as the primary key. For example,
you might consider using the vendor_name column as the primary key of the
Vendors table. Because the values for this column can be long, however, and
because it would be easy to enter a value like that incorrectly, that’s not a good
candidate for a primary key. Instead, an auto increment column is used as the
primary key.
Similarly, you might consider using the invoice_number column as the
primary key of the Invoices table. However, it's possible for different vendors to
use the same invoice number, so this value isn’t necessarily unique. Because of
that, an auto increment column is used as the primary key ot this table as well.
To uniquely identify the rows in the lnvoice_Line_ltems table, this design
uses a composite key. This composite key uses two columns to identify each
row. The first column is the invoice_id column from the Invoices table, and
the second column is the invoice_sequence column. This is necessary because
this table may contain more than one row (line item) for each invoice. And that
means that the invoice_id value by itself may not be unique.
This book uses the composite key in the InvoiceLineltems table to show
how to work with composite keys. However, it usually makes more sense to use
a single column as the primary key. For example, the InvoiceLineltems table
could start with an InvoiceLineltemID column that uniquely identifies each row
in the table. Then, you could use that column as the primary key. and you could
consider dropping the InvoiceSequence column.
After you identify the primary- key of each table, you need to identify the
relationships between the tables and add foreign key columns as necessary.
Li most cases, two tables will have a one-to-many relationship with each other.
For example, each vendor can have many invoices, and each invoice can
have many line items. To identify the vendor that each invoice is associated
with, a vendor_id column is included in the Invoices table. Because the
Invoice_Line_Items table already contains an invoice_id column, it’s not
necessary to add another column to this table.
The diagram at the top of this figure illustrates the relationships I identified
between the tables in the accounts payable system. As you can see. the primary
keys are displayed in bold. Then, the anes between the tables indicate how the
primary key in one table is related to the foreign key tn another table. Here,
a small, round connector indicates the “one” side of the relationship, and the
triangular connector indicates the "many" side of the relationship.
In addition to the one-to-many relationships shown in this diagram, you can
also use many-to-many relationships and one-to-one relationships. The second
diagram in this figure, for example, shows a many-to-many relationship between
an Employees table and a Committees table. As you can see. this type of relation-
 Chapter 10 How to design a database 307

The relationships between the tables in the accounts payable system

vendors invoices invoice line items
vendor_id invoice_id ■4 invoice_id
vendor_name *—< vendorjd invoicesequence
vendor_address invoice_number account_no
vendor_city invoice_date line_item_description
vendor_state invoice_total item_quantity
vendor_zip_code payment-total item_unit_price
vendor_phone credit_total line_item_amount
vendor_contact_first_name terms
vendor_contact_last_name invoice_due_date
terms payment_date
account_no account-no

Two tables with a many-to-many relationship

employees memberships committees
employee id e- -4 employee_id ।—• committee_id
first_name committeejd >—। committee_name
last_name
Linking table

Two tables with a one-to-one relationship

employees employeephotos
employee_id -• employee_id
first_name employee_photo
last_name

Description
• Most tables should have a pi unary key that uniquely identifies each row. If neces­
sary, you can use a composite key that uses two or more columns to uniquely
identify each row.
• The values of the primary keys should seldom, if ever, change. The values should
also be short and easy to enter correctly.
• If a suitable column doesn’t exist for a primary key, you can create an auto incre­
ment column that can be used as the primary key.
• If two tables have a one-to-many relationship, you may need to add a foreign key
column to the table on the “many” side. The foreign key column must have the
same data type as the primary key column it’s related to.
• If two tables have a many-to-many relationship, you’ll need to define a linking
table to relate them. Then, each of the tables in the many-to-many relationship will
have a one-to-many relationship with the linking table. The linking table doesn't
usually have a primary key.
• If two tables have a one-to-one relationship, they should be related by their primary
keys. This type of relationship is typically used to improve performance. Then,
columns with large amounts of data can be stored in a separate table.

Figure 10-5 How to identify the primary and foreign keys

308 Section 3 Database design and implementation

ship can be implemented by creating a linking table, also called a connecting

table or an associate table. This table contains the primary key columns from
the two tables. Then, each table has a one-to-many relationship with the linking
table. Notice that the linking table doesn't have its own primary key. Because this
table doesn t correspond to an entity and because it’s used only in conjunction
with the Employees and Committees tables, a primary key isn’t needed.
The third example m figure 10-5 illustrates two tables that have a one-to-one
relationship. With this type of relationship, both tables have the same primary
key, w'hich means that the information could be stored in a single table. This
type of relationship is often used when a table contains one or more columns
with large amounts of data, in this case, the Employee_Photos table contains a
large binary column w'ith a photo of each employee. Because this column is used
infrequently, storing it in a separate table will make operations on the Employees
table more efficient. Then, when this column is needed, it can be combined with
the columns in the Employees table using a join.

How to enforce the relationships between tables

Although the primary keys and foreign keys indicate how the tables in a
database are related, the database management system doesn't always enforce
those relationships automatically. In that case, any of the operations shown in the
table at the top of figure 10-6 might violate the referential integrity of the tables.
If you deleted a row from a primary key table, for example, and the foreign key
table included rows related to that primary key the referential integrity of the
two tables would be destroyed. In that case, the rows in the foreign key table
that no longer have a related row in the primary key table would be orphaned.
Similar problems can occur when you insert a row into the foreign key table or
update a primary key or foreign key value.
To enforce those relationships and maintain the referential integrity of the
tables, MySQL provides for declarative referential integrity. To use it, you
define foreign key constraints that indicate how the referential integrity between
the tables is enforced. You’ll learn more about defining foreign key constraints in
the next chapter. For now, just realize that these constraints can prevent all of the
operations listed in this figure that violate referential integrity.
 Chapter 10 How to design a database 309

Operations that can violate referential integrity

This operation... Violates referential integrity if...
Delete a row from the primary key table The foreign key table contains one or more rows
related to the deleted row
Insert a row in the foreign key table The foreign key value doesn't have a matching
primary key value in the related table
Update the value of a foreign key The new foreign key value doesn't have a matching
primary key value in the related table
Update the value of a primary key The foreign key table contains one or more rows
related to the row that's changed

Description
• Referential integrity means that the relationships between tables are maintained
correctly That means that a table with a foreign key doesn't have rows with foreign
key values that don't have matching primary key values in the related table.
• In MySQL, you can enforce referential integrity by using declarative referential
integrity.
• To use declarative referential integrity (DRI). you define foreign key constraints.
You E learn how to do that in the next chapter.
• When you define foreign key constraints, you can specify how referential integrity
is enforced when a row is deleted from die primary' key table. The options are
to return an error, to delete the related rows in the foreign key table, or to set the
foreign key values in the related rows to null.
• If referential integrity isn't enforced and a row is deleted from the primary key
table that has related rows in the foreign key table, the rows in the foreign key table
are said to be orphaned.

Figure 10-6 How to enforce the relationships between tables

310 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How normalization works

The next step in tile design process is to review whether the data str ucture is
normalized. To do that, you look at how the data is separated into related tables.
If you follow the first four steps tor designing a database that are presented in
this chapter, your database will already be partially normalized when you get to
this step. However, almost every design can be normalized further.
Figure 10-7 illustrates how normalisation works. The first two tables in this
figure show some of the problems caused by an unnormalized data structure.
Ln the first table, you can see that each row represents an invoice. Because an
invoice can have one or more line items, however, the item_description column
must be repeated to provide for the maximum number of line items. But since
most invoices have fewer line items than the maximum, this can waste storage
space.
In the second table, each line item is stored in a separate row. That elimi­
nates the problem caused by repeating the item_description column, but it
introduces a new problem: the vendor name and invoice number must be
repeated in each row. This, too, can cause storage problems, particularly if a
repeated column is large. In addition, it can cause maintenance problems if a
column contains a value that’s likely to change. Then, when the value changes,
each row that contains the value must be updated. And if a repeated value must
be reentered for each new row. it would be easy for the value to vary from one
row to another.
lb eliminate the problems caused by data redundancy, you can normalize
the data structure. To do that, you apply the normal forms you'll learn about
later in this chapter. As you'll see. there are a total of seven normal forms.
However, it's common to apply only the first three. The diagram in this figure,
for example, shows the accounts payable system in third normal form. Although
it may not be obvious at this point how1 this reduces data redundancy, that will
become clearer as you learn about the different normal forms.
 Chapter 10 How to design a database 311

A table that contains repeating columns

vendor name rvoce TJ-rser item desCTjjtcn_l item, seccnatcn 2 itemjtesooton 3

Cahners PJblstwiQ 112897 Androd ad MySQL ad Lixary directory

ZylLa C-=r.g- 97/552 Catahgr MySQL flyer
Zyfca Osg- 97/5538 Card (e«Mn

A table that contains redundant data

vendor name rvoce.njnaer item □erenat’en
► Cahners Pjtsa-rv; 112897 Aridrod ad
------- -- re *-*• * •—
LflTnXrS rSTTriQ 112897 MySQL ad
Cahners P-tt^ing 112897 Llxary <!■-.’» /
Zylca Destr 97/522 Catalogs
ZyfcaDe^g- 97/522 MySQL l»yer
Zyfla Desgn 97/5338 Card rev icon

The accounts payable system in third normal form

vendors invoices invoiceslineitems
vendorjd invoicejd —4 invoicejd
vendor_name vendorjd invoice.sequence
vendor.address nvoice.n ember —4 account.no
vendor_clty invoice jfattr line, -tem.amount
vendor_sta1e mvoicejotal line_item_descrtption
vendor_zis_code payment, total
vendor_pbone crtdtjotal
vendor_contact_first_name -4 terms.id
vendor_contact_last_name nvoice.due.datfc
generalledgeraccounts
defaultjermsjd payment_date
default account no • accountno
terms account.description

terms_descnpton
terms_due_days

Description
• Normalization is a formal process you can use to separate the data in a data struc­
ture into related tables. Normalization reduces data redundancy, which can cause
storage and maintenance problems.
• In an unnonnaliztd data structure. a table can contain information about two or
more entities. It can also contain repeating column*, columns that contain repeating
values, and data that's repeated in two or more rows.
• In a normalized data structure, each table contains information about a single
entity, and each piece of information is stored in exactly one place.
• To normalize a data structure, you apply the normalforms in sequence. Although
[here are a total of seven normal forms, a data structure is typically considered
normalized if the first three normal forms are applied.

Figure 10-7 How normalization works

312 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to identify the columns to be indexed

The last step in the design process is to identify the columns that should
be indexed. An index is a structure that provides for locating one or more rows
directly. Without an index, a database management system has to perform a table
scan, which involves searching through the entire table.
Just as the index of a book has page numbers that direct you to a specific
subject, a database index has pointers that direct the system to a specific row.
This can speed performance not only w'hen you're searching for rows based on a
search condition, but also when you're joining data from tables. If a join is done
based on a primary key to foreign key relationship, for example, and an index
is defined for the foreign key column, the database management system can use
that index to locate the rows for each primary key value.
When you use MySQL, an index is automatically created for the primary
and foreign keys in each table that you create. But you should also consider
creating indexes for other columns based on the guidelines at the top of figure
10-8.
To start, you should index a column if it will be used frequently m search
conditions or joins. The column should also contain mostly distinct values, and
the values in the column should be updated infrequently. If these conditions
aren’t met. the overhead of maintaining the index will probably outweigh the
advantages of using it.
When you create indexes, you should be aware that MySQL must update
the indexes whenever you add. update, or delete rows. Because that can affect
performance, you don’t want to define more indexes than you need.
As you identify the indexes for a table, keep in mind that, like a key,
an index can consist of two or more columns. This type of index is called a
composite index.
 Chapter 10 How to design a database 313

When to create an index

• When the column is used frequently in search conditions or joins
• When the column contains a large number of distinct values
• When the column is updated infrequently

Description
• MySQL automatically creates an index for primary and foreign keys.
• An index provides a way for a database management system to locate information
more quickly. When it uses an index, the database management system can go
directly to a specific row rather than having to search through all the rows until it
finds it.
• Indexes speed performance when searching and joining tables.
• You can create composite indexes that include two or more columns. You should
use this type of index when the columns in the index are updated infrequently or
w hen the index covers almost every search condition on the table.
• Because indexes must be updated each time you add. update, or delete a row, you
shouldn't create more indexes than you need.

Figure 10-8 How to identify the columns to be indexed

314 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to normalize a data structure

The topics that follow describe the seven normal forms and teach you how to
apply the first three. As I said earlier, you apply these three forms to some extent
in the first four database design steps, but these topics will give you more insight
into the process. Then, the last topic explains when and how to denormalize
a data structure. When you finish these topics, you'll have the basic skills for
designing databases that are efficient and easy to use.

The seven normal forms

Figure 10-9 summarizes the seven normal forms. Each normal form assumes
that the previous forms have already been applied. Before you can apply the third
normal form, for example, the design must already be in the second normal form.
Strictly speaking, a data structure isn't normalized until it's in the fifth or
sixth normal form. However, the normal forms past the third normal form are
applied infrequently. Because of that. I won't present those forms in detail here.
Instead. I'll just describe them bnefly so you'll have an idea of how to apply
them if you need to.
The Boyce-Codd normal form is a slightly stronger version of the third
normal form that can be used to eliminate transitive dependencies. With this
type of dependency, one column depends on another column, which depends
on a thud column. Most tables that are in the third normal form are also in the
Boyce-Codd normal form.
The fourth normal form can be used to eliminate multiple multivalued
dependencies from a table. A multivalued dependency is one where a primary
key column has a one-to-many relationship with a non-key column. This normal
form gets nd of misleading many-to-many relationships.
To apply the fifth normal form, you continue to divide the tables of the
data structure into smaller tables until all redundancy has been removed. When
further splitting would result in tables that couldn't be used to reconstruct the
original table, the data structure is in fifth normal form In this form, most tables
consist of little more than key columns with one or two data elements.
The domain-key normal form, sometimes called the sixth normal form,
further reduces all tables to just one key column and no more than one additional
column. Although it isn 't commonly used for production databases, the sixth
normal form is sometimes used in data warehousing systems.
This figure also lists the benefits of normalizing a data structure. To summa­
rize. normalization produces smaller, more efficient tables. In addition, it reduces
data redundancy, which makes the data easier to maintain and reduces the
amount of storage needed for the database. Because of these benefits, you should
always consider normalizing your data structures.
in the academic study of computer science, normalization is considered a
form of design perfection that should alw ays be strived for. In practice, though,
database designers and DBAs tend to use normalization as a flexible design
guideline.
 Chapter 10 How to design a database 315

The seven normal forms

Normal form Description
First (INF) The value stored at the intersection of each row and column must be a scalar
value, and a table must not contain any repeating columns.
Second (2NF) Every non-key column must depend on the entire primary key.
Third (3 NF) Every non-key column must depend only on the primary key.
Boyce-Codd (BCNF) A non-key column can't be dependent on another non-key column. This
prevents transitive dependencies, where column A depends on column C and
column B depends on column C. Since both A and B depend on C. A and B
should be moved into another table with C as the key.
Fourth (4NF) A table must not have more than one multivalued dependency, where the
primary key has a one-to-many relationship to non-key columns. This form
gets rid of misleading many-to-many relationships.
Fifth (5NF) The data structure is split into smaller and smaller tables until all redundancy
has been eliminated. If further splitting would result in tables that couldn't be
joined to recreate the original table, the structure is in fifth normal form.
Domain-key (DKNF) Every constraint on the relationship is dependent only on key constraints
or and domain constraints, where a domain is the set of allowable values for a
Sixth (6NF) column. This form prevents the insertion of any unacceptable data by
enforcing constraints at the level of a relationship, rather than at the table or
column level.

The benefits of normalization

• Since a normalized database has more tables than an unnormalized database, and
since each table has an index on its primary key. the database has more indexes.
That makes data retrieval more efficient.
• Since each table contains information about a single entity, each index has fewer
columns (usually one) and fewer rows. That makes data retrieval and insert, update,
and delete operations more efficient.
• Each table has fewer indexes, which makes insert, update, and delete operations
more efficient.
• Data redundancy is minimized, which simplifies maintenance and reduces storage.

Description
• Each normal form assumes that the design is already in the previous normal form.
• A database is typically considered to be normalized if it is in third normal form.
The other four forms are not commonly used and are not covered in detail in this
book.

Figure 10-9 The seven normal forms

316 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to apply the first normal form

Figure 10-10 illustrates how you apply the first normal form to an unnor­
malized invoice data structure consisting of the data elements that are shown
in figure 10-2. The first two tables in this figure illustrate structures that aren't
in first normal form. Both of these tables contain a single row for each invoice.
Because each invoice can contain one or more line items, though, the first table
allows for repeating values in the item_description column. The second table
is similar, except it includes a separate column for each line item description.
Neither of these structures is acceptable in first normal form.
The third table in this figure has eliminated the repeating values and
columns. To do that, it includes one row for each line item. Notice, however, that
this has increased the data redundancy. Specifically, the vendor name and invoice
number are now repeated for each line item. This problem can be solved by
applying the second normal form.
Before I describe the second normal form.! want you to realize that I
intentionally omitted many of the columns in the invoice data structure from the
examples in this figure and the next figure. In addition to the columns shown
here, for example, each of these tables would also contain the vendor address,
invoice date, invoice total, etc. By eliminating these columns, it will be easier for
you to focus on the columns that are affected by applying the normal forms.
 Chapter 10 How to design a database 317

The invoice data with a column that contains repeating values

7
vendor name rwoce junker item descriptor

► Cahners PiiiEhng 112897 Androd ad. MySQL ad. Uy ary drectory

Zyfta Desgn 97/522 Catalogs, MySQL Flyer
Zyfta Design 97/5338 Card revtsar

The invoice data with repeating columns

vendor _name rvoce_ruTO®r item descripton _1 rteni .descnpton _2 rtem_descTDtan_3
Cahners Piiitehriq 112897 Ardrod ad MySQL ad Lixary directory
Zy&a DesKT 97/552 Catalogs MvSQl five'
Zyfta Desgn 97/5538 Card revtson
l.J T cnn

The invoice data in first normal form

vendor _name rrvoce _njrtw item descnoton

► Cahners PiiiaHng 112897 Ar dr ad ad

Cahners PtCtahng 112897 MySQL ad
Cahners PiiA^ng 112897 Lixary Rectory
Zyfca Desgn 97/522 Catalogs
Zyfca Desgn 97/522 MySQL ftyer
ZytkaDeagn 97/5338 Card revtton

Description
• For a table to be in first normal form, its columns must not contain repeating
values. Instead, each column must contain a single, scalar value. In addition, the
table must not contain repeating columns that represent a set of values.
• A table in first normal form often has repeating values in its rows. This can be
resolved by apply ing the second normal form.

Figure 10-10 How to apply the first normal form

318 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to apply the second normal form

Figure 10-11 shows how to apply the second normal form. fo be in second
normal form, every column in a table that isn't a key column must be dependent
on the entire primary key. This form only applies to tables that have composite
primary keys, which is often the case when you start with data that is completely
unnormalized. The table at the top of this figure, for example, show's the invoice
data in first normal form after key columns have been added In this case, the
primary key consists of the invoiue_id and invoice_sequence columns. The
invoice_sequence column is needed to uniquely identify each line item for an
invoice.
Now, consider the three non-key columns shown in this table. Of these
three, only one. item_descnption, depends on the entire primary key. The other
two. vendor_name and invoice_number. depend only on the invoice_id column.
Because of that, these columns should be moved to another table. The result is a
data structure like the second one shown in this figure. Here, all of the informa­
tion related to an invoice is stored in the Invoices table, and all of the informa­
tion related to an individual line item is stored in the Invoice_Line_ltems table.
Notice that the relationship between these tables is based on the invoice_id
column. This column is the primary key of the Invoices table, and it's the foreign
key in the Invoice_Line_ltems table that relates the row s in that table to the
rows in the Invoices table. This column is also part of the primary key of the
Invoice_Line_Items table.
When you apply second normal form to a data stiucture. it eliminates some
of the redundant row data in the tables In this figure, for example, you can see
that the invoice number and vendor name are now included only once for each
invoice. In first normal form, this information was included for each line item.
 Chapter 10 How to design a database 319

The invoice data in first normal form with keys added

rrvcKX jd vendor _name rvoKe.fXjrrtjer rvoiceseauence tem^desouton

► 1 Cahners Pihtehmg 112897 1 Andfad ad

1 Cahners Piiishng 112897 2 MySQL ad
1 Cahners Pilitahrq 112897 3 Ubrary directory
2 2yka Design 97/522 1 Catalog
2 Zyfca tesgn 97/522 2 MySQL flyer
3 2 yfca Design 97/53S 1 Card revwon

The invoice data in second normal form

—• nvocejd irwtMejruTibef vendor _name

► 1 112897 Cahnm Pubbshng

2 97/522 2 yfca Design
3 97/533B Zyfta De«gn

T
ovoiotjd mot r sequence i terr _descnp tor

► 1 1 Anckod ad
1 2 MySQL ad
1 3 Lbrary drectery
2 1 Catalog
2 2 MySQL flyer
3 1 Card rei’sion

Description
• For a table to be in second normal form, every non-key column must depend on the
entire primary key. If a column doesn't depend on the entire key. it indicates that
the table contains information for more than one entity. This can happen if the table
contains a composite primary key.
• To apply second normal form, you move columns that don’t depend on the entire
primary key to another table and then establish a relationship between the two
tables.
• Second normal form helps remove redundant row data, which can save storage
space, make maintenance easier, and reduce the chance of storing inconsistent data.

Figure 10-11 How to apply the second normal form

320 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to apply the third normal form

Tq apply the third normal form, you make sure that every' non-key column
depends only on the primary key. Figure 10-12 illustrates how you can apply
tliis form to the data structure for the accounts payable system. At the top of tins
figure, you can see all of the columns in the Invoices and Invoice_Line_Items
tables in second normal form. Then, you can see a list of questions that you
might ask about some of the columns in these tables when you apply third
normal form.
First, does the vendor information depend only on the invoicejd column?
Another way to phrase this question is, “Will the information for the same
vendor change from one invoice to another?” It the answer is no. the vendor
information should be stored in a separate table. That way, can you be sure
that the vendor information for each invoice for a vendor will be the same. In
addition, you will reduce the redundancy of the data in the Invoices table. This is
illustrated by the diagram in this figure that shows the accounts payable system
in third normal form. Here, a Vendors table has been added to store the informa­
tion for each vendor. This table is related to the Invoices table by the vendor_id
column, which has been added as a foreign key to the Invoices table.
Second, does the terms column depend only on the invoice_id column? The
answer to that question depends on how this column is used. In this case, I'll
assume that this column is used not only to specify the terms for each invoice,
but also to specify the default terms for a vendor. Because of that, the terms
information could be stored in both the Vendors and the Invoices tables. To avoid
redundancy, however, the information related to different terms can be stored in
a separate table, as illustrated by the Terms table in this figure. As you can see,
the primary key of this table is an auto increment column named ternis_id. Then,
a foreign key column named default_temis_id has been added to the Vendors
table, and a foreign key column named terms_id has been added to the Invoices
table.
Third, does the account_no column depend only on the invoice_id column?
Again, that depends on how this column is used. In this case, it's used to
specify the general ledger account number for each line item, so it depends on
the invoice_id and the invoice_sequence columns. In other words, this column
should be stored in the Invoice_Line_Items table. In addition, each vendor has a
default account number, which should be stored in the Vendors table. Because of
that, another table named GeneraI_Ledger_Accounts has been added to store the
account numbers and account descriptions. Then, foreign key columns have been
added to the Vendors and Invoice_Line_Items tables to relate them to this table.
Fourth, can the invoice_due_date column in the Invoices table and the
line_item_amount column in the Invoice_Line_ltems table be derived from other
data in the database? If so. they depend on the columns that contain that data
rather than on the primary key columns. In this case, the value of the
line_item_amount column can always be calculated from the item_quantity
and item_umt_price columns. Because of that, this column could be omitted.
Alternatively, you could omit the item_quantity and item_unit_price columns
 Chapter 10 /low to design a database 321

The accounts payable system in second normal form

invoices invoice line items
invoicejd < invoicejd
vendor_nane invoice_date invoicesequence
vendor_address invoice_totai accojnt^no
vendor_clty payment_total line_item_descrlption
vendor_state cred tjotal |jne_item_quantity
vendor_zlp_code terms line_,!em_un t_price
vendor_phone mvoice_due_date line_item_amount
vendor_contaci first name payment-date
vendor_contact_last_rame account_no
nvoice number

Questions about the structure

I. Does the vendot information (vendor_name, vendor_address. etc.) depend only
on the invoicejd column?
2. Does the terms column depend only on the invoicejd column?
3. Does the account_no column depend only on the invoicejd column?
4. Can the invoice_due_date and line_item_amount columns be derived from
other data?

The accounts payable system in third normal form

vendors invoices invoice!' line items
vendorjd invoicejd e---------e invoicejd
vendor_name vendorjd invoice_sequence
vendor_address invoica_number ----- 4 account_no
vendor_city invoice_date line_item_amourt
vendorstate invooce_to!al llne_ltem_descrlption
vendor_zic_code payment_total
vendor_phone creditjotal
vendor_contect_first_name -4 termsjd
vendor_contact_last_name invoice_due_date
general_ledger_accounts
default_terms_id paymentdate
default account no 4 accountno
terms account-description

-• termsjd
terms-desenpt on
terms_due_days

Description
• For a table to be in third normal form, every non-key column must depend only on
the primary key.
• If a column doesn't depend only on the primary key, it implies that the column is
assigned to the wrong table or that it can be computed from other columns in the
table. A column that can be computed from other columns contains derived data.

Figure 10-12 How to apply the third normal form

322 Section 3 Database design and implementation

and keep just the line_item_amount column. That's what I did in the data struc­
ture shown in this figure. The solution you choose, however, depends on how the
data will be used.
In contrast, although the invoice_due_date column could be calculated from
the invoice_date column in the Invoices table and the terms_due_days column
in the related row of the Terms table, the system also allow s this date to be
overridden. Because of that. the invoice_due_date column should not be omitted.
If the system didn't allow this value to be overridden, however, this column
could be safely omitted.

When and how to denormalize a data structure

Denormulizalion is the deliberate deviation from the normal forms. Most
denormalization occurs beyond the third normal form. In contrast, the first three
normal forms are almost universally applied.
To illustrate when and how to denormalize a data structure, figure 10-13
presents the design of the accounts payable system m fifth normal form. Here,
the vendor zip codes are stored in a separate table that contains the city and
state for each zip code. In addition, the area codes are stored in a separate table.
Because of that, a query that retrieves vendor addresses and phone numbers
would require two joins. In contrast, if you left the city, state, and area code
information in the Vendors table, no joins w'ould be required, but the Vendors
table would be larger.
In general, you should denormalize based on the way the data will be used.
In this case, we’ll seldom need to query phone numbers without the area code.
Likewise, we'll seldom need to query city and state w ithout the zip code. For
these reasons. I've denormalized my design by eliminating the Zip_Codes and
Area_Codes tables.
You might also consider denormalizing a table if the data it contains is
updated infrequently. In that case, redundant data isn’t as likely to cause problems.
Finally, you should consider including derived data in a table if that data is
used f requently in search conditions. For example, if you frequently query the
Invoices table based on invoice balances, you might consider including a column
that contains die balance due. That way, you won't have to calculate this value
each time it's queried. Keep in mind, thougli. that if you store derived data, it’s
possible for it to deviate from the derived value. For this reason, you may need
to protect the derived column so it can’t be updated directly. Alternatively, you
could update the table periodically to reset the value of the derived column.
Because normalization eliminates the possibility of data redundancy errors
and optimizes the use of storage, you should carefully consider when and how to
denormalize a data structure. In general, you should denormalize only when the
increased efficiency outweighs the potential for redundancy errors and storage
problems. Of course, your decision to denormalize should also be based on your
know ledge of the real-world environment in which the system will be used. If
you've carefully analyzed the real-world environment as outlined in this chapter,
you'll have a good basis for making that decision.
 Chapter 10 How to design a database 323

The accounts payable system in fifth normal form

vendors invoices invoice line items
vendorjd invoicejd —4 invoicejd
vendor_name vendorjd invoicesequence
vendor_address invoice_number —4 accountjio
invoice_date line_item_qty
vendor_area_code_ d Invoice total llne_item_uni!_price
vendor.phone payment_total line item_descriptionJd
vendor_contact_first_name cred t total
vendor_contact_last_name —◄ termsjd line_item_descriptions
default_terms_id in-.o'ce_due_date
default account no payment_date « linejtem_d»*scriptionJd
lineJtem jtescript on

zip_codes
general_ledger_accounts
• accountno
city
state accountjiesc'ipt'on

terms
area_codes
♦ termsjd
-♦ area_code_id ■(frrrsdescripton
area_code terms_due_days

When to denormalize
• When a column from a joined table is used repeatedly in search criteria, you should
consider moving that column to the primary key table if it u ill eliminate the need
for a join.
• If a table is updated infrequently, you should consider denormalizing it to improve
efficiency. Because the data remains relatively constant, you don't have to worry
about data redundancy errors once the initial data is entered and verified.
• Include columns with derived values when those values are used frequently in
search conditions. If you do that, you need to be sure that the column value is
always synchronized with the value ot the columns it's derived from.

Description
• Data structures that are normalized to the fourth normal form and beyond typically
require more joins than tables normalized to the third normal form and can there­
fore be less efficient.
• MySQL statements that work with tables that are normalized to the fourth normal
form and beyond are ty pically more difficult to code and debug.
• Most designers denonnalize data structures to some extent, usually to the third
normal form.
• Denormalization can result in larger tables, redundant data, and reduced
performance.
• Only denormalize when necessary. It is better to adhere to the normal forms unless
it is clear that performance will be improved by denormalizing.

Figure 10-13 When and how to denormalize a data structure

324 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to use MySQL Workbench

for database design
When you're ready to create a database diagram, it usually makes sense
to use a tool that's specifically designed for that purpose. Fortunately, dozens
of tools for designing databases are available. This topic introduces you to the
database design tools that are available from MySQL Workbench.
MySQL Workbench makes it easy to create one or more database diagrams
from an enhanced entity-relationship model I EER model). This model extends
the original entity-relationship model (ER model). In addition, you can create a
visual representation of an EER model by creating one or more EER diagrams
from that model.
When working with MySQL Workbench, you can generate an EER model
from an existing MySQL database or SQL creation script. Conversely, you can
generate a SQL creation script from an EER model. This makes it easy to imple­
ment your design when you’re done with it.

How to open an existing EER model

When you start MySQL Workbench, it displays the Welcome tab of the
Home page. To work with EER models, you can display the Models tab that’s
shown in figure 10-14. Then, you can open an existing EER model that was
created with MySQL Workbench. If you opened the model recently, it should
be displayed in the list of recently opened models. In this figure, for example,
two models are show'n in this list. One is named OM. and the other is named AP.
Then, you can open the model by clicking on it. If the model you want to open
isn't displayed in this list, you can click the ® icon to the right of the Models
heading and use the resulting dialog box to select the file for the model.

How to create a new EER model

If you’re designing a new database from scratch, you can create a model that
doesn't contain any tables. To do that, you can click the © icon to the right of
the Models heading. Then, you can add tables to the model as shown in the next
figure.
If you're redesigning an existing database, you can start by creating a
model from that database. To do that, you can click the ® icon to the right of
the Models heading and select “Create EER Model from Database". Then, you
can use the resulting dialog boxes to connect to the server and select a database.
When you do. MySQL Workbench creates a model and a diagram that includes
all of the tables and columns of the selected database.
It you don't have access to the database but you have access to the script that
creates it. you can create a model from that script. To do that, you can click the
® icon to the right of the Models heading and select “Create EER Model from
Script", Then, you can use the resulting dialog box to select the script file.
 Chapter 10 How to design a database 325

The Models tab of the MySQL Workbench Home page

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Models ®®®

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Description
• MySQL Workbench allows you to create an enhanced entity-relationship model
(EER model). This type of model extends the original entity-relationship model lER
model).
• Once you have created or opened an EER model, you can work with one or more
EER diagrams that are associated with that model.
• To open a recently used EER model, click on the model in the list of models.
• To open an EER model, click the © icon to the right of the Models heading, or
select File->Open Model Then, use the resulting dialog box to select the file for
the model.
• To create a new EER model that's blank, click the © icon to the light of the Models
heading, or select File->New Model.
• To create an EER model from an existing database, click the ® icon to the right
of the Models heading, select “Create EER Model from Database” and use the
resulting dialog boxes to connect to the server and select the database.
• To create an EER model from a SQL creation script, click the ® icon to the right of
the Models heading, select “Create EER Model from Script" and use the resulting
dialog box to select the script file.
• To remove an existing model from the list of recently used models, right-click on
the model and select "Remove Model File from List”.

Figure 10-14 How to create and open an EER model

326 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to work with an EER model

Figure 10-15 shows how to work with an EER model. In particular, it shows
the MySQL Model tab for the AP database. From this tab. you can work with the
tables of the database.
To edit one of these tables, you can double-click on it. When you do,
MySQL Workbench displays a tab for the table at the bottom of the w indow.
Within this tab are additional tabs that you can use to modify the columns,
indexes, and foreign keys for the table. For example, this figure shows the
Columns tab for the Vendors table. From this tab. you can modify the names,
data types, and other attributes of the columns. You can also add a new column
by entering the information for the column at the bottom of the table. And. you
can modify the name of the table.
If you want to add a table to the model, you can double-click on the Add
Table icon. Then, you can edit the table to set its name, columns, indexes, and
foreign keys. You'll learn more about how to do that in the next chapter. Or. if
you want to remove a table from the model, you can right-click on the table and
select Delete.
Since you typically begin designing a database by creating the tables of the
database, this figure focuses on how to work with tables. However, you can use
similar skills to work with other database objects that are stored in the model,
such as views and stored programs.
Since it’s usually easier to work with a visual representation ot the model,
you can open a diagram that corresponds to the model. As you’ll see in the next
figure, this can make it easier to see the relationships between tables. When you
work with a diagram, some changes that you make affect the corresponding
model. As a result, you can think of working with a diagram as a more visual
way of working with the model.
When you create or open a model, the diagram for the model is displayed
by default. If you close the tab for the diagram, however, you can open it again
by double-clicking on the name of the diagram. In this figure, for example, the
model for the AP database contains a diagram named EER Diagram. For small
databases, you may only need a single diagram like this. However, for larger
databases, you may need to create multiple diagrams that provide ways to view
different parts of the database. To create a new diagram for the model, you can
double-click the Add Diagram icon. Then, the diagram is given a name such as
EER Diagram I. EER. Diagram 2, and so on.
When you’re done creating your model, you can create a MySQL
database creation script from the diagram. To do that, you can select
File->Export->Forward Engineer SQL CREATE Script. Then, you can imple­
ment your design by using Ms SQL Workbench to run the script. This creates the
database that corresponds to the model.
 Chapter 10 How to design a database 327

The EER model for the AP database

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Description
• An EER model is a representation of the entities, or objects, of the database
including the tables, views, and stored programs.
• To edit a table, double-click on it. Then, use the tabs that appear across the bottom
of the window to modify the table’s columns, indexes, and foreign keys.
• To add a new table, double-click on the Add Table icon. Then, use the tab that
appears to define the table.
• To delete a table, right-click on it and select Delete.
• The skills for working with tables also apply to other database objects such as
views and stored programs.
• The EER model typically includes at least one diagram named EER Diagram.
• To open a diagram, double-click on the name of the diagram.
* To create a new diagram, double-click on the Add Diagram icon or select
Model->Add Diagram.
• To export a database creation script from the model, select Filc->Export->Forward
Engineer SQL CREATE Script.

Figure 10-15 How to work with an EER model

328 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to work with an EER diagram

When you open an EER diagram, it’s displayed in a tab as shown in figure
10-16. Here, you can see the diagram that's associated with the model for the
AP database. This diagram shows the definitions of the columns in the tables as
well as the relationships between the tables. For example, it shows that there's a
one-to-many relationship between the Vendors and Invoices tables.
To edit a table, you can double-click, on it. This displays a tab for the table
that works the same as the one you saw in the last figure. As you learned in that
figure, you can use this tab to make changes to the columns, indexes, and foreign
keys.
To add a table that exists in the model to the diagram, you can drag the table
from the Catalog Tree pane onto the diagram. Or. if you want to create a new
table, you can click the Place a New Table button in the vertical toolbar to the
left of the diagram and then click on the diagram. This adds a new table to the
diagram and to the model.
Since a diagram provides a visual representation of the relationships
between tables, you often use it to define those relationships. To do that, you
can use the six relationship buttons at the bottom of the toolbar. The first five
buttons generate foreign keys for the table, so you can use these buttons when
the column for a foreign key doesn’t exist yet. You can use the last relationship
button if the foreign key column already exists in your diagram. For example,
to create a relationship between the Vendors and Invoices tables. 1 clicked on
the last button 'the Place a Relationship Using Existing Columns button). Then.
1 clicked on the vendor_id column in die Invoices table to identify the foreign
key. and I clicked on the vendor_id column in the Vendors table to identify the
primary key.
In the next chapter, you'll learn more about the SQL statements that are
generated by a tool like this. This will help you understand how to use MySQL
Workbench, and it will allow you to edit the SQL statements that are generated
by your database design tools.
 Chapter 10 /low to design a database 329

The EER diagram for the AP database

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Description
• An EER diagram is a visual representation of an EER model. As a result, when you
modify the tables in the diagram, you also modify the model and vice versa.
• To add a table that already exists in the model to the diagram, drag the table from
the Catalog Tree window onto the diagram.
• To add a new table to the diagram, click the Place a New Table button in the
vertical toolbar at the left edge of the diagram. Then, click on the diagram where
you want to add the table.
• To display the model for a table, double-click on the table. Then, a tab is displayed
for the table, and you can use the techniques you learned in the previous figure to
edit the table.
• To define the relationship between two tables, click one of the relationship buttons
in die vertical toolbar. Then, click on the column in each table that defines the
relationship.
• To edit or delete a relationship, right-click on the relationship icon and select the
appropriate item.
• To remove a table from the diagram but keep it in the model, right-click on the
table and select Remove figure.
• To remove a table from the diagram and delete it from the model, ught-click on die
table and select Delete.

Figure 10-16 How to work with an EER diagram

330 Section 3 Database design and implementation

Database design is a complicated subject Because of that, it's impossible

to teach you everything you need to know in a single chapter. With the skills
you’ve teamed in this chapter, though, you should now be able to design simple
databases of your own. More importantly, you should be able to evaluate the
design of any database that you work with. That way. you can be sure that the
queries you code will be as efficient and as effective as possible.

Terms
data structure composite index
entity Boyce-Codd normal form
attribute transitive dependency­
instance multivalued dependency
entity-relationship (ER) modeling domain-key normal form
CASE (computer-aided software derived data
engineering) denormalization
linking table entity-relationship (ERi model
connecting table enhanced entity-relationship (EERj
associate table model
referential integrity EER diagram
declarative referential integrity (DRIt
foreign key constraint
orphaned row
normalization
data redundancy
unnormalized data structure
normalized data structure
normal forms
index
table scan
 Chapter 10 How to design a database 331

Exercises
1. Use MySQL Workbench to create an EER diagram for a database that stores
information about products.
Each product must have a product name, description, and price.
Each product must belong to one category.
Each category must have a category name and description.
Each category can include multiple products.
2. Use MySQL Workbench to create an EER diagram for a database that stores
information about customers.
Each customer must have an email address, first name, and last name.
Each customer can have two or more addresses.
Each customer can hase a default billing address and a default shipping
address.
Each address must have a street address, city, state, postal code, and
country.
Each country name should be stored in one place only. In other words, you
shouldn't store the name of the country, which may be many characters, in
the address.
3. Use MySQL Workbench to create an EER diagram for a database that tracks
the memberships for an association and for the groups within the association.
Each member must have an email address, first name, and last name.
Each member can belong to any number of groups.
Each group must have a name.
Each group can have any number of members.
 11
How to create databases,
tables, and indexes
Now that you've learned how to design a database, you're ready to learn how
to implement your design. To do that, you use the set of SQL statements that
are known as the data definition language (DDL). In this chapter, you’ll learn
how to use both DDL statements and MySQL Workbench to create databases,
tables, and indexes. In addition, you’ll learn how to change the character set,
collation, and storage engine.

How to work with databases........................... ........... ..........334

How to create and drop a database......... .......... 334
How to select a database................................................................ 334
How to work with tables______ _______________________ 336
How to create a table......................................................................................... 336
How to code a primary key constraint............................................................ 338
How to code a foreign key constraint.......................................................... .. 340
How to alter the columns of a table................... ....... .................. — ............342
How to alter the constraints of a table.............. ...... .................... -................. 344
How to rename, truncate, and drop a table ........................ ................346
How to work with indexes..................__ ... .......______ 348
How to create an index..................................................................................... 348
How to drop an index........................................................................................ 348
A script that creates a database........ ....... „....... 350
How to use MySQL Workbench...... ..................................354
How to work with the columns of a table........................... _...... ................... 354
How to work with the indexes of a table........................................................ 356
How to work with the foreign keys of a table................................................ 358
How to work with character sets and collations.............. 360
An introduction to character sets and collations............................................360
How to view character sets and collations ............................................... .362
How to specify a character set and a collation........................... ................... 364
How to work with storage engines................... 366
An introduction to storage engines............. ................................................... 366
How to view storage engines..................................................... 366
How to specify a storage engine...................................................................... 368
Perspective............................ ...............................370
334 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to work with databases

Before you can begin creating the tables of a database, you must create the
database itself Then, if multiple databases are running on the server, you'll need
to select the database before you begin working with it. Of course, if you later
decide that you no longer need a database, you can drop it, which causes the
database and all of its tables and data to be deleted.
If you’re working on a large database project, you probably won’t need
to code DDL statements like these because that will be handled by a database
design specialist or a database administrator (DBA). For small projects, though,
a SQL programmer may have to serve as the DBA too. And even when working
with large projects, a SQL programmer often needs to use DDL statements to
create smaller tables for testing.

How to create and drop a database

Figure 11 - I starts by presenting the CREATE DATABASE statement. The
first example in this figure uses the CREATE DATABASE statement to create
a database named AP. If a database already exists with that name, however, this
statement generates an error and doesn’t execute.
W hen writing scripts, it’s often helpful to check whether a database exists
before creating it. To do that, you can add the IF NOT EXISTS keywords to the
CREATE DATABASE statement as shown in the second example. That way. if
the database exists, the statement generates a warning instead of an error. This
allows a script to continue executing instead of being stopped.
The syntax of the DROP DATABASE statement is also shown in this figure.
The third example uses this statement to delete the database named AP that was
created in the first two examples. This permanently deletes everything in the
entire database, so use it with caution!
The fourth example is similar, but it includes the IF EXISTS keywords. That
way, if the database doesn't exist, the statement generates a warning instead of
an error. This allows a script to continue executing instead of being stopped.

How to select a database

Figure 11-1 also shows how io select a database using the USE statement.
The example show n here uses this statement to select the database that was
created by the CREATE DATABASE statement in the first example. Although
the USE statement isn't a standard SQL statement, it’s a MySQL extension that's
commonly used when working with MySQL databases.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 335

How to use the CREATE DATABASE statement

Syntax
CREATE DATABASE [IF BIOT EXISTS] ub name

Create a database named AP

CREATE DATABASE ap

Create a database named AP only if it doesn’t exist

CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS ap

How to use the DROP DATABASE statement

Syntax
DROP DATABASE [IF EXISTS] db name

Drop a database named AP

DROP DATABASE ap

Drop a database named AP only if it exists

DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS ap

How to use the USE statement

Syntax
USE rth naM

Select a database named AP

USE ap

Description
• The CREATE DATABASE statement creates a database with the specified name on
the server.
• The DROP DATABASE statement deletes the database with the specified name
from the server. This deletes all of the tables and data that are stored in the
database.
• The USE statement selects the specified database and makes it the current database.

Figure 11-1 How to create, drop, and select a database

336 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to work with tables

This topic shows how to code the DDL statements that work with the
tables of a database. Because the syntax for these statements is complex, this
chapter doesn’t present complete syntax diagrams for these statements. Instead,
the diagrams present only the commonly used clauses. If you're interested in
the complete syntax of any statement, though, you can refer to the MySQL
Reference Manual.

How to create a table

Figure 11 -2 presents a simplified syntax for the CREATE TABLE statement.
By default, this statement creates a new table in the current database. If that's
not what you want, you can qualify the table name with the database name. For
example, you can qualify the Vendors table with the EX database like this:
CREATE TABLE ex.vendors

Before 1 continue, you should realize that if you run the statements shown in
this figure against the AP database, the statements will fail. That’s because the
AP database already contains tables named Vendors and Invoices. As a result,
if you want to test these statements, you can run them against the EX database
or create a new database as shown in the previous figure. Then, the Vendors and
Invoices tables will be created in that database.
In its simplest form, the CREATE TABLE statement consists of the name
of the new table followed by the names and data types of its columns. This is
illustrated by the first example in this figure. However, in most cases, you'll code
one or more attributes for each column as illustrated by die second example. For
instance, to indicate that a column doesn't accept null values, you can code the
NOT NULL attribute. If you omit this attribute, the column allows null values.
To indicate that each row m a column must contain a unique value, you can
code the UNIQUE attribute. Since two null values aren't considered to be the
same, a unique column can contain multiple null values. However, it's common
to use the NOT NULL and UNIQUE attributes to define a column that can't
contain null values and where each value in the column must be unique.
To generate unique numbers in sequence, you use the AUTOJNCREMENT
attribute. This attribute can only be specified for one column in a table, and that
column must be defined as either the primary key or a unique key. When you
define a column with the AUTO INCREMENT attribute. MySQL automatically
generates the next nuinbei in sequence for the column if you don't specify a
value. By default. MySQL starts numbering with I, but you can start with a value
other than 1 by coding an option like this at the table level:
AUTO_INCREMENT - 3

Finally, to specify a default value for a column, you can use the DEFAULT
attribute. This value is used if another value isn't specified when a row is added
to the database. The default value you specify must correspond to the data type
for the column. For example, the default value for the payment_total column
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 337

The syntax of the CREATE TABLE statement

CREATE TABLE [IF NOT EXISTS] [db name.)tablename
(
column name 1 datatype [column_attributes]
[. column name 2 data type [column_attributes])...
[, tablelevelconatrainta]
)

Common column attributes

Attribute Description
NOT NULL Indicates that the column doesn't accept null values. If omitted,
the column can accept null values.
UNIQUE Specifies that each value stored in the column must be unique.
DEFAULT dt'fiullvslui’ Specifies a default value for the column as a literal or as an
expression.
AUTO INCREMENT Identifies a column whose value is automatically incremented
by MySQL when a new row is added. An auto increment
column must be defined with one of the integer types.

A statement that creates a table without column attributes

CREATE TABLE vendors
(
vendor id INT,
vendor name VARCHAR(SO)
)

A statement that creates a table with column attr ibutes

CREATE TABLE vendors
(
vendorid INT NOT NULL UNIQUE AUTO INCREMENT,
vendor nans VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL UNIQUE
>

Another statement that creates a table with column attributes

CREATE TABLE invoices
(
invoice id I NT NOT NULL UNIQUE,
vendorid I NT NOT NULL,
invo i c e _ numbe r VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL.
invoice date DATE,
invoicetotal DECIMAL (9,2) NOT NULL,
payment total DECIMAL (9,2) DEFAULT
>

Description
• To test die code m Uns figure and in the figures that follow, you can use the EX
database.
• The CREATE TABLE statement creates a table based on the column names, data
types, and attributes that you specify. In addition, it allows you to specify some
attributes and constraints at the table level as described later in this chapter.

Figure 11 -2 How to create a table

338 Section 3 Database design and implementation

is set to a value of zero. With MySQL 8.0 13 and later, you can also specify a
default value as an expression. For example, you could specify a default value
for the invoice_date column as the CL'RRENT_DATE function.
Although it's not illustrated here, you can also code the IF NOT EXISTS
keywords on the CREATE TABLE statement. These keywords work the same
way they do for the CREATE DATABASE statement, and they’re most useful
when you're writing scripts. Without them, the statement generates an error if
the table already exists. With them, the statement generates a warning instead of
an error. This allows a script to continue executing instead of being stopped.

How to code a primary key constraint

The NOT NULL and UNIQUE keywords you just learned about are
examples of constraints. A constraint restricts the type of data that can be stored
in a column. For example, the NOT NULL keyword prevents null values from
being stored in a column, and the UNIQUE keyword only allows unique values.
Figure 11 -3 shows howr to code another type of constraint that's know n as
a primary key constraint. The easiest way to define a primary key is to code
the PRIMARY KEY keywords after the data type for the column as shown in
the first example. When you identify a column as the primary key, two of the
column's attributes are changed automatically. First, the column is forced to be
NOT NULL. Second, the column is forced to contain a unique value for each
row. In addition, an index is automatically created based on the column.
When you define a constraint in a column definition as shown in the first
example, it's called a column-level constraint. However, you can also define a
constraint at the table level using the CONSTRAINT keyword. When you code a
table-level constraint, you can provide a name for the constraint to make it easier
to refer to later on. In the second example in this figure, for instance, the first
constraint provides a name of vendors_pk for the primary key of the Vendors
table. Note how the constraint names used in this example begin with a table
name or a column name. In addition, they use a two-letter suffix to identify the
type of constraint.
Although you can't name them at the column level, the vendors_pk and
vendor_name_uq constraints work the same regardless of whether they are
coded at the column level or the table level. As a result, where you code these
constraints is largely a matter of personal preference. I prefer to code the primary
key and unique key constraints at the column level as shown in the first example.
1 lowever. when MySQL Workbench generates code from an EER model, it
usually codes these constraints at the table level as shown in the second example.
In addition to allowing you to name a primary key, a table-level constraint
provides another capability that isn t available from column-level constraints:
it can refer to multiple columns in the table. As a result, if you need to refer
to multiple columns, you must use a table-level constraint. For example, to
create the composite primary key for the lnvoice_Line_ltems table. I coded the
constraint at the table level as shown in the third example.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 339

The syntax of a column-level primary key constraint

column name data type PRIMARY KEY columnattributes

The syntax of a table-level primary key constraint

[CONSTRAINT [constraint name]]
PRIMARY KEY (column column name_2]...)

A table with column-level constraints

CREATE TABLE vendors
(
vendor id INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT,
vendor name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL UNIQUE
)

A table with table-level constraints

CREATE TABLE vendors
(
vandorid INT AUTO_INCREMENT,
vendor nanie VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT vendors_pk PRIMARY KEY (vendor id),
CONSTRAINT vendor oane uq UNIQUE !vendor name)
)

A table with a two-column primary key constraint

CREATE TABLE invoice_llne .items
(
invoice_id INT NOT NULL,
invoice.sequence INT NOT NULL,
line item description VARCHAR(IOO) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT lineitemspk PRIMARYKEY (invoiceid, invoice.sequence)
)

Description
• Constraints are used to enforce the integrity of the data in a table by defining rules
about the values that can be stored in the columns of the table.
• You code a column-level constraint as part ot the definition of the column it
constrains. You code a table-level constraint as if it is a separate column definition,
and you name the columns it constrains within that definition.
• A not null constraint prevents null values from being stored in the column. A
unique constraint requires that each row has a unique value in the column but
allows null values to be stored in the column.
• A primary key constraint requires that each row has a unique value for the column
or columns for the primary key. and it does not allow null values.

Figure 11 -3 How to code a primary key constraint

340 Section 3 Database design and implementation

When you code a constraint at the table level, you must code a comma at the
end of die preceding column definition. If you don't, you vs ill get an error when
you try to tun the statement.

How to code a foreign key constraint

Figure 11 -4 shows how to code a foreign key constraint, which is also known
as a reference constraint. This type of constraint is used to define the relation­
ships between tables and to enforce referential integrity.
To create a foreign key constraint at the column level, you code the
REFERENCES keyword followed by the name of the related table and the
name of the related column in parentheses. In this figure, for instance, the first
example creates a table with a vendor_id column that includes a REFERENCES
clause that identifies the vendor_id column in the Vendors table as the related
column.
The second example shows how to code the same foreign key constraint
shown in the first example at the table level. When you use this syntax, you
can include the CONSTRAINT keyword followed by a name, followed by
the FOREIGN KEY keywords. Although this requires a little more code, it
allows you to provide a name for the foreign key, which is a good program­
ming practice. It also lets you reference a foreign key that consists of multiple
columns.
The third example in this figure shows what happens when you try to insert
a row into the Invoices table with a vendoi id value that isn't matched by the
vendor_id column in the Vendors table. Because of the foreign key constraint,
the system enforces referential integrity by refusing to do the operation II also
displays an error message that indicates the constraint that was violated.
Similarly, if you try to delete a row from the Vendors table that has related
rows in the Invoices table, the delete operation will fail and the system will
display an error message. Since this prevents rows in the Invoices table from
being orphaned, this is usually what you want.
In some cases, though, you may want to automatically delete the related
row s in the Invoices table when a row in the Vendors table is deleted. To do that,
you can code the ON DELETE clause on the foreign key constraint as illustrated
by the fourth example. Here, this clause is coded with the CASCADE option.
Then, when you delete a row from the primary key table, the delete is cascaded
to the related rows in the foreign key table. If. for example, you delete a row
from the Vendors table, all related rows in the Invoices table will also be deleted.
Because a cascading delete makes it easier to delete data that you didn't intend
to delete, you should use it w ith caution.
You can also code the SET NULL option on the ON DELETE clause. Then,
when you delete a row from the primary key table, the values in the foreign key
column of the foreign key table are set to null. Since this creates rows in the
foreign key table that aren’t related to the primary key table, you’ll rarely want
to use this option.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 341

The syntax of a column-level foreign key constraint

[CONSTRAINT] REFERENCES tabla name (column name)
[ON DELETE {CASCADE|SET NULL}]

The syntax of a table-level foreign key constraint

[CONSTRAINT confltraint_name]
FOREIGN KEY (column name 1[, column name 2].,.)
REFERENCES table name (column name_l[f column name 2]...)
[ON DELETE {CASCADE)SET NULL)]

A table with a column-level foreign key constraint

CREATE TABLE invoices
(
invoiceid INT PRIMARY KEY,
vendor_id INT REFERENCES vendors (vendor..id),
invoicenumber VARCHAR(SO) NOT NULL UNIQUE
)

A table with a table-level foreign key constraint

CREATE TABLE invoices
(
invoiceid INT PRIMARY KEY,
vendor_id INT NOT NULL,
invoice number VARCHARI50) NOT NULL UNIQUE,
CONSTRAINT invoicesfkvendors
FOREIGN KEY (vendor id) REFERENCES vendors (vendor id)
)

An INSERT statement that fails because a related row doesn't exist

INSERT INTO invoices
VALUES (1, 1, '1')

The response from the system

Error Code: 1452. Cannot add or update a child row: a foreign key con­
straint fails (1 ex1.1 invoices 11 CONSTRAINT 1 invoices fk vendors' FOREIGN
KEY ('vendorid') REFERENCES 'vendors1 ('vendor id'))

A constraint that uses the ON DELETE clause

CONSTRAINT invoices fk vendors
FOREIGN KEY (vendorid) REFERENCES vendors (vendor id)
ON DELETE CASCADE

Description
• A foreign key constraint requires values in one table to match values in another
table. This defines the relationship between two tables and enforces referential
integrity.
• To def ine a relationship that consists of two or more columns, you must define the
constraint at the table level.
• Not all MySQL storage engines support foreign key constraints.

Figure 11 -4 How to code a foreign key constraint

342 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to alter the columns of a table

After you create tables, you may need to change the columns of a table. For
example, you may need to add. modify, or drop a column. To do that, you can
use the ALTER TABLE statement shown in figure 11-5.
The first example in this figure shows how to add a new column to a table.
To do that, you code the column definition the same way you do w hen you
create a new table. To start, you specify the column name. Then, you code the
data type and column attributes.
The second example shows how to drop an existing column. Note that
MySQL prevents you from dropping some columns. For example, you can’t
drop a column if it's the primary key column.
The third example shows how to modify the length of the data type for an
existing column. In this case, a column that was defined as VARCHAR(50) is
changed to VARCHARi 1 INI 1. Since the new data type is bigger than the old data
type, you can be sure that the existing data will still fit.
Notliee in this example that the definition for the vendor_name column
includes the NOT NULL attribute that was included on the original column
definition. If you don t include an existing attiibute for a column when you
modify the column, that attribute is dropped from the column definition. The
exceptions are attributes that define indexes, including the PRIMARY KEY and
L'NIQL'E attributes. Because of that, you shouldn't code these attributes when
modifying an existing column.
The fourth example shows how to change the data type to a different data
type In this case, a column that was defined as VARCHARi 100) is changed to
CHARt 100). Since these data types both store the same type of characters, you
know that no data will be lost.
The fifth example shows how to change the default value for a column.
In this case, a default value of “New Vendor” is assigned to the vendor_name
column.
The sixth example shows how to change the name of a column. Here, the
name of the vendor_name column is changed to vjiame. Note that if you need
to change both the name and definition of a column, you can do that more easily
using the CHANGE clause of the ALTER TABLE statement. For more informa­
tion on this clause, see the MySQL Reference Manual.
In the first six statements, MySQL can alter the table without losing any
data. As a result, these statements execute successfully and alter the table.
However, if the change will result in a loss of data, it’s not allowed. For example,
the seventh statement attempts to change the length of the column whose name
was changed to v_name by the sixth example to a length that's too small for
existing data that’s stored in this column. As a result, MySQL doesn't modify
the column, and the system returns an error message like the one shown in this
figure.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 343

The syntax for modifying the columns of a table

ALTER TABLE [db narnfl.]table name
(
ADD column name datatype [column attributes]
DROP COLUMN column name |
MODIFY column name datatype [column attributes]
RENAME COLUMN old column name TO new_column name
}

A statement that adds a new column

ALTER TABLE vendors
ADD last_transaction date DATE

A statement that drops a column

ALTER TABLE vendors
DROP COLUMN last-transaction date

A statement that changes the length of a column

ALTER TABLE vendors
MODIFY vendor name VARCHAR(IOO) NOT NULL

A statement that changes the data type of a column

ALTER TABLE vendors
MODIFY vendor_name CHAR(100) NOT NULL

A statement that changes the default value of a column

ALTER TABLE vendors
MODIFY vendor VARCHAR(IOO) NOT NULL DEFAULT 'New Vendor*

A statement that changes the name of a column

ALTER TABLE vendors
RENAME COLUMN vendor name TO v name

A statement that fails because it would cause data to be lost

ALTER TABLE vendors
MODIFY V name VARCHAR(IO) NOT NULL

The response from the system

Error Code: 1265. Data truncated for column 'vname1 at row 1

Description
• You can use the ALTER TABLE statement to add. drop, or modify the columns of
an existing table.
• MySQL won’t allow you to change a column if that change would cause data to be lost.

Warning
• You should never alter a table or other database object in a production database
without first consulting the DBA.

Figure 11 -5 How to alter the columns of a table

344 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to alter the constraints of a table

You may also need to change the constraints of a table after you create it.
For example, you may need to add or drop a constraint. To do that, you can use
the ALTER TABLE statement as shown in figure 1 1 -6.
The first example shows how to add a primary key to a table. To do that,
you code the ADD PRIMARY KEY keywords followed by the names of the key
columns in parentheses.
The second example shows how to add a foreign key to a table. This
example uses the FOREIGN KEY keywords to identify the vendor_id column as
the foreign key, and it uses the REFERENCES clause to identify the vendor_id
column in the Vendors table as the related column. In addition, this example
includes the optional CONSTRAINT keyword to provide a name for the foreign
key, w hich is a good programming practice because it makes it easier to refer to
the key later.
The third example uses the DROP PRIMARY' KEY keywords to delete
the primary key for the Vendors table. Depending on how this table and the
other tables in the database are defined, MySQL may not allow you to drop
the primary key for a table. That's true if the primary key is an auto increment
column or if it’s referred to by foreign keys. Since most primary keys are
referred to by at least one foreign key. you can't typically delete a primary key
without first deleting or modify ing related rows in other tables.
The last example uses the DROP FOREIGN KEY keywords to drop the
invoices_fk_vendors foreign key from the Invoices table. Because a table can
contain more than one foreign key, you must know the name of the key you want
to drop. If you don’t knowr its name, you can use MySQL Workbench to look it
up as shown later in this chapter.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 345

The syntax for modifying the constraints of a table

ALTER TABLE [dbname.]table name
{
ADD PRIMARY KEY constraint definition |
ADD [CONSTRAINT constraintname] FOREIGN KEY constraint_definition |
DROP PRIMARY KEY |
DROP FOREIGN KEY constraintname
}

A statement that adds a primary key constraint

ALTER TABLE vendors
ADD PRIMARY KEY (vendor_id)

A statement that adds a foreign key constraint

ALTER TABLE invoices
ADD CONSTRAINT invoices fkvendors
FOREIGN KEY (vendor_id) REFERENCES vendors (vendor_id)

A statement that drops a primary key constraint

ALTER TABLE vendors
DROP PRIMARY KEY

A statement that drops a foreign key constraint

ALTER TABLE invoices
DROP FOREIGN KEY invoicesfk vendors

Description
• You can use the ALTER TABLE statement to add or drop the constraints of an
existing table.
• To drop a foreign key constraint, you must know its name. If you don’t know its
name, you can use MySQL Workbench to look up the name as shown later in this
chapter.

Figure 11 -6 How to alter the constraints of a table

346 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to rename, truncate, and drop a table

Figure 11-7 shows how to use the RENAME TABLE. TRUNCATE TABLE,
and DROP TABLE statements. When you use these statements, use them
cautiously, especially when you're working on a production database.
To start, you can use the RENAME TABLE statement to rename an existing
table. This is useful if you want to change the name of a table without modifying
its column definitions or the data that's stored in the table. In this figure, for
instance, the first example changes the name of the Vendors table to Vendor. If
you rename a table, you should probably update the names of any constraints
that use the name of the table. To do that, you have to drop the constraint and
then add it back.
You can use the TRUNCATE TABLE statement to delete all of the data from
a table without deleting the column definitions for the table. In this figure, for
instance, the second example deletes all rows from the new ly renamed Vendor
table.
You can use the DROP TABLE statement to delete all of the data from a
table and also delete the definition of the table, including the constraints for the
table. In tiiis figure, for instance, the third and fourth examples drop the Vendor
table. However, the fourth example explicitly specifies that it is dropping the
Vendor table that’s stored in the EX database, not the Vendor table in another
database such as the AP database.
When you issue a DROP TABLE statement, MySQL checks to see if other
tables depend on the table you're trying to delete. If they do. MySQL won’t
allow the deletion. For instance, you can t delete the Vendors table from the
AP database because a foreign key constraint in the Invoices table refers to the
Vendors table. If you try to delete the Vendors table, the system will return an
error message like the one shown in the fifth example. In that case, you must
drop the Invoices table before you can drop the Vendors table.
When writing scripts, it’s often helpful to check whether a table exists before
dropping it To do that, you can add the IF EXISTS keywords to the DROP
TABLE statement as shown in the sixth example. That way, if the table doesn’t
exist, the statement generates a warning instead of an error. This allows a script
to continue executing instead of being stopped.
When you drop a table, any indexes or triggers that have been defined for
the table are also dropped. You'll leam how to create indexes for a table in just a
moment. You’ll leam how to create triggers for a table in chapter 16.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 347

A statement that renames a table

RENAME TABLE vendors TO vendor

A statement that deletes all data from a table

TRUNCATE TABLE vendor

A statement that deletes a table from the current database

DROP TABLE vendor

A statement that qualifies the table to be deleted

DROP TABLE ex.vendor

A statement that returns an error due to a foreign key reference

DROP TABLE vendors

The response from the system

Error Code: 3730. Cannot drop table "vendors* referenced by a foreign key
constraint 'invoicesfk vendors" on table "invoices'

A statement that deletes a table only if it exists

DROP TABLE IF EXISTS vendor

Description
• You can use the RENAME TABLE statement to change the name of an existing
table.
• You can use the TRl’NCATE TABLE statement to delete all data from a table
without deleting the definition for the table.
• You can use the DROP TABLE statement to delete a table from the current
database.
• To rename, truncate, or drop a table from another database, you must qualify the
table name with the database name.
• You can't truncate or drop a table if a foreign key constraint in another table refers
to that table.
• When you drop a table, all of its data, constraints, and indexes are deleted.

Warning
• You shouldn't use these statements on a production database without first
consulting the DBA.

Figure 11-7 How to rename, truncate, and drop a table

348 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to work with indexes

An index speeds up joins and searches by providing a way for a database
management system to go directly to a row rather than having to search through
all the rows until it finds the one you want By default. MySQL creates indexes
for the primary keys, foreign keys, and unique columns of a table. Usually, that's
what you want. In addition, you may want to create indexes for other columns
that are used frequently in search conditions or joins. However, you'll want to
avoid creating indexes on columns that are updated frequently since this slows
down insert, update, and delete operations.

How to create an index

Figure 11-8 presents the basic syntax of the CREATE INDEX statement,
which creates an index based on one or more columns of a table. To create an
index, you name the table and columns that the index will be based on in the ON
clause. For each column, you can specify the ASC or DESC keyword to indicate
whether you want the index sorted in ascending or descending sequence. If
you don't specify a sort order. ASC is the default. In addition, you can use the
UNIQUE keyword to specify that an index contains only unique values.
You may be interested to know that with releases of MySQL before 8.0,
indexes weren't actually stored in descending sequence if you included the
DESC keyword. Instead, when the index was used to access the table, the
index was scanned in reverse sequence, which resulted in poor performance.
With MySQL 8.0 and later, though, a descending index is actually stored in
descending sequence. That way, when the index is used to access the table,
the index can be scanned in forward sequence, which results in improved
performance.
In the examples in this figure, the names follow a standard naming conven­
tion. To start, the index name specifies the name of the table, followed by
the name of the column or columns, followed by a suffix of IX. This naming
convention makes it easy to see which columns of w'hich tables have been
indexed. However, if the table or column names are lengthy, you can abbreviate
their names in the name of the index.

How to drop an index

The last example in figure 11 -8 shows how to use the DROP INDEX state­
ment to drop an index. You may want to drop an index if you suspect that it isn’t
speeding up your joins and searches and that it may be slowing dow n your insert,
update, and delete operations.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 349

The syntax of the CREATE INDEX statement

CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX index name
ON (dbname.]table name (column name 1 fASC|DESCI F<
column name_2 [ASC|DESC]]...)

A statement that creates an index based on a single column

CREATE INDEX invoicesinvoicadateix
ON invoices (invoice date)

A statement that creates an index based on two columns

CREATE INDEX invoices vendor id invoice number ix
ON invoices (vendor_id, invoice number)

A statement that creates a unique index

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX vendors vendor phone ix
ON vendors (vendor phone)

A statement that creates an index that's sorted in descending order

CREATE INDEX invoicesinvoicetotal ix
ON invoices (invoicetotal DESC)

A statement that drops an index

DROP INDEX vendorsvendor phoneix ON vendors

Description
• MySQL automatically creates an index for primary key, foreign key. and unique
constraints.
• You can use the CREATE INDEX statement to create other indexes for a table. An
index can improve performance when MySQL searches for rows in the table.
• You can use the DROP INDEX statement to drop an index from a table.

Figure 11 -8 How to create and drop an index

350 Section 3 Database design and implementation

A script that creates a database

Figure 11 -9 presents the DDL statements that are used to create the AP
database that's used throughout this book. In this figure, these statements are
coded as part of a script.
As you learned in earlier chapters, a script is a file that contains one or more
SQL statements. Scripts are often used to create the objects for a database as
shown in this figure. When you code a script, you code a semicolon at the end of
each SQL statement.
The DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS statement that begins this script drops
the entire database if it already exists, including all of its tables. This suppresses
any error messages that would be displayed if you attempted to drop a database
that didn't exist. Then, the CREATE DATABASE statement creates the AP
database.
The L’SE statement selects the AP database. As a result, the rest of the state­
ments in the script are executed against the AP database.
The CREATE TABLE statements create the five main tables of the AP
database. For each statement 1 coded the primary key column (or columns) first.
Although this isn’t required, it’s a good programming practice. After the primary
key. I coded the remaining columns in a logical order. That w ay, if you use a
SELECT * statement to retrieve all of the columns, they’re returned in a logical
order.
When you create tables, you must create the tables that don't have foreign
keys first. That way, the other tables can define foreign keys that refer to them.
In this figure, for example, 1 created the General_Ledger_Accounts and Terms
tables first since they don't have foreign keys. Then, I coded the Vendors table,
which has foreign keys that refer to these tables. And so on. Conversely, w'hen
you drop tables, you must start by dropping the last table that was created. Then,
you can work back to the first table that was created. Otherwise, the foreign keys
might not allow you to delete the tables.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 351

The SQL script that creates the AP database Page 1

-- create the database
DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS ap;
CREATE DATABASE ap;

-- select the database

USE ap;

-- create the tables

CREATE TABLE general ledger accounts
(
account.number INT PRIMARY KEY,
account_description VARCHAR(50) UNIQUE
);

CREATE TABLE terms

(
terms id INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO INCREMENT,
terms description VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
terms due days INT NOT NULL
);

CREATE TABLE vendors

(
vendor id INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO INCREMENT,
vendor name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL UNIQUE,
vendor addressl VARCHAR(50),
vendor address2 VARCHAR(50),
vendor city VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
vendor.state CHAR(2) NOT NULL.
vendor zipcode VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
vendor phone VARCHAR(50),
vendor contact last name VARCHAR(50),
vendor contact_first name VARCHAR(50),
default-terms id INT NOT NULL,
default account number INT NOT NULL.
CONSTRAINT vendora fk terms
FOREIGN KEY (default.termsid)
REFERENCES terms (termsid).
CONSTRAINT vendors.fk accounts
FOREIGN KEY (default.account.number)
REFERENCES general ledger accounts (account number)
)J

Figure 11-9 The script used to create the AP database (part 1 of 2)

352 Section 3 Database design and implementation

For most of the columns in these tables. I coded a NOT NULL constraint
or a DEFAULT attribute. In general. I only allow a column to accept null values
when I want to allow' for unknown values. If. for example, a vendor doesn't
supply an address, the address is unknow n. In that case, you can store a null
value in the vendor_address 1 and vendor_address2 columns.
Another option is to store an empty string for these columns. To do that I
could have defined the vendor address columns like this:
vendor_addressl VARCHAR(50) DEFAULT 1'f
vendor address2 VARCHAR(50) DEFAULT
In this case, empty strings would be stored for these columns unless other values
were assigned to them.
In practice, a null value is a more intuitive representation of an unknown
value than a default value is. Conversely, it makes sense to use a default value
like an empty string to indicate that a value is known but the column is empty.
For example, an empty string might indicate that a vendor hasn't provided its
street address. Although how you use nulls and empty strings is largely a matter
of personal preference, it does affect the way you query a table.
When a primary key consisted of a single column. I coded the PRIMARY
KEY constraint at the column level. Similarly, I coded the UNIQUE constraint
at the column level. As a result. I didn't provide names for these constraints.
However, whenever 1 coded a primary key or foreign key constraint at the
table level, 1 followed a convention that begins with the name of the table or an
abbreviated name for the table.
As you know, when MySQL creates a table, it automatically creates indexes
for the primary key. foreign keys, and unique columns. MySQL uses the name
"PRIMARY” for the name ot the index for a table's primary key. It uses the
name of the column for the name of the index for a unique key. And it uses the
name of the foreign key for the name of the index tor a foreign key column.
For the Invoices table, for example. MySQL automatically creates an index
named “PRIMARY” for the invoice_id column, it creates an index named
invoices_fk_vendors for the vendor_id column, and d creates an index named
invoices_fk_terms for the terms_id column.
In addition to the indexes that are created automatically. 1 used a CREATE
INDEX statement to create an index for the invoice_datc column in the Invoices
table. Since this column is frequently used to search for rows m this table,
this index should improve performance of the database To name this index. I
followed the naming conventions presented earlier in this chapter. As a result
when you view the name of an index, you can easily identify the table and
column that's being indexed.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 353

The SOL script that creates the AP database Page 2

CREATE TABLE invoices
(
invoice_id I NT PRIMARY KEY AUTO INCREMENT,
vendor id I NT NOT NULL,
invoice.number VARCHAR(SO) NOT NULL,
invoice date DATE NOT NULL,
invoice_total DECIMAL (9, 2) NOT NULL,
payment_total DECIMAL(9,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
credit-total DECIMAL(9,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
term8_id I NT NOT NULL,
invoicedue date DATE NOT NULL,
payment date DATE t
CONSTRAINT invoices fk vendors
FOREIGN KEY (vendor_id)
REFERENCES vendors (vendor id)g
CONSTRAINT invoicesfk terms
FOREIGN KEY (terms id)
REFERENCES terms (terras .id)
);

CREATE TABLE invoice_line_items

(
invoice_id I NT NOT NULL,
invoice.sequence I NT NOT NULL,
ac count .numbe r I NT NOT NULL,
line item amount DECIMAL (9,2) NOT NULL,
line item-description VARCHAR(IOO) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT lineitems pk
PRIMARY KEY (invoiceid, invoice_sequence),
CONSTRAINT lineiterns fk invoices
FOREIGN KEY (invoiceid)
REFERENCES invoices (invoiceid),
CONSTRAINT line_items fk acounts
FOREIGN KEY (account number)
REFERENCES general_1edger accounts (account number)
) J

-- create an index
CREATE INDEX invoices invoice dateix
ON invoices (invoice date DESC);

Figure 11 -9 The script used to create the AP database (part 2 of 2)

354 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to use MySQL Workbench

Since you often use a script to create tables and other database objects, it's
important to understand the DDL skills presented in this chapter. Once you
understand these skills, it's easy to learn how to use a graphical user interface
such as MySQL Workbench to work with database objects such as tables and
indexes. For example, it’s often useful to view these database objects before
writing SELECT. INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statements that use them.

How to work with the columns of a table

Figure 11-10 shows how to work with the column definitions of a table. To
start, you can view the column definitions for a table by right-chcking on the
table in the Navigator window and selecting Alter Table to display the table in
the main window. Then, click on the Columns tab at the bottom of the window.
For example, this figure shows the columns for the Invoices table I lere, you
can see the name, data type, and other attributes of each column. For instance,
you can see that the invoice_id column is the primary key column and an auto
increment column. The payment_total and credit_total columns specify a default
value of 0.00. And the payment_date column allows null values and its default
value is NULL.
If you need to add a new column, you can double-click below the last name
in the Column Name column. Then, you can type in a name for the new column,
and you can specify its attributes to the right of the column name.
You can also work with a new or existing column using the controls below
the list of columns. In this figure, for example, I've selected the invoice_id
column, so the information for that column is displayed below the column list.
This is useful if you aren't familiar with the abbreviations that are used for the
check boxes in the column list, since these attributes are clearly identified by the
check boxes below the list. You can also use the Charset and Collation drop­
down lists to change the character set and collation for some columns. You 11
learn more about that later in this chapter.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 355

The column definitions for the Invoices table

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Description
• To view the columns tor a table, right-click on the table in the Navigator window,
select the Alter Table item, and click on the Columns tab.
• To rename a column, double-click on the column name and enter the new name.
• To change the data type for a column, click on the data type in the Datatype
column. Then, select a data type from the drop-dou n list that's displayed.
• To change the default value for a column, enter a new default value in the Default
column.
• To change other attributes of the column, check or uncheck the attribute check
boxes to the right of the column.
• To drop a column, nght-click on the column name and select Delete Selected.
• To move a column up or down, right-click on the column name and select Move Up
or Move Down. You can also use the Up and Down keys on the keyboard.
• To add a new column, double-click in the Column Name column below the last
column and type in a new name. Then, specify the attributes for the new column.
• To apply the changes to the table, click the Apply button. To reverse the changes,
click the Revert button.

Figure 11-10 How to work with the columns of a table

356 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to work with the indexes of a table

Although MySQL Workbench provides several ways to work with indexes,
one of the easiest is to right-click on the table in the Navigator window and
select the Alter Table command to display tire table definition. Then, you can
click on the Indexes tab to display the indexes of the table. Eor example, figure
11-11 shows the indexes for the Invoices table.
You can use the Indexes tab to perform a variety of operations, including
adding, renaming, and dropping indexes. In most cases, you II use this tab to add
indexes to a table. To do that, you start by double-clicking below' the last index
name and entering the name of the new index. Then, you can select the type of
index you wrant to create, the column or columns you w'ant to index, and the
order for each column.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 357

The indexes for the Invoices table

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Description
• To view the indexes for a table, right-click on the table in the .Navigator window,
select Alter Table, and click on the Indexes tab.
• To rename an index, double-click on the name and enter the new name.
• To change the type of an index, click on the Type column. Then, select a type from
the drop-down list that appears.
• To change the column that's indexed, select the index and then select its column in
the list of columns that appears. You can also change the sort order of the index by
clicking in the Order column and then selecting ASC or DESC from the drop-down
list that appears.
• To drop an index, eight-click on the index name and select Delete Selected.
• To add a new index, double-click below the last index name and type in a new
name. Then, specify the type, column, and order for the index.
• To apply the changes to the table, click the Apply button. To reverse the changes,
click the Revert button.

Figure 11-11 How to work with the indexes of a table

358 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to work with the foreign keys off a table

To work w ith the foreign keys of a table, you use the Foreign Keys tab. For
example, figure 11-12 shows the foreign keys for the Invoices table, and the
foreign key named invoices_fk_terms is selected. Here. MySQL Workbench
shows the table that's referenced by the foreign key. the foreign key column, and
the column that’s referenced by the foreign key. If you need to, you can change
any of the information that defines the foreign key as described in this figure.
You can also add new foreign keys, and you can drop existing keys.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 359

The foreign keys for the Invoices table

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Description
• To view the foreign keys for a table, right-click on the table in the Navigator
window, select Alter Table, and click on the Foreign Keys tab.
• To rename a foreign key. double-click on the name and enter the new name.
• To change the referenced table, click on the table name in the Referenced Table
column and select a table from the drop-down list that appears.
• To change the column or referenced column for a foreign key, select the foreign key
and then select the column or referenced column in the list that appears.
• To drop a foreign key. right-click on its name and select Delete Selected.
• To add a new foreign key. double-click below the last foreign key name and type in
a new name. Then, specify the referenced table, foreign key column, and referenced
column.
• To apply the changes to the table, click the Apply button. To reverse the changes,
click the Revert button.

Figure 11-12 How to work with the foreign keys of a table

360 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to work with character sets

and collations
So far. this book has assumed that you're working with the default character
set and collation for MySQL. In this topic, you’ll learn more about characters
sets and collations and why you might want to use a character set or collation
that’s different from the default. Then, you’ll leam how to specify the character
set and collation for a database, a table, or even a column.

An introduction to character sets

and collations
When a column is defined with a string type such as CHAR or VARCHAR,
MySQL stores a numeric value for each character. Then, it uses a character set
to map the numeric values to the characters of the string.
Figure 11-13 begins by presenting three character sets that are commonly
used by MySQL. To start, it presents the default character set for MySQL 5.5
and earlier: the latm 1 character set. This character set uses one byte per character
to provide tor most characters in Western European languages. However, if you
need to store other characters, you can use the utf8mb3 or utf8mb4 character set.
The utt8mb3 character set is the default for MySQL 5.6 and 5.7. and the
utf8mb4 character set is the default for MySQL 8.0 and later. Currently. MySQL
refers to the utf8mb3 character set with the alias utf8. However, the utf&mb3
character set is deprecated and will be removed in a future release of MySQL
When that happens. utf8 will become an alias for the utf8mb4 character set.
Because of that, you should explicitly specify utf8mb4 if that’s the character set
you want to use.
The advantage of the utfSmb4 character set is that it provides for all charac­
ters specified by the Unicode character set. This includes most characters from
most languages worldwide. As a result it’s appropriate when you’re going to be
working with a global application that needs to be able to store characters from
multiple languages. You can also use it to store characters like emojis. which are
becoming more and more common.
The disadvantage of the utf8mb4 character set is that it can use up to four
bytes per character. This forces My SQL to reserve four bytes per character for
each character in the CHAR type. As a result, this can increase data storage
requirements for a database that makes extensive use of the CHAR type.
Fortunately, this typically isn’t an issue. If it is, you can fix the issue by using the
VARCHAR type instead of the CHAR type.
Every character set has a corresponding collation that determines how the
characters within the set are sorted. For example, the latin 1 character set uses the
collation named latinl_swedish_ci by default, since MySQL was developed in
Sweden. Here, the beginning of the name shows that it corresponds to the latm I
character set. In addition, the ci at the end shows that it is case-insensitive. This
means that MySQL sorts uppercase letters such as A and lowercase letters such
as a at the same level, which is usually what you want.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 361

Three commonly used character sets

Name Description
latinl The latinl character set uses one byte per character to provide for most characters in
Western European languages.
utf 8mb3 The utf8mb3 character set uses one to three bytes per character to provide for all
characters specified by the Unicode character set. This character set provides for most
characters in most of the world's languages.
utf0mb4 The utf8mb4 character set uses one to four bytes per character to provide for all char­
acters specified by the Unicode character set plus additional characters like emojis.

Four collations for the latinl character set

Name Description
1 a ti n l_s wedi s h_c 1 The default collation for the latin 1 character set.
latinl_general__ci A general purpose, case-insensitive collation.
latinl_general_cs A general purpose, case-sensitive collation.
latinl_bin The binary collation for this character set.

Four collations for the utf8mb3 character set

Three collations for the utf8mb4 character set

Name Description
utf8mb4 _0900_ai_ci The default collation for the utf8mb4 character set.
utf8 mb 4 _0900_as_cs An accent-sensitive, case-sensitive collation.
utf8mb4 bln The binary collation for this character set.

Description
• The character set that’s used by a database, table, or column determines which
characters can be stored and how many bytes are used to store the characters.
• Every character set has a corresponding collation that determines how the characters
within the set are sorted.
• If the name of a collation ends with ci, the collation is case-insensitive If the name
of a collation ends with cs, the collation is case-sensitive.
• If the name of a collation includes ai. the collation is aceent-insensitive. If the name
of a collation includes as. the collation is accent-sensitive
• If the name of a collation ends with bin, the collation is binary, which means that the
characters are sorted according to the binary numbers that correspond to each character.

Figure 11-13 An introduction to character sets and collations

362 Section 3 Database design and implementation

If MySQL isn't sorting characters the way you want, you can use another
character set and collation. If you're using utfKmb4, for example, you can use
the utf8mb4_09(X)_as_,cs collation instead of the default of utf8mb4_(W00_ai_ci.
In general, if you want to use a case-sensitive sort, you can use a collation
with a name that ends with as. Or. you can use a collation w ith a name that
ends with bin. which stands for binary. This sorts characters by their numeric
values instead ot by then character values. Finally, if you want to use an accent­
sensitive sort, you can use a collation that includes as.

How to view character sets and collations

Figure 11-14 starts by show mg how to view all character sets that are
available on your MySQL server. To do that, you use the SHOW CHARSET
statement as shown in the first example. As the results of this statement show, the
SHOW CHARSET statement displays information about each character set in
addition to its name.
You can also use the SHOW CHARSET statement to view information
about a single character set. To do that, you can use a LIKE clause to identify the
character set as shown in the second example.
This figure also shows how to use the SHOW COLLATION statement to
view information about collations. For instance, the third example in this figure
shows how to view information about all the collations that are available on the
current server. In the result set that’s returned by this statement, you can see
some of the collations for the utt8mb4 character set.
If you only want to view the collations for a specific character set, you can
use a LIKE clause w ith the % wildcard character. In this figure, for example, the
second SHOW COLLATION statement show's the collations for the utf8mb4
character set.
The next four examples in this figure show' how to use the SHOW
VARIABLES statement to view the default character set and collation for your
current server or database. In these examples, the LIKE clause is used to specify
the name of a vanable. For example, to view the default character set for a
server, you use the character_set_server variable.
You can also view the character set and collation for all the tables in a
database. To do that, you can query the table named Tables in the database
named Information_Schema as shown in the last example. Here, the SELECT
statement returns the table name and table collation for each table in the AP
database. Since the name of the collation also identifies the character set. this
indicates the character set for each table
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 363

How to view ail available character sets for a server

SHOW CHARSET
Default collator Mavleri A
Charset Des cto bon
urfL6 LTTF-16 Uncade utfj6_gene*aijD 4
utflSe UIF-16LE Uncode utf 1 Se _genef al _o 4
utf32 UTF-32 Unicode utf32 jjereral_a 4
ut*B UTF -8 Uncode utffi_general_d 3
utfBmb4 LfTF-8 UntOde utftmb4_0900_a_d 4 V

How to view a specific character set

SHOW CHARSET LIKE 'ut£8mb4'

How to view all available collations for a server

SHOW COLLATION
C elation Charset Ed Defadt Campled Scrtten Pad_attnbute
utffrnb4 D9OD a 0 utflMH 2S5 Y« Yes 0 NO PAD
u t*&jr<>4_0900_® _a XS Yes 0 NO PAD
utfftn^4_0900jb _a 278 Yes 0 NO PAD
46 Yes 1 PAD SPACE
ut*Umb4_a MtiMi _d uf*U*nt>4 245 Yes 8 PAD SPACE
u tftn^4_a.0900_a_a utfBmb4 >€ Yes 0 NO PAD
utftmb4_a_0900 _as_a 289 Yes 0 NO PAD
utfBrrt>4_Qedi_a U*^Ttb4 224 Yes 8 PAD SPACE
utftmnb4 dan«h d utftmb4 235 Yes 8 PAD SPACE

How to view all available collations for a specific character set

SHOW COLLATION LIKE 'Utf8mb4V

How to view the default character set for a server

SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'character set server'

How to view the default collation for a server

SHOW VARIABLES LIKE ’collation.«irv«r’

How to view the default character set for a database

SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'character set_databaaa■

How to view the default collation for a database

SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'collation database*

How to view the character set and collation for all the tables in a database
SELECT tablename, tablecollation
FROM information scheme.tables
WHERE table schema = ' ap'
TA8l£_NAK TA0i£_COLLAT]Oh A

mace Jne-items utftrtH .0900_a _d

motet utffrnt>4_090C_ai_a
urfM>4_090C_» _d V

Figure 11-14 How to view character sets and collations

364 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to specify a character set and a collation

Figure 11-15 shows how to specify a character set and a collation at three
levels: database, table, and column. In most cases, you want to specify the
character set and collation at the database level as shown in the first group of
examples. Then, all the columns in all of the tables that store string data are
defined u ith that character set and collation. It necessary, though, you can also
set the character set and collation at the table or column level as shown by the
second and third groups of examples.
To specify a character set or collation, you can use the CHARSET or
COLLATE clauses. For a new database or table, you can add these clauses to the
CREATE statement for the database or table. For an existing database or table,
you can add these clauses to the ALTER statement for the database or table.
Most of the examples in this figure use both the CHARSET and COLLATE
clauses. This clearly shows the character set and collation that are being speci­
fied. In most cases, though, you only need to use one clause or the other. That's
because every character set has a default collation, and every collation has a
corresponding character set. As a result, if you omit the COLLATE clause,
MySQL uses the default collation for the specified character set. And. if you
omit the CHARSET clause. MySQL uses the character set that corresponds to
the specified collation If you want to use a collation other than the default for a
character set. then, you can do that by coding the COLLATE clause without the
CHARSET clause.
You can also use MySQL Workbench to change the character set and colla­
tion for a table or column. To do that, you use the Columns tab that you saw
in figure 11-10. To change the character set and collation for a table, you use
the Charset and Collation drop-down lists at the top of this tab. To change the
character set and collation for a column, you select the column and then use the
Charset and Collation drop-down lists below the list of columns.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 365

The clauses used to specify a character set and collation

[CHARSET char act’® rsat] [COLLATE collation]

How to specify a character set and collation at the database level

For a new database
CREATE DATABASE ar CHARSET latinl COLLATE latinlganaralci

For an existing database

ALTER DATABASE ar CHARSET ut£8mb4 COLLATE Utf8mb40900aici

For an existing database using the CHARSET clause only

ALTER DATABASE ar CHARSET Ut£8mb4

For an existing database using the COLLATE clause only

ALTER DATABASE ar COLLATE ut£8nb4 _0900_.ai_ci

How to specify a character set and collation at the table level

For a new table
CREATE TABLE employees
(
err.pid I3TT PRIMARY KEY,
amp name VARCHAR(25)
>
CHARSET latinl COLLATE latinl general, ci

For an existing table

ALTER TABLE employees
CHARSET Utf8mb4 COLLATE Utf8mb4 0900 ai ci

How to specify a character set and collation at the column level

For a column in a new table
CREATE TABLE employees
(
emp id 1ST PRIMARY KEY,
emp name VARCHAR(25) CHARSET latinl COLLATE latinl_ganeral_ci
>

For a column in an existing table

ALTER TABLE employees
MODIFY emp name VARCHAR(25) CHARSET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4 0900aici

Description
• You can use the CHARSET and COLLATE clauses to set the character set and
collation at the database, table, or column level.
• If you omit the CHARSET clause. MySQL uses the character set that corresponds
to the specified collation.
• If you omit the COLLATE clause. MySQL uses the default collation for the speci­
fied character set.
• The CHARACTER SET keywords are a synonym for the CHARSET keyword.

Figure 11-15 How to specify a character set and a collation

366 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to work with storage engines

A storage engine determines how MySQI. stores data and which database
features are available to you. Unlike many other databases. My SQL provides
several different storage engines that you can use. and each of these engines
provides slightly different features.

An introduction to storage engines

Figure 11-lb begins by presenting two storage engines: InnoDB and
MylSAM. The InnoDB engine is the default engine for MySQL 5.5 and later.
As a result, if you installed the software as described in appendix A or B of
this book, you have been using the InnoDB engine so far. This engine supports
foreign keys as described earlier in this chapter. In addition, it supports transac­
tions. save points, and row-level locking, which are described in chapter 14.
Prior to MySQL 5.5, the MylSAM engine was the default storage engine. As
a result, if you ever work on an older MySQL database, there's a good chance its
tables use the MylSAM engine. This engine supports some features that weren’t
supported by InnoDB tables until later releases of MySQL, including full-text
searches and spatial data types. However, the MylSAM engine doesn’t support
foreign keys for maintaining referential integrity. Although you can still code
foreign key constraints to show the relationships between tables. MySQL doesn’t
enforce these relationships.
Although this book doesn't cover the full-text search feature, you should
know that this feature uses a special type of index that makes it easier and faster
to search string data using natural language search strings.

How to view storage engines

Figure 11-16 also shows how to view information about storage engines. To
start, it shows how to use the SHOW ENGINES statement to view all available
storage engines for the current server. In this figure, for example, the result set
show s that the InnoDB storage engine is the default storage engine for the server.
In addition, it shows that several other storage engines are available to the server.
If you want to quickly view the default storage engine for the server, you
can use the SHOW VARIABLES statement shown in this figure. This statement
returns a single row that includes tlie name of the default storage engine.
If you want to view the storage engine that’s used for all the tables
in a database, you can use a SELECT statement to query the tables in the
lnformation_Schema database as shown in the last example. Here, the SELECT
statement displays the table name and storage engine for the tables in the AP
database. You can also display this information for all tables on the server by
removing the WHERE clause from this SELECT statement.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 367

Two storage engines provided by MySQL

Name Description
innoDB The default storage engine for MySQL 5.5 and later. This
engine supports foreign keys, transactions, save points,
and row-level locking.
MyISAM The default storage engine prior to MySQL 5.5.

How to view all storage engines for a server

SHOW ENGINES
Ertgne xcprt Cowmen* Transactor:- YA Saveports
W«3RY YES Hash based, stored n memory, far temp... NO NO NO
WG.MHSAM YES Cofcecton of dentkal MylSAM lubes NO NO NO
CSV YES CSV storage engne NO NO NO
0K9 UL'11!
FEDERATED NO Federated MySQL storage engne
PERFORMANCE _SCHEM A YES Performance Schema NO NO NO
MylSAM YES My ISAM storage engre NO NO NO
InnoDB D6=ALXT Supports transactions, ro;.4e.e todong, and fb... YES YES YES
ncfcrsfa no MySQL Ckjster system r formation storage engine no mi L.H

BLACKHOLE YES dec/nJI storage engne (anythmg you write to ... NO NO NO

AROtfVE YES Archive storage engne NO NO NO
Ouster ed, fauU-totervit tabes EZH iJm
nebduster NO
______

How to view the default storage engine for a server

SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'default, storage engine*

How to view the storage engine for all the tables in a database
SELECT table name, engine
FROM Information schema.tables
WHERE table schema = 'ap'
A
TABLE ‘LAME B1GM

rwocejnejtems InnoDB
rtvoces InnoDB
terms LnnoM V

Description
• The storage engine determines how MySQL stores data and which database
features are available to you.
• You can use multiple storage engines on the same server and within the same
database.

Figure 11-16 How to view storage engines

368 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to specify a storage engine

If you don't specify a storage engine when you create your tables. My SQL
uses the default storage engine for the server. However, if the default storage
engine doesn't provide the features that you want, you can use the ENGINE
clause to change the storage engine for the tables that you create. To create a
table that uses the MylSAM engine, for example, you can code a CREATE
TABLE statement that uses the ENGINE clause as shown in the first example of
figure 11-17.
You can also use the EN( ilNE clause on the ALTER TABLE statement to
change the storage engine that an existing table uses as shown in the second
example. You might want to do that for older tables that use the MylSAM
storage engine so you can take advantage of the foreign key features provided by
the InnoDB storage engine. When you change the storage engine for an existing
table, you should know' that .t can take MySQL a significant amount of time to
rebuild the table. In addition, the table can't be accessed while this is happening.
As a result, you shouldn't attempt to change the storage engine on a produc­
tion database unless you are ready to stop all applications from accessing the
database while MySQL rebuilds the table.
You can also change the storage engine for a table from MySQL Workbench.
To do that, you use the Columns tab shown in figure 11-10. Then, you use the
Engine drop-dow n list to choose a storage engine.
If you find that you are often using a storage engine that's different than the
default engine for your server, you can change the default storage engine for the
current session. To do that, you can code a SET SESSION statement to set the
default_storage_engine variable for the current session. Since that only changes
the storage engine for the current session, you may want to change the storage
engine permanently. To do that, though, you need to modify the configuration
file for the server as shown in chapter 17.
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 369

The clause used to specify a storage engine

ENGINE ■ engine name

How to specify a storage engine for a table

For a new table
CREATE TABLE productdeccriptionfi
(
product_id I NT PRIMARY KEY.
product description VARCHAR(200)
)
ENGINE - MyISAM

For an existing table

ALTER TABLE product descriptions ENGINE ■ InnoDB

How to set the default storage engine for the current session
SET SESSION default_storage engine - InnoDB

Description
• To specify a storage engine for a table, you can use the ENGINE clause.
• To change the default storage engine for the current session, you can use die SET
SESSION statement to set the storage_engme variable for the current session.
• To permanently change the default storage engine for a server, you can modify the
configuration file for the server. For more information about how to do this, see
chapter 17.

Figure 11-17 How to specify a storage engine

370 Section 3 Database design and implementation

Now that you’ve completed this chapter, you should be able to create and
modify the tables of a database by coding DDL statements. In addition, you
should be able to use MySQL Workbench's graphical interface to work with the
tables of a database.
Before you move on, though, take a moment to consider the advantages
and disadvantages of using MySQL Workbench to work with database objects.
I he advantage, of course, is that MySQL Workbench provides a graphical user
interface that makes it easy to view and work with database objects. The disad­
vantage is that no record is kept of any changes that you make to the database.
For example, if you add a column to a table, that change isn't stored anywhere
for future use.
In contrast, if you use a script to add a column to a table, that change is
stored for future use. This makes it easy to recreate the database if you ever
need to do that. That's why it's common to use scripts to make any changes to
the structure of a database. On the other hand. MySQL Workbench is an excel­
lent tool for quickly viewing the objects of a database or for quickly creating
temporary tables or other objects that won't need to be recreated later.

Terms
attribute
constraint
column-level constraint
table-level constraint
not null constraint
unique constraint
primary key constraint
foreign key constraint
reference constraint
cascading delete
index
script
character set
collation
case-insensitive collation
case-sensitive collation
accent-insensitive collation
accent-sensitive collation
binary collation
storage engine
 Chapter 11 How to create databases, tables, and indexes 371

Exercises
1. Write a script that adds an index to the AP database for the zip code field in
the Vendors table.
2. Write a script that contains the CREATE TABLE statements needed to imple­
ment the following design in the EX database:
members memberscommittees committees
member id e —S memberjd • commltteejd
first_name commt:ee_id ►—* committee_name
last_name
address
city
state
phone

These tables provide for members of an association, and each member can be
registered in one or more committees within the association.
The memberjd and committeejd columns are the primary keys of the
Members and Committees tables, and these columns are foreign keys in the
Members_Committees table.
Include any constraints or default values that you think are necessary.
Include statements to drop the tables if they already exist.
3. Write INSERT statements that add rows to the tables that are created in
exercise 2. Use any data that you like.
Add two rows to the Members table for the first two member IDs.
Add two rows to the Committees table for the first two committee IDs.
Add three rows to the Members_Committees table: one row for member 1 and
committee 2; one for member 2 and committee I. and one for member 2 and
committee 2.
Write a SELECT statement that joins the three tables and retrieves the
committee name, member last name, and member first name. Sort the results
by the committee name, member last name, and member first name.
4. Write an ALTER TABLE statement that adds two new columns to the Members
table created in exercise 2.
Add one column for annual dues that provides for three digits to the left of the
decimal point and two to the right. This column should have a default value of
52.50.
Add one column for the payment date.
5. Write an ALTER TABLE statement that modifies the Committees table created
in exercise 2 so the committee name in each row has to be unique. Then, use an
INSERT statement to attempt to insert a duplicate name. This statement should
fail due to the unique constraint.
 12

How to create views

As you've seen throughout this book. SELECT queries can be complicated,
particularly if they use multiple joins, subqueiies. or complex functions.
Because of that, you may want to save the queries you use regularly. One way
to do that is to store the statement in a script. Another way is to create a view.
Unlike scripts, which are stored in files, views are stored as part of the
database. As a result, they can be used by both SQL programmers and appli­
cations that have access to the database. This provides some advantages over
querying tables directly.

An introduction to views..........__ ....__ .......... „................... 374

How views work ...................................... 374
Benefits of using views.................................................................. 376
How to work With views___ ___________ ..__ .._____ ____ 378
How to create a view............................................................. _................. 378
How to create an updatable view......................................................................382
How to use the WITH CHECK OPTION clause.......................................... 384
How to insen or delete rows through a view.................................................. 386
How to alter or drop a view............... 388
Perspective.................................. 390
374 Section 3 Database design and implementation

An introduction to views
Before you learn the details for working with views, it’s helpful to get a
general idea of how views work. In addition, it’s helpful to consider some of the
benefits of views so you can determine whether you want to use them.

How views work

A view is a SELECT statement that’s stored in the database as a database
object. To create a view, you use a CREATE VIEW statement like the one shown
in figure 12-1. This statement creates a view named Vendors_Min that retrieves
the vendor_name. vendor_state. and vendor .phone columns from the Vendors
table.
You can think of a view as a v irtual table that consists only of the rows and
columns specified in its CREATE VIEW statement. The table or tables that
are listed in the FROM clause are called the base tables for the view. Since the
view refers back to the base tables, it doesn't store any data itself, and it always
reflects the most current data in the base tables.
To use a view, you refer to it from another SQL statement. In this figure,
for example, the SELECT statement uses the Vendors_Min view in the FROM
clause instead of a table. As a result, this SELECT statement extracts its result
set from the virtual table that the view represents. In this case, all tlie rows for
vendors in California are retrieved from the view.
When you create a view like the one in this figure, the view is updatable. As
a result, it's possible to use the view in an INSERT. UPDATE, or DELETE state­
ment. In this figure, for example, the UPDATE statement uses the Vendors_Min
view to update the vendor_phone column in the Vendors table for the specified
vendor.
To drop a view, you can use the DROP VIEW statement as shown in this
figure. This works similarly to the DROP statements for tables and indexes that
you learned about in the previous chapter.
Because a view is stored as an object in a database, it can be used by anyone
who has appropriate privileges. 'I hat may include users who have access to the
database through applications that provide for ad hoc queries and report genera­
tion. In addition, that may include custom applications that are written specifi­
cally to work with the data in the database. In fact, views are often designed to
be used with these types of applications.
 Chapter 12 How to create views 375

A CREATE VIEW statement for a view named Vendors_Min

CREATE VIEW vendors min AS
SELECT vendor name, vendor state, vendor phon©
FROM vendors

The virtual table that's represented by the view

vendor .name vendor .state vendor _phone *

► US Postal Service WI (BOO) 555-1205

National Information Data Ctr DC (Xi) 555-8950
Register of Copyntfits CH31
DC
Jo&trak CA (800) 555-8725
Newtonge Book Ckhs NJ (800) 555-9980 V

(122 rows)

A SELECT statement that uses the Vendors_Min view

SELECT * FROM vendors min
WHERE vendor state = 1 CA*
ORDER BY vendor name

The result set that’s returned by the SELECT statement

l
vendor.name vendor _state vendor jjhone A

Abbey Office Furnshngs CA (559) 555-8300

Amer can Express CA (800) 555-3344
ASC Sgns CA
E3J

Aztek Label CA (714) 555-9000

Bertdsrnann Industry Svcs. Inc CA (805) 555-0584
0FI Indtstnes CA (559) 555-1551 V

(7 5 rows)

An UPDATE statement that uses a view to update the base table

UPDATE vendors min
SET vendor phone = ’(800) 555-3941'
WHERE vendor name ■ 'Register of Copyrights'

A statement that drops a view

DROP VIEW vendors min

Description
• A view consists of a SELECT statement that’s stored as an object in the database.
The tables referenced in the SELECT statement are called the base tables for the
view.
• When you create a view, you can refer to the view anywhere you would normally
use a table in a SELECT, INSERT. I 1’DATE. or DELETE statement.
• Although a view behaves like a virtual table, it doesn’t store any data. Instead, a
view always refers back to its base tables.
• A view can also he referred to as a viewed table because it provides a view to the
underlying base tables.

Figure 12-1 How views work

376 Section 3 Database design and implementation

Benefits off using views

Figure 12-2 describes some of the advantages of using views. To start, you
can use views to limit the exposure of the tables in your database to external
users and applications. To illustrate, suppose a view refers to a table that you’ve
decided to divide into two tables. To accommodate this change, you simply
modify the view. In other words, you don't have to modify any statements that
refer to the view. That means that users who query the database using the view
don't have to be aware of the change in the database structure, and application
programs that use the view don’t have to be modified.
You can also use views to restrict access to the data in a database. To do that,
you create a view that includes just the columns and rows you w ant a user or an
application to have access to. Then, you let the user or application access the
data only through the views. For example, let’s assume you have an Employees
table that has a salary column that contains information about each employee’s
salary. In this case, you can create a view that doesn't include the salary column
for the users who need to view and maintain this table, but who shouldn't be
able to view salaries. Then, you can create another view that includes the salary
column for the users who need to view and maintain salary information.
In addition, you can use views to hide the complexity of a SELECT state­
ment. For example, if you have a long and unwieldy SELECT statement that
joins multiple tables, you can create a view for that statement. This makes it
easier for you and other database users to work with this data.
Finally, when you create a view, you can allow data in tile base table to be
updated through the view. To do that, you use INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statements to work w ith the view.
 Chapter 12 How to create vigws 377

Some of the benefits provided by views

Benefit Description
Design independence Views can limit the exposure of tables to external users and applications.
As a result if the design of the tables changes, you can modify the view
as necessary so users who query the view don't need to be aware of the
change, and applications that use the view don't need to be modified.
Data security Views can restrict access to the data in a table by using the SELECT
clause to include only selected columns of a table or by using the
WHERE clause to include only selected rows in a table.
Simplified queries View s can be used to hide the complexity of retrieval operations. Then,
the data can be retrieved using simple SELECT statements that specify a
view in the FROM clause.
Updatability With certain restrictions, views can be used to update, insert, and delete
data from a base table.

Description
• You can create a view based on almost any SELECT statement. T*hat means that
you can code views that join tables, summarize data, and use subqueries and
functions.

Figure 12-2 Benefits of using views

378 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to work with views

Now that you have a general understanding of how views work and of the
benefits that they provide, you’re ready to learn the details for working with
them.

How to create a view

Figure 12-3 presents the CREATE VIEW statement that you use to create
a view. In its simplest form, you code the CREATE VIEW keywords, followed
by the name of the view, follow'ed by the AS keyword and the SELECT state­
ment that defines the view. In this figure, for instance, the first statement creates
a view named Vendors_Phone_List This view includes four columns from the
Vendors table for all vendors with invoices.
If you execute the first CREATE VIEW statement and a view with that name
doesn't already exist in the current database. MySQL adds the view and displays
a message to indicate that the statement was successful. However, if a view with
this name already exists. MySQL doesn't add the view and displays a message
that indicates that the name is already in use. In that case, you need to specify
a new name for the view, or you need to drop the view that's already using that
name.
When you code a CREATE VIEW statement, you can specify that you want
to automatically drop a view that has the same name as the view that you're
creating. To do that, you can specify the OR REPLACE keywords alter the
CREATE keyword as shown in all of the examples in this figure except for the
first.
The SELECT statement for a view can use most of the features of a normal
SELECT statement. In this figure, for instance, the second example creates a
view that joins data from two tables. Similarly, the third statement creates a view
that uses a LIMIT clause.
By default, the columns in a view are given the same names as the columns
in the base tables. If a view contains a calculated column, however, you'll want
to name that column just as you do in other SELECT statements. In addition,
you'll need to rename columns from different tables that have the same name. To
do that, you can code the column names in the CREATE VIEW clause as shown
in the fourth example. Or. you can use the AS clause in the SELECT statement
as show n in the fifth example.
Note that if you use the technique shown in the fourth example, you have to
assign names to all of the columns. By contrast, if you use the technique show n
in the fifth example, you only have to assign names to the columns you need to
rename. As a result, you'll typically want to use the technique presented in the
fifth example.
 Chapter 12 How to create views 379

The syntax of the CREATE VIEW statement

CREATE [OR REPLACE] VIEW view name
[(column aliasl[, column alias2]...)J
AS
selectstatement
[WITH CHECK OPTION]

A view of vendors that have invoices

CREATE VIEW vendors phone list AS
SELECT vendor name, vendor contact_last_name,
vendor contact first_ name, vendor phone
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor id IN (SELECT DISTINCT vendor id FROM invoices)

A view that uses a join

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW vendor, invoices AS
SELECT vendor name, invoice number, invoice, date, invoice total
FROM vendors
JOIN invoices ON vendors.vendor id = invoices.vendor id

A view that uses a LIMIT clause

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW top5 invoice total* AS
SELECT vendor id, invoice total
FROM invoices
ORZER BY invoice_total DESC
LIMIT 5

A view that names all of its columns in the CREATE VIEW clause
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW invoices outstanding
(invoice number, invoice_date, invoice.total, balance_due)
AS
SELECT invoice number, invoice date, invoice .total,
invoice.total - payment-total - credit_total
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice total - payment total - credittotal > 0

A view that names just the calculated column in its SELECT clause
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW invoices outstanding AS
SELECT invoice number, invoicedate, invoicetotal,
invoice_total - paymenttotal - credit total AS balance due
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice total - payment total - credit-total > 0

Figure 12-3 How to create a view (part 1 of 2)

380 Section 3 Database design and implementation

The example in part 2 of figure 12-3 creates a view that summarizes the
row s in the Invoices table by vendor. This shows that a view can use aggregate
functions and the GROUP BY clause to summarize data. In this case, the rows
are grouped by vendor name, and a count of the invoices and the invoice total are
calculated for each vendor.
When you create a view, the SELECT statement you code within the defini­
tion of the view can refer to another view instead of a base table. In other words,
view s can be nested. In theory, nested views can make it easier to present data to
your users. In practice, using nested views can make the dependencies between
tables and views confusing, which can make your code difficult to maintain. As a
result, if you use nested views, you should use them carefully.
 Chapter 12 How to create views 381

A view that summarizes invoices by vendor

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW invoice flummery AS
SELECT vendor name,
COUNT(*) AS invoice count t
SUM(invoice total) AS invoice total sum
FROM vendors
JOIN invoices ON vendors.vendor id ■ invoices.vendor id
GROUP BY vendor name

Description
• You use the CREATE VIEW statement to create a view.
• If you include the OR REPLACE keywords, the CREATE VIEW statement will
replace any existing view that has the same name. Otherwise, you must specify a
name that doesn't already exist for the view.
• If you name the columns of a view in the CREATE VIEW clause, you have to name
all of the columns. By contrast, if you name the columns in the SELECT clause,
you can name just the columns you need to rename.
• You can create a view that's based on another view rather than on a table. This is
known as a nested view.

Figure 12-3 How to create a view (part 2 cf 2)

382 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to create an updatable view

Once you create a view, you can refer to it in a SELECT statement. In
addition, you may be able to refer to it in INSERT. UPDATE, and DELETE
statements to modify the data that's stored in an underlying table. To do that, the
view must be updatable. Figure 12-4 lists the requirements for creating updat­
able views.
The first two requirements have to do with what you can code in the select
list of the SELECT statement that defines the view. In particular, the select list
can't include the DISTINCT keyword or aggregate functions. In addition, the
SELECT statement can't include a GROUP BY or HAVING clause, and you
can't join two SELECT statements using a union operation.
The CREATE VIEW statement in this figure creates a view that’s updatable.
As a result, you can refer to it in an INSERT. UPDATE, or DELETE statement.
Eor example, you can use the first UPDATE statement shown in this figure to
update the credit_total column in the Invoices base table. Note that to execute
this statement in MySQL Workbench, you will need to turn safe update mode off
as described in chapter 5, since the WHERE clause doesn't refer to a primary or
foreign key.
However, you can’t update any calculated columns that are used by the view.
For example, you can't use the second UPDATE statement shown in this figure
to update the balance_due column that's calculated from the other columns in
the view.
In addition, when you update data through a view, you can only update the
data in a single base table at a time, even if the view refers to two or more tables.
In this figure, for instance, the view includes data from two base tables: Vendors
and Invoices. Because of that, you can code an UPDATE statement that updates
the data in the Vendors table or the data in the Invoices table, but not in both
tables at once. For example, the first UPDATE statement only refers to columns
in the Invoices table, so it’s able to update data in that table.
 Chapter 12 How to create views 383

Requirements for creating updatable views

• The select list can’t include a DISTINCT clause.
• The select list can’t include aggregate functions.
• The SELECT statement can’t include a GROUP BY or HAVING clause.
• The view can't include the UNION operator.

A CREATE VIEW statement that creates an updatable view

CREATE CH REPLACE VIEW balaneu due view AS
SELECT vendor name, invoice number,
invoicetotal, payment_totai, credit-total,
invoice-total - payment_total - credittotal AS balance due
FROM vendors JOIN invoices ON vendors.vendor id ■ invoices.vendor id
WHERE invoicetotal - paymenttotal - credit_total > 0

An UPDATE statement that uses the view to update data

UPDATE balance due view
SET credit total ■ 300
WHERE invoice number = 199827711

The response from the system

(1 row affected)

An UPDATE statement that attempts to use the view

to update a calculated column
UPDATE balance due view
SET balance-due ■ 0
WHERE invoice number = '9982771'

The response from the system

Error Code: 1348. Column 1 balance due1 is not updatable

Description
• An updatable view is a view that can be used in an INSERT. UPDATE, or DELETE
statement to update the data in the base table. If a view isn't updatable, it’s called a
read-only view.
• The requirements for coding updatable views are more restrictive than for coding
read-only views. That's because MySQL must be able to unambiguously determine
which base tables and columns are affected.

Note
• If you try running these UPDATE statements and get an error that says ‘’You are
using safe update mode...”, you can turn off safe update mode. To do that, select
Edit->Preferences, select the SQL Editor node, uncheck ’’Safe Updates”, and
restart MySQL Workbench

Figure 12-4 How to create an updatable view

384 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to use the WITH CHECK OPTION clause

Figure 12-5 shows an example of an updatable view that uses the WITH
CHECK OPTION clause to prevent an update if it causes the row to be excluded
from the view. To start, the CREATE VIEW statement creates an updatable view
named Vendor_Payment that joins data from the Vendors and Invoices tables and
retrieves all invoices that have a balance due that's greater than or equal to zero.
Then, the first UPDATE statement uses this view to modify the
payment_date and payment_total columns for a specific invoice. This works
because this UPDATE statement doesn’t exclude the row from the view.
However, the second UPDATE statement causes the balance due to become
less than zero. As a result, this statement fails due to the WITH CHECK
OPTION clause, and an error is displayed. Since this can prevent users from
storing invalid data in a database, this clause can be useful in some situations.
 Chapter 12 How to create views 385

An updatable view that has a WITH CHECK OPTION clause

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW vendor payment AS
SELECT vendor name, invoice number, invoice date, payment date,
invoice_total, credit-total, payment total
FROM vendors JOIN invoices ON vendors.vendor id ■ invoices.vendor id
WHERE invoice_total - payment total - credit_total >■ 0
WITH CHECK OPTION

A SELECT statement that displays a row from the view

SELECT * FROM vendor payment
WHERE invoice number ■ 1 P-06081

The result set

vendor _name nvocr_ru-rbcr r«oce_dflte payment_date nvoce_totad aedt_totd pay*nen!_tot^

► Mafcy Jfrograprv^ Inc P-0608 2022-07’23 20551.13 1200.00 oco '_______ I

An UPDATE statement that updates the view

UPDATE vendor payment
SET payment_total - 400.00,
payment date ■ 12022-08-01*
WHERE invoice number a 1P-06081

The response from the system

(1 row affected)

The same row data after the update

verKior_r«^7t? rrvaeejiLT'bef rtvooedate payw«nt_date rrvocejotal piymcnttotai

► Lthopaahng Inc P-O6O3 2022-07-23 2222-00-0 1 2055 LIS 1200.00 «0 00

An UPDATE statement that attempts to update the view

UPDATE vendor payment
SET payment-total ■ 30000.00,
payment date = *2022-08-01*
WHERE invoice^number = * P-06081;

The response from the system

Error Code: 1369. CHECK OPTION failed •ap.vendor payment *

Description
• If you don't include a WI TH CHECK OPTION clause when you create a view, a
change you make through the view can cause the modified rows to no longer be
included in the view.
• If you specify a WITH CHECK OPTION clause when you create a view, an error
will occur if you try to modify a row in such a way that it would no longer be
included m the view.

Figure 12-5 How to use the WITH CHECK OPTION clause

386 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to insert or delete rows through a view

In the previous figures, you learned how to use a view to update data in the
underlying tables. Now, figure 12-6 shows how to use a view to insert or delete
data in an underlying table. In general, this works the same as it does when you
work direetly with a table. However, due to table constraints, using a view to
insert or delete rows often results 1:1 errors like the ones shown in this figure.
As a result, it's generally more common to work directly with base tables when
inserting or deleting rows.
At the top of this figure, you can see a CREATE VIEW statement for a view
named ibm-invoices. This view retrieves columns and rows from the Invoices
table for the vendor named IBM. which has a vendor_id of 34. Then, the
INSERT statement that follows attempts to insert a row into the Invoices table
through this view.
This insert operation fails, though, because the view and the INSERT state­
ment don t include all of the required columns for the Invoices table. In this case,
a value is required for other columns in the Invoices table, including the
vendor_id and invoice_due_date columns. As a result, to use a view to insert
rows, you must design a view that includes all required columns for the under­
lying table.
In addition, an INSERT statement that uses a view can insert rows into only
one table at a time. That’s true even if the view is based on two or more tables
and all of the required columns for those tables are included in the view. In that
case, you could use separate INSERT statements to insert rows unto each table
through tire view.
This figure also shows how to delete rows through a view. To do that, you
use a DELETE statement like the ones shown here. To start, the first DELETE
statement attempts to delete an invoice from the Invoices table through the
ibm_invoices view. However, this DELETE statement fails because the
Invoice_Line_Items table contains rows related to the invoice. This causes an
eiTor message like the one in this figure to be displayed. To get this DELETE
statement to work, you must first delete the related line items for the invoice.
This is illustrated by the last two DELETE statements in this figure.
 Chapter 12 How to create views 387

A statement that creates an updatable view

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW ihd invoices AS
SELECT invoice number, invoice date, invoicetotal
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor id ■ 34

The contents of the view

nvoce_date nvocE-totai

► QPS8372 2022-05-07 116.54

Q545443 2022-06-09 W63.S0

An INSERT statement that fails

INSERT INTO ihm invoices
(invoice number, invoicedate, invoicetotal)
VALUES
('RA23988', '2022-07-31', 417.34)

The response from the system

Error Code: 1423. Field of view 'ap.ibm invoices1 underlying table doesn't
have a default value

A DELETE statement that fails

DELETE FROM ihn invoices
WHERE invoice number ■ 'Q545443*

The response from the system

Error Code: 1451. Cannot delete or update a parent row: a foreign key
constraint fails ('ap1.1 invoice line items', CONSTRAINT
•line itemsfkinvoicec■ FOREIGN KEY (•invoiceid') REFERENCES 'invoices'
('invoice_id'))

Two DELETE statements that succeed

DELETE FROM invoice.line=itarns
WHERE invoice_id ■ (SELECT invoice_id FROM invoices
WHERE invoice number = 'Q545443');

DELETE FROM ihm invoices

WHERE invoice_number ■ 'Q545443';

The response from the system

(1 row affected)

Description
• You can use the INSERT statement to insert rows into a base table through a view
only if the view includes all of the columns required by the base table.
• If the view names more than one base table, an INSERT statement can insert data
into only one of those tables.
• You can use the DELETE statement to delete rows from a base table through a
view. For this to work, the view must be based on a single table.

Figure 12-6 How to insert or delete rows through a view

388 Section 3 Database design and implementation

How to alter or drop a view

Although MySQL supports an ALTER VIEW statement, it's usually easier
to alter a view by using the C REATE OR REPLACE VIEW statement to
replace the existing view with a new one. In figure 12-7. for instance, the first
example uses a CREATE VIEW statement to create a view named vendors_sw
that retrieves rows from the Vendors table for vendors located in four states.
Then, the second example uses the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW statement to
modify this view so it includes vendors in two additional states.
To drop a view, you use the DROP VIEW statement to name the view you
want to drop. In this figure, for instance, the third example drops the view named
vendors_sw. Like the other statements for dropping database objects, this state­
ment permanently deletes the view. As a result, you should be careful when you
use it.
When writing scripts, it’s often helpful to check whether a view exists before
dropping it. To do that you can add the IF EXISTS keywords to the DROP
VIEW .statement as shown in the fourth example. That way, it the view doesn’t
exist, the statement generates a warning instead of an error. This allows a script
to continue executing instead of being stopped.
 Chapter 12 How to create views 389

A statement that creates a view

CREATE VIEW vendors sw AS
SELECT *
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor state IN ( ’ CA ' , ' AZ ' , ’ NV' , ’ NM' )

A statement that replaces the view with a new view

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW vendors SW AS
SELECT ♦
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor state IN (1CA', 1AZ 1,•NV», 'NM', 'UT', 'CO1 )

A statement that drops the view

DROP VIEW vendors sw

A statement that drops the view only if it exists

DROP VIEW IF EXISTS vendors sw

Description
• To alter a view, you can use the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW statement to
replace the existing view with a new one.
• You can also use the ALTER VIEW statement to alter a view, but if the view
doesn't exist, an error will occur. The syntax of the ALTER VIEW statement is the
same as the syntax of the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW statement.
• To delete a view from the database, you can use the DROP VIEW statement.

Figure 12-7 How to alter or drop a view

390 Section 3 Database design and implementation

Perspective
In this chapter, you learned how to create and use views. As you've seen,
views provide a powerful and flexible way to predefine the data that can be
retrieved from a database. By using them, you can restrict the access to a
database while providing a consistent and simplified way for end users and
application programs to access that data.

Terms
view nested view
base table updatable view
viewed table read-only view

Exercises
1. Create a view named open_items that shows the invoices that haven't been
paid.
This view should return four columns from the Vendors and Invoices tables:
vendor_name, invoice_number. invoice_total, and balance_due
(invoice_total - payment_total - credit_total 1
A row should only be returned when the balance due is greater than zero, and
the rows should be in sequence by vendor_name.
2. Write a SELECT statement that returns all of the columns in the open_items
view that you created in exercise I, with one row for each invoice that has a
balance due of $ I (MX) or more.
3. Create a view named open_items_summary that returns one summary row for
each vendor that has invoices that haven't been paid.
Each row should include vendor_name. open_item_count (the number of
invoices with a balance due), and open_item_total ( the total of the balance
due amounts).
The rows should be sorted by the open item totals in descending sequence.
4. Write a SELECT statement that returns just the first 5 rows from the
open_items_summary view that you created in exercise 3.
5. Create an updatable view named vendor_address that returns the vendorjd
column and all of the address columns for each \endor.
6. Write an UPDATE statement that changes the address for the row w ith a
vendor ID of 4 so the suite number (Ste 260) is stored in the vendor_address2
column instead of the vendor_address 1 column.
Section 4

Stored program development

'I his section presents the essential skills for using MySQL to create stored
programs. These are the skills that will take your SQL capabilities to
the next level. In chapter 13, youli learn the language basics for writing
procedural code within stored programs. In chapter 14. you’ll leant how
to manage transactions and locking from within stored programs. In
chapter 15, you’ll leam how to create two types of stored programs: stored
procedures and functions. And in chapter 16, you'll leam how to create two
more types of stored programs: triggers and events.
 13
Language skills
for writing stored programs
This chapter presents the basic language skills that you need to write stored
programs. With the skills presented in this chapter, you'll be able to code
stored programs that provide functionality similar to procedural programming
languages like Python, PHP. Java, C++. C#. and Visual Basic.
If you have experience with another procedural language, you shouldn't
have any trouble with the skills presented in this chapter. However, you should
know that the programming power of MySQL is limited when compared to
other languages. That’s because MySQL is designed specifically to work with
MySQL databases rather than as a general-purpose programming language.
For its intended use. however, MySQL is both powerful and flexible.

An introduction to stored programs....................................394

Four types of stored programs.................................. 394
A script that creates and calls a stored procedure............................ 394
A summary of statements for coding stored programs................................. 396
How to write procedural code.......................... 398
How to display data...........................................................................................398
How to declare and set variables............ ............................. 4n0
How to code IF statements...................... 402
How to code CASE statements........................................................................ 404
How to code loops.............................................................................................406
How to use a cursor...................„.................................................................. 408
How to declare a condition handler................................................................. 410
How to use a condition handler........................................................................412
How to use multiple condition handlers....................................................... 416
Perspective................................................. ................................418
394 Section 4 Stored program development

An introduction to stored programs

MySQL provides for using standard SQL to write stored programs. Stored
programs can include procedural code that controls the flow of execution.

Four types of stored programs

Figure 13-1 presents the four types of stored programs that you can create
in MySQL. A stored procedure can be called from an application that has access
to the database. For example, a PHP application can call a stored procedure
and pass parameters to it. A ston'd function can be called from a SQL state­
ment. just like the functions provided by MySQL. However, you can customize
stored functions so they perform tasks that are specific to your database. Stored
procedures and stored functions are similar in many ways and are also known as
stored routines.
Triggers and events don't need to be called. Instead, they execute automati­
cally when something happens. A trigger executes when an INSERT. UPDATE,
or DELETE statement is run against a specific table. And an event executes at a
scheduled time.

A script that creates and calls a stored procedure

The scnpt shown in figure 13-1 creates a stored procedure named test that
doesn't accept any parameters. 'I hen. it calls this procedure to execute the state­
ments that are stored within it. This provides a way for you to experiment with
the procedural language features that are available from MySQL. I hat s why this
script is used throughout this chapter.
This script begins with the USE statement, which selects the AP database.
Then, the DROP PROCEDURE IF EXISTS command drops the procedure
named test if it already exists. This suppresses any error messages that would be
displayed if you attempted to drop a procedure that didn't exist.
The DELIMITER statement changes the delimiter that identifies the end of a
statement from the default of the semicolon ( ;) to two slashes (//). This is neces­
sary because the semicolon is used w i th in the CREATE PROCEDURE state­
ment. and you want MySQL Server to treat (he entire stored procedure definition
as a single statement. So changing the delimiter to two front slashes (//> allows
you to identify the end of the CREATE PROCEDURE statement. It’s also
common to see two dollar signs ($$) or two semicolons (;;) used as the delimiter.
The CREATE PROCEDURE statement creates the procedure. To indicate
that this procedure doesn't accept any parameters, this code includes an empty
set of parentheses after the procedure's name.
The code within the CREATE PROCEDURE statement is defined by a block
of code that begins with the BEGIN keyword and ends with the END keyword.
Within this block of code, the DECLARE statement defines a variable named
sum_balance_due_var of the DECIMAL type. This data type corresponds to the
 Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs 395

Four types of stored programs

Type Description
Stored procedure Can be called from an application that has access to the database.
Stored function Can be called from a SQL statement just like the functions
provided by MySQL.
Trigger Is executed in response to an INSERT. UPDATE, or DELETE
statement on a specified table.
Event Is executed at a scheduled time.

A script that creates and calls a stored procedure named test

USE ap;

DROP PROCEDURE IF EXISTS test;

-- Change statement delimiter from semicolon to double front slash

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE test()

BEGIN
DECLARE sum balancedue ver DECIMAL(9, 2);

SELECT SUM(invoice_total - paymenttotal - credittotal)

INTO sum balance due var
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor id ■ 95;

IF sum balance due var > 0 THEN

SELECT CONCAT(1 Balance due: $', sum balance due var) AS message;
ELSE
SELECT 'Balance paid in full1 AS message;
END IF;
END//

-- change statement delimiter from double front slash to semicolon

DELIMITER ;

CALL test();

The response from the system

message

> Balance paid m Ml

Description
• A stored program consists of one or more SQL statements stored in the database
for later use.
• Within a stored program, you can write procedural code that controls the flow of
execution. That includes if/else constructs, loops, and error-handling code.

Figure 13-1 An introduction to stored programs

396 Section 4 Stoned program development

data types that are used for the mvoice_total. payment_total. and credit_total
columns of the Invoices table. T hen, a SELECT statement sets the value that's
stored in this variable. To do that, the SELECT statement returns a single value
and includes an INTO clause that specifics the name ot the variable. As a result,
the SELECT statement selects the value into the variable.
After the first SELECT statement, the script uses an IE statement to test the
value of the variable. It the variable is greater than zero, the statement in the
THEN clause uses a SELECT statement to return a result set that indicates the
balance that is due. Otherwise, the statement in the ELSE clause uses a SELECT
statement to return a result set that indicates that the balance is paid in full.
After the stored procedure has been created, this script uses the DELIMTER
statement to change the delimiter back to the default delimiter of a semicolon
(:). Then, it uses a CALL statement to call the stored procedure. This executes
the code stored within the procedure. You’ll learn more about how the CALL
statement works in chapter 15.
Eor now; don’t worry if you don't understand the coding details for this
script. Instead, focus on the general ideas. Later in this chapter, you'll learn the
details that you need to use the procedural language that's provided by MySQL.
Then, in chapter 15, you’ll learn more about the details of creating stored
procedures.

A summary of statements
for coding stored programs
Figure 13-2 begins by summarizing the SQL statements for controlling the
tlow of execution within stored programs. These statements can be used to add
functionality that's similar to the functionality provided by procedural languages.
After the SQL statements for writing procedural code, this figure presents
three statements that are commonly used within stored procedures. You saw all
three of these statements in the script in the previous figure. When working with
stored programs, though, you should knowr that you can use the SELECT state­
ment to return a result set to the calling program. This is often used to display
messages that can help the programmer develop and debug a stored program.
In addition, you can use the SELECT statement with an INTO clause to
retrieve data from the database and store it in one or more variables. You saw
an example of this in the previous figure, and you'll learn more about how this
works as you progress through this chapter.
 Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs 397

SQL statements for controlling the flow of execution

Keywords Description
IF...ELSEIF...ELSE Controls the flow of execution based on a condition.
CASE...WHEN...ELSE Controls the flow of execution based on a condition.
WHILE___DO Repeats statements while a condition is true.
REPEAT...UNTIL Repeats statements while a condition is true.
LOOP Repeats statements until a condition is true.
DECLARE CURSOR FOR Defines a result set that can be processed by a loop.
DECLARE___HANDLER Defines a handler that's executed when a stored
program encounters an error.

SQL statements used within stored programs

Statement Description
delimiter Changes the default delimiter so the entire stored program is
treated as a single statement.
BEGIN. .. end Defines a statement block.
SELECT Returns a result set to the calling program. Or. retrieves data
from the database and stores it so it can be processed by the
stored program.

Description
• MySQL provides statements that can be used within scripts to add functionality
similar to that provided by procedural programming languages.

Figure 13-2 A summary of statements for coding stored programs

398 Section 4 Stored program development

How to write procedural code

Now that you have a general idea of how stored programs w'ork. you’re
ready to learn the details for writing procedural code that's used within stored
programs.

How to display data

As you develop stored programs, you often need to display messages as
shown in figure 13-3. This can help you make sure that the stored program
is executing correctly, and it can help you debug your programs. To display
a message, you can use a SELECT statement. In this figure, for example, the
stored procedure uses a SELECT statement to return a result set that contains a
single row with a column named message that contains a string that says, “This
is a test.”
You can also code SELECT statements that display more complex
messages. In the next figure, for example, you'll see a stored procedure that
uses a SELECT statement that returns a result set with multiple values. Then,
the SELECT statement stores those values in variables so the variables can be
formatted and displayed.
This figure only show s the DELIMITER statement and the CREATE
PROCEDURE statement that are necessary to create the stored procedure.
Before you execute these statements, you may need to select the appropriate
database and drop any procedure with the same name using the USE and DROP
PROCEDURE IF EXISTS statements. And after you execute these statements,
you have to use the CALL statement to execute the stored procedure.
 Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs 399

A stored procedure that displays a message

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE test()

BEGIN
SELECT 'This it3 a test.1 AS message;
END//

The response from the system when the procedure is called

message

Ths is a test.

Description
• To display a message from a stored program, you can use the SELECT statement to
return a result set.

Figure 13-3 How to display data

400 Section 4 Stored program development

How to declare and set variables

A variable stores a value that can change as the procedure executes. Figure
13-4 shows how to declare and set variables.
To declare a variable, you code the DECLARE keyword followed by the
variable name and data type. In this figure, for example, the stored procedure
begins by declaring five variables. The data type for each variable corresponds to
the data type that's used for a column that’s related to the variable. For example,
the first two variables are declared with the DECIMAL type. This is the same
data type that’s used by the invoice_total column of the Invoices table. The third
variable also uses this data type, but with 4 decimal places instead of 2. The last
two variables use the INT type, which matches the data ty pe for the invoice_id
and vendor_id columns. When specifying the data type for a variable, you can
use any of the data types that you can use when you specify the data type for a
column.
Once you declare a variable, you can assign a value to it using the SET
statement. To assign a literal value or the result of an expression, you can code
the assignment operator (=) followed by the literal value or the expression. In
the script in this figure, for example, the first SET statement uses the assignment
operator to assign a value ot 95 to the variable named vendor_id_var. The second
SET statement uses the assignment operator to assign the result of a calculation
to the variable named percent_difference.
You can also use the DEFAULT key word to assign a default value to a
variable when you declare it. Then, the default value is used if another value
isn t assigned to the variable. For this to work, the default value must be a literal
value, not an expression. To declare and assign a value to the vendor_id_var
variable, for example, you could code a statement like this:
DECLARE vendoridvar IHT DEFAULT 95;

If you want to assign a value that's returned by a SELECT statement to a

variable, you can add an INTO clause to a SELECT statement. In the script in
this figure, for example, the first SELECT statement uses the INTO clause to
assign the three values that are returned by the SELECT statement to the three
corresponding variables that are specified by the INTO clause. For this to work,
the SELECT statement must return one value for each of the variables that are
specified in the INTO clause In addition, the data types for the columns must be
compatible w ith the data types for the variables.
To rev iew, the script m this figure uses five variables to calculate the percent
difference between the minimum and maximum invoices for a particular vendor.
To do that, this script uses the assignment operator to assign a value to two of the
variables. In addition, it uses the INTO clause of a SELECT statement to assign
values to the other three variables. Finally, a SELECT statement displays the
values of four of the variables.
In this figure, the script uses the equal sign (=) as the assignment operator.
However. MySQL also allows you to use a colon plus the equal sign (:=) as the
assignment operator. So, if you are reviewing another programmer's code. you
might see this operator.
 Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs 401

The syntax for declaring a variable

DECLARE variable, name data type [DEFAULT literal value];

The syntax for setting a variable to a literal value or an expression

SET variable name = (literal value|expression};

The syntax for setting a variable to a selected value

SELECT column 1[, column 2]...
INTO variable_name 1[, variable name 2]...

A stored procedure that uses variables

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE test()

BEGIN
DECLARE max invoicetotal DECIMAL(9,2);
DECLARE min invoice total DECIMAL(9,2);
DECLARE percent difference DECIMAL(9f4);
DECLARE count invoice id INT;
DECLARE vendor.id var INT;

SET vendoridvar s 95;

SELECT MAX(invoice_total), MIN(invoicetotal), COUNT(invoiceid)

INTO max invoice_total, mininvoicetotal, count invoiceid
FROM invoices WHERE vendor id ■ vendor_id var;

SET percent_difference ■ (max invoicetotal - mininvoicetotal) /

min invoicetotal * 100;

SELECT CONCAT(1 $ 1, max invoicetotal) AS 'Maximum invoice1,

CONCAT(1 $ 1, min invoice total) AS 'Minimum invoice1,
CONCAT ('X*, ROUND(percent_difference, 2)) AS 'Percent difference1,
count-invoice id AS 'Number of invoices';
END//

The response from the system when the procedure is called

Maxrotrn Mnmim Percent fijnber of •
invoice invoce dflerence rvoces
► $46.21 516.13
_s_________________ 1
Description
• A variable stores a value that can change as a stored program executes.
• A variable must have a name that's different from the names of any columns used
in any SELECT statement within the stored program. To distinguish a variable from
a column, you can add a suffix like ’*_var” to the variable name.

Figure 13-4 How to declare and set variables

402 Section 4 Stored program development

How to code IF statements

Figure 13-5 shows how to use an IF statement to execute one or more
statements based on a value that’s returned by a Boolean expression. A Boolean
expression is an expression that returns a true value or a false value.
The script m this figure uses an IF statement to test the value of a variable.
'Illis variable contains the oldest invoice due date in the Invoices table. If this
due date is less than the current date, the Boolean expression evaluates to true,
and the statement in the IF clause shows that outstanding invoices are overdue.
If the value is equal to the current date, the statement in the ELSEIF clause
indicates that outstanding invoices are due today. If neither of these conditions
is true, the oldest due date must be greater than the current date. As a result, the
script indicates that no invoices are overdue.
In this figure, the IF statement only contains one ELSEIF clause. However,
you can add as many ELSEIF clauses as you need. As a result, you can code
dozens of these clauses if you need them. But if you don't need an ELSEIF
clause, you don't have to code one. For example, it's common to code an IF
statement without an ELSEIF clause like this:
IF first_invoice duadate < NOW() THEN
SELECT ■Outstanding invoices are overduel*;
ELSE
SELECT 'No invoices iro overdue.';
END IF;

Similarly, the ELSE clause is also optional. As a result, it’s common to code
an IF statement like this:
IF first invoice due date < NOW() THEN
SELECT 'Outstanding invoices are overduel';
END IF;

You can also nest one IF statement within another like this:
IF firstinvoiceduedate <■ NOW() THEN
SELECT 'Outstanding invoices are overdue!';
IF first_invoice. due date - NOW() THEN
SELECT 'TODAY I *;
END IF;
END IF;
In this case, the outer IF statement is executed w hen the oldest invoice due date
is less than or equal to the current date. However, the nested IF statement is only
executed when the oldest invoice due date is equal to the current date. In other
words, if the current date equals the oldest invoice due date, this code returns
two result sets instead of one. As you'll see later in this chapter, you can also
nest an IF statement within other types of statements such as loops.
 Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs 403

The syntax of the IF statement

IF boolean expression THEN
etatementl;
[statement-2; ] . . .
[ELSEIF boolean expression THEN
statement_1;
[statement_2;
[ELSE
statamant_l;
[statements;]•••]
END IF;

A stored procedure that uses an IF statement

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE test()

BEGIN
DECLARE first invoice due date DATE;

SELECT MIN(invoice due date)

INTO first, invoice due date
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice-total - payment-total - credit_total > 0;

IF first-invoice due date < N0W() THEN

SELECT 'Outstanding invoices are overdue!1;
ELSEIF firstinvoicedue date - NOW() THEN
SELECT 'Outstanding invoices are due today!1;
ELSE
SELECT 'No invoices are overdue.1;
END IF;
END//

The response from the system when the procedure is called

Octstandrxj nvoces are overdue!

OutstandnQ invaces are overdue’

Description
• You can use an IF statement to execute one or more statements depending on one
or more Boolean expressions. A Boolean expression is an expression that evaluates
to true or false.
• You can nest an IF statement within another IF statement or within other SQL state­
ments. such as the statements for coding loops.
• You can code parentheses around the Boolean expressions in an IF statement like
this:
IF (first invoice due data < NOW()) THEK . ..

Figure 13-5 How to code IF statements

404 Section 4 Stored program development

How to code CASE statements

In chapter 9. you learned how to code a CASE expression within a SELECT
statement. A CASE expression like that usually runs faster than a CASE state­
ment that's coded within a stored program. As a result, if you can use a CASE
expression to solve the task at hand, you should. However, you may sometimes
need to use a CASE statement as show n in figure 13-6.
The script in this figure shows how to use a simple CASE statement to
execute one or more statements depending on a value that’s returned by an
expression. To do that, you begin by coding the CASE keyword followed by an
expression that returns a value. In this script, the variable that's coded after the
CASE statement returns an integer value that indicates the payment terms for an
invoice.
After the CASE clause, you can code one or more WHEN clauses that
contain the statement or statements that are executed for each of the values that
may be returned. In this example, the CASE statement includes three WHEN
clauses for the values of 1. 2, and 3. Each of these clauses displays an appro­
priate message.
After the WHEN clauses, you can code an optional ELSE clause that's
executed if the value that's returned doesn't match the values coded in any of the
WHEN clauses. This works much like the ELSE clause that’s available from the
IF statement. Note that if none of the WHEN clause values match the expres­
sion and no ELSE clause is coded, the CASE statement will return a “Case not
found” error.
Although this figure doesn't show an example of it, you can also use a
searched CASE statement to execute one or more statements depending on
one or more Boolean expressions. This works similarly to an IF statement. For
example, you can use a searched CASE statement to replace the IF statement in
the previous figure like this:
CASE
WHEN firatinvoicaduc? date < NOW() THEN
SELECT ('Outstanding invoices are overdue 1');
WHEN iirst invoice due data ■ NOW() THEN
SELECT ('Outstanding invoices are due today!');
ELSE
SELECT ('No invoices are overdue.*);
END CASE;
Conversely, you can easily rewrite the simple CASE statement shown in this
figure as an IF statement.
So. when should you use an IF statement and when should you use a CASE
statement? Although this is largely a matter of personal preference, you usually
should try to use the statement that yields the code that's easiest to read and
understand.
 Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs 405

The syntax of the simple CASE statement

CASE expression
WHEN expression value 1 then
statement-!;
[statement.2;]...
[WHEN expression value 2 THEN
statement_1;
[statement.?;
[ELSE
statement-!;
[statement-!;]...]
END CASE;

A stored procedure that uses a simple CASE statement

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE test()

BEGIN
DECLARE terms_id var INT;

SELECT terms id INTO terms id var

FROM invoices WHERE invoice id = 4;

CASE terms id var

WHEN 1 THEN
SELECT 'Net due 10 days' AS Terms;
WHEN 2 THEN
SELECT 'Net due 20 days* AS Terms;
WHEN 3 THEN
SELECT 'Net due 30 days* AS Terms;
ELSE
SELECT 'Net due more than 30 days' AS Terms;
END CASE;
END//

The response from the system when the procedure is called

Tern

» Net due X days

The syntax of a searched CASE statement

CASE
WHEN boolean_expression THEN
statement-!;
[statement 2;]...
[WHEN boolean expression THEN
statement—!;
[atatement_2;
[ELSE
statement-!;
[statement-2; ]...]
END CASE;

Description
• You can use a simple CASE statement or a searched CASE statement to execute one
or more statements depending on a value that's relumed by an expression.

Figure 13-6 How to code CASE statements

406 Section 4 Stored program development

How to code loops

Figure 13-7 shows how to use a loop to repeat a statement or several state­
ments while a condition is true. This figure starts by showing how' to use a
WHILE loop to continue executing while a counter variable is within the speci­
fied range. In the example, the stored procedure begins by declaring a counter
variable named i that has a default value of 1. Then, it declares a string variable
named s that can store up to 4(X) characters and has a default value of an empty
string.
The WHILE statement begins by declaring that the loop should continue
while the counter variable is less than four. Since the second SET statement
increases the value of die counter variable by 1 each time through the loop,
the loop is executed three times (when the counter is equal to 1.2, and 3). As a
result, the first SET statement is executed three times. This statement appends
some string literals and the value of the counter variable to the stung variable.
After the loop finishes executing, the SELECT statement displays the string
variable. *1 his variable provides a string representation of the three values of the
counter variable. Although this example doesn't accomplish anything useful, it
clearly shows how a WHILE loop works and presents a technique that can be
useful for debugging.
The next two examples show how to use different types of loops to get the
same result as the first example. Because they work similarly to the WHILE
loop, the syntax for these loops isn't shown.
The second example shows how to use a REPEAT loop. In this example, the
REPEAT loop continues to execute until a counter variable named i equals 4.
This works similarly to the WHILE loop, except that the Boolean expression is
coded at the end of the loop. As a result, a REPEAT loop always executes at least
once. Because of that, you should use a REPEAT loop if you want to execute the
code at least once, and you should use a WHILE loop if you don't want the code
to execute at all in some cases.
The syntax of the WHILE loop indicates that you can code a label at the
beginning and end of the loop to name the loop. This applies to die other types
of loops as well In most cases, though, you'll only use labels if you nest loops
within other loops. However, you must also use a label if you code the LEAVE
or ITERATE statement within a simple loop, as shown in the third example.
To code a simple loop, you use the LOOP statement. Ironically, a simple
loop is the most complex to code. In addition to coding a label, you typically
use an IF statement to determine when the loop should end. Then, writhm the
IF statement, you can use the LEAVE statement to jump to the end of the loop.
On this statement, you name the loop you want to leave. Although you can also
name the loop following the END LOOP keywords, that’s not required. Because
of the extra code that's required for a simple loop, you'll typically use a WHILE
or REPEAT loop instead.
In the rare case that you need to jump to the beginning of a loop, you can use
an ITERATE statement. This statement works like the LEAVE statement, except
that it jumps to the beginning of a loop instead of to the end of a loop.
 Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs 407

The syntax of the WHILE loop

[label :] WHILE boolean expression DO
etatementl;
[ statements; ] . . .
END WHILE [label];

A stored procedure that uses a WHILE loop

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE test()

BEGIN
DECLARE 1 INF DEFAULT 1;
DECLARE 8 VARCHAR(400) DEFAULT

WHILE i < 4 DO
SET 8 - CONCATfs, 'I-', 1, * | •);
SET i - i * 1;
END WHILE;

SELECT s AS message;

END//

The output for this code

message

A REPEAT loop
REPEAT
SET 8 ■ CONCATts, '1-', 1, ' | *);
SET 1-1*1;
UNTIL 1-4
END REPEAT;

A simple loop with a label

testLoop : LOOP
SET 8 - CONCATJs, ’1-', 1, 1 | ');
SET 1-1*1;

IF 1 - 4 THEN
LEAVE testLoop;
END IF;
END LOOP testLoop;

Description
• To execute a SQL statement repeatedly, you can use a loop. MySQL provides for
three types of loops: a W HILE loop, a REPEAT loop, and a simple loop.
• You can use the LEAVE statement to go to the end of a loop.
• You can use the ITERATE statement to go to the beginning of a loop.
• You can name a loop using a label. This is most helpful for identifying loops in
nested loops.
Figure 13-7 How to code loops
408 Section 4 Stored program development

How to use a cursor

By default. SQL statements work with an entire result set rather than
individual rows. However, you may sometimes need to work with the data in
a result set one row at a time. To do that, you can use a cursor as described in
figure 13-8.
In this figure, the stored procedure begins by declaring four variables. Note
that the third variable is declared with the BOOL type and is assigned a default
value of FALSE. As you learned in chapter 8. this works because the FALSE
keyword is an alias for 0. Although many programmers use 0 to represent a false
value and 1 to represent a true value, this chapter uses the FALSE and TRUE
keywords instead because they make the code easier to read.
Next, this code declares a variable of the CURSOR type named
invoices_cursor. Within this declaration, this code uses a SELECT statement to
define the result set for this cursor. This result set contains two columns from the
invoices table and all of the rows that have a balance due.
After declaring the cursor, this code declares an error handler that’s executed
when no more rows are found in the result set for the cursor. This error handler
sets the variable named row_not_found to a value of TRUE. Because the WHILE
loop that follows executes only while the rovv_not_found variable is equal to
FALSE, this causes the WHILE loop to stop executing.
After declaring the error handler, this code uses the OPEN statement to open
the cursor. Then, it uses a WHILE loop to loop through each row in the cursor.
This WHILE loop continues until the row_not_found variable is set to T RUE by
the error handler.
Within the WHILE loop, the FETCH statement gets the column values from
the next row and stores them in the variables that were declared earlier. Then,
an IF statement checks whether the value of the invoice_total column for the
current row is greater than 1 (MX). It it is, an UPDATE statement adds 10% of the
invoice_total column to the credit_total column for the row. and a SET statement
increments the count of the number of rows that have been updated.
After the WHILE loop, this code closes the cursor. Finally, it uses a
SELECT statement to display a count of the number of rows that have been
updated.
Before you use a cursor to work with individual rows in a result set, you
should consider other solutions. That's because standard database access is faster
and uses tewer server resources than cursor-based access. For example, you
can accomplish the same update as the stored procedure in this figure with this
UPDATE statement:
UPDATE invoices
SET credit_total ■ credit_total ♦ (invoice_total * .1>
where invoice_total - payment total - credit-total > 0
and invoice total > 1000
 Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs 409

The syntax
Declare a cursor
DECLARE curaor_nama CURSOR FOR selectatatemant;

Declare an error handler for when no rows are found in the cursor
DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR NOT FOUND handler_8tatC*lMnt ;

Open the cursor

OPEN cursor nama;

Get column values from the row and store them in a series of variables
FETCH cursor, name INTO variable!. [, variable2] (, variables]...;

Close the cursor

CLOSE cursor name;

A stored procedure that uses a cursor

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE test()

BEGIN
DECLARE invoica_id_var INT;
DECLARE invoice total var DECIMAL(9,2);
DECLARE rownotfound BOOL DEFAULT FALSE;
DECLARE updatecount INT DEFAULT 0;

DECLARE invoices_cursor CURSOR FOR

SELECT invoice_idf invoicetotal FROM invoices
WHERE invoice total - payment-total - credit_total > 0;

DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR NOT FOUND

SET rownotfound ■ TRUE;

OPEN invoices cursor;

WHILE row notfound ■ FALSE DO

FETCH invoices cursor INTO invoice id var, invoicetotalvar;

IF Invoicetotalvar > 1000 THEN

UPDATE invoices
SET credit_total ■ credittotal + (invoice_total * .1)
WHERE invoice id ■ invoice id var;
SET updatecount ■ update count ♦ 1;
END IF;
END WHILE;

CLOSE invoices cursor;

SELECT CONCAT(update=count, * row(s) updated.1);

END//

The response from the system when the procedure is called

CONCAT(update_axnt, * row(s) updated.'}

» 2 row^) updated.

Figure 13-8 How to use a cursor

410 Section 4 Stored program development

How to declare a condition handler

Before you declare a condition handler, you need to be familiar with the
MySQL error codes and named conditions that are defined by MySQL. Figure
13-9 begins by listing five of the thousands of MySQL error codes. These error
codes should give you an idea of the types of errors MySQL provides for.
Each of these error codes corresponds to a SQLSTATE code that’s part of
the ANSI standard. However, the My SQL codes are typically more useful since
they’re more specific. For example, the last four MySQL error codes all corre­
spond to a SQLSTATE code of 23IXX).
In general, you only need to handle these errors when you encounter them
dui mg testing. However, if you're interested in viewing a list of all the error
codes, you'll find them in the MySQL Reference Manual.
The second table in this figure lists the three built-in named conditions
MySQL provides. To start, it provides the NOT FOUND condition that was used
in the stored procedure in figure 13-8. This condition corresponds to MySQL
error code 1329 and SQLSTATE code 02000.
In addition. MySQL provides the SQLEXCEPTION and SQLWARNING
conditions. The SQLEXCEPTION condition provides a way for you to
handle all errors, even ones that you did not encounter during testing. The
SQLWARNING condition works like the SQLEXCEPTION condition, but it
allows you to catch warnings and errors instead of just errors.
This figure also shows how to use the DECLARE...HANDLER statement
to handle the errors that may occur in your stored programs. In MySQL, this is
referred to as a condition handler. In other languages, this is referred to as an
error handler or exception handler.
The three examples in this figure show how to declare condition handlers for
a MySQL error code, a SQLSTATE code, and a named condition. All three of
these condition handlers use the CONTINUE keyword, which causes the stored
program to continue executing at the statement after the statement that caused
the error to occur. If that’s not what you want, you can use the EXIT keyw'ord to
continue execution after the current block of code. You'll see an example of that
in the next figure.
In most cases, you can use the MySQL error codes and the built-in named
conditions to handle the exceptions that you encounter. In some cases, though,
you may want to create your own named conditions. Although this doesn't
provide any new capabilities, it can sometimes improve the readability of your
code. For more information about creating your own named conditions, you can
search the MySQL Reference Manual for information about the DECLARE...
CONDITION statement.
 Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs 411

Commonly used MySQL error codes

Error SQLSTATE
code code Description
1329 02000 Occurs when a program attempts to fetch data from a
row that doesn’t exist.
1062 23000 Occurs when a program attempts to store duplicate
values in a column that has a unique constraint.
1048 23000 Occurs when a program attempts to insert a NULL
value into a column that doesn't accept NULL values.
1216 23000 Occurs when a program attempts to add or update a
child row but can’t because of a foreign key constraint.
1217 23000 Occurs when a program attempts to delete or update a
parent row but can't because of a foreign key constraint

Built-in named conditions

Named condition Description
NOT FOUND Occurs when a program attempts to use a FETCH statement
or a SELECT statement to retrieve data and no data is found.
SQLEXCEPTION Occurs when any error condition other than the NOT FOUND
condition occurs.
SQLWARNING Occurs when any error condition other than the NOT FOUND
condition occurs or when any warning messages occur.

The syntax for declaring a condition handler

DECLARE (CONTINUE|EXIT) HANDLER
FOR {mysql error code|SQLSTATE gqletate code|named condition)
handleractions;

How to declare a condition handler for a MySQL error code

DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR 1329
SET row notfound ■ TRUE

How to declare a condition handler for a SQLSTATE code

DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR SQLSTATE *02000*
SET row not found ■ TRUE

How to declare a condition handler for a named condition

DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR NOT FOUND
SET row notfound = TRUE

Description
• You can use the DECLARE.. HANDLER statement to declare a handler for errors
that may occur. In MySQL, this is referred to as a condition handler.
• To continue execution when an error occurs, use the CONTINUE keyword. To exit
the current block of code when an error occurs, use the EXIT keyword.
• For a complete list of the MySQL error codes and their corresponding SQLSTATE
codes, you can search the My SQI Reference Manual for “Server error codes”.

Figure 13-9 How to declare a condition handler

412 Section 4 Stoned program development

How to use a condition handler

Now that you know how to declare a condition handler, figure 13-10 shows
how to use a condition handler. To help you understand the difference between
a stored program that handles errors and one that doesn't, the first stored
procedure shows what happens when an error occurs and the procedure doesn't
handle errors. Here, the INSERT statement attempts to insert a duplicate value
(“Cash") into a column (account-description) that has been defined with a
unique constraint. Because the error condition this causes isn’t handled. MySQL
displays an error message like the one that’s shown. This message identifies
the error code (1062), and it displays a description of the error that helps you
identify the cause of the error.
Although an error message like this can be helpful as you develop a stored
procedure, it isn t helpful to the end user of an application. As a result, you often
want to handle exceptions before you put your stored programs into production.
Since the most specific way to handle an error is to use a MySQL error code,
you usually want to declare a condition handler for the error code that's occur­
ring. Then, you can handle this error by executing the appropriate code. Often,
that just means displaying a more user-friendly message. However, you can also
perform other error-handling tasks such as writing information about the error to
a log table or rolling back a transaction.
The second stored procedure handles the erroi that occurs. To do that, it
begins by declaring a variable named duplicate_entry_for_key ot the BOOL
type and setting its default value to FALSE. Then, it declares a handler for error
code 1062. This handler uses the CONTINUE keyword to allow the procedure
to continue executing when the error is encountered. However, it also uses a SET
statement to set the value of the duplicate_entry_for_key variable to TRUE. As
a result, the IF statement can test the value of this variable and handle the error
when it occurs. In this figure, this code just handles the error by displaying a
message that indicates that the row was not inserted because of a duplicate key.
To test this procedure, you can change the values in the INSERT statement
If you run the statement as shown in this figure, for example, the error with
code 1062 occurs and the stored procedure returns the result set shown in this
figure. However, if you enter valid values, this procedure returns a result set that
indicates that one row was inserted.
 Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs 413

A stored procedure that doesn't handle errors

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE teflt()

BEGIN
INSERT INTO general_ledger_accounts VALUES (130, ’Cash*);

SELECT ’1 row was insertad.*;

END//

The response from the system

Error Code: 1062. Duplicate entry ’Cash1 for key 1 account description•

A stored procedure that uses a CONTINUE handler to handle an error

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE teat()

BEGIN
DECLARE duplicate entryfor key BOOL DEFAULT FALSE;

DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR 1062

SET duplicateentry for key ® TRUE;

INSERT INTO general ledger accounts VALUES (130, 'Cash');

IF duplicateentryfor key = TRUE THEN

SELECT 'Row was not inserted - duplicate key encountered.1 AS message;
ELSE
SELECT *1 row was inserted.1 AS message;
END IF;
END//

The response from the system

message I
» Row was not inserted - duDficate key encountered.

Figure 13-10 How to use a condition handler (part 1 of 2)

414 Section 4 Stored program development

The first stored procedure in part 2 shows how to exit the current block
of code as soon as an error occurs. To start, this stored procedure begins by
declaring a variable named duplicate_entry_for_key just like the stored proce­
dure in part 1. Then, it uses the BEGIN and END keywords to nest a block of
code within the block of code for the procedure. Within the nested block of code,
the first statement declares a condition handler for the MySQL error with a code
of 1062. This handler uses the EXIT keyword to indicate that it should exit the
block of code w'hen this error occurs. Then, the second statement executes the
INSERT statement that may cause the error. If no error occurs, the third state­
ment in the block displays a message that indicates that the row was inserted.
If an error occurs, however, the duplicate_entry_for_key variable is set to
TREE. In addition, code execution exits the block of code and jumps to the IF
statement that's coded after the block. This statement displays a message that
indicates that the row was not inserted because of a duplicate key.
So. when should you use a CONTINUE handler and when should you use an
EXIT handler? If you want to allow MySQL to attempt to execute statements in
a block of code even after it encounters an error, you should use a CONTINUE
handler. On the other hand, if allowing MySQL to continue to execute state­
ments in the block causes problems, you should use an EXIT handler.
The last stored procedure in this figure shows how to use a named condition
to handle the error that occurs when a row can't be inserted. In this case, the
stored procedure uses the SQLEXCEPT1ON condition. When this condition
occurs, the stored procedure displays a message that indicates that the row was
not inserted because of a SQL exception.
When handling the SQLEXCEP1 ION condition, many programmers
make the mistake of displaying a generic message like this: “An unexpected
error occurred.” Although this message is user-friendly, it doesn't provide any
information that can help a programmer find and fix the error. As a result, it's
often better not to handle this exception at all. In that case, the stored procedure
displays an error as shown in the first example in part 1 of this figure.
 Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs 415

A stored procedure that uses an EXIT handler to handle an error

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE test()

BEGIN
DECLARE duplicate entryforkey BOOL DEFAULT FALSE;
BEGIN
DECLARE EXIT HANDLER FOR 1062
SET duplicate entry for key - TRUE;

INSERT INTO general_ledger_accounta VALUES (130, 'Cash1);

SELECT *1 row was inserted.1 AS message;

END;

IF duplicate entry for key ■ TRUE then

SELECT 'Row was not inserted - duplicate key encountered.1 AS message;
END IF;
END//

The response from the system

message

• Row was not mse*ted - dupfcate key encountered.

A stored procedure that uses a named condition to handle all errors

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE test()

BEGIN
DECLARE sqlerror BOOL DEFAULT FALSE;
BEGIN
DECLARE EXIT HANDLER FOR SQLEXCEPTION
SET fiqlerror ■ TRUE;

INSERT INTO general ledger accounts VALUES (130, 'Cash');

SELECT *1 row was inserted.1 AS message;

END;

IF sqlerror ■ TRUE THEN

SELECT 'Row was not inserted - SQL exception encountered.' AS message;
END IF;
END//

The response from the system

ressage

► Row was not inserted SQL exception encountered.

Description
• If you want MySQL to exit the current block of code as soon as it encounters an
error, use an EXIT handler.

Figure 13-10 How to use a condition handler (part 2 of 2)

416 Section 4 Stored program development

How to use multiple condition handlers

When coding a stored program, it’s common to declare multiple condi­
tion handlers as shown in figure 13-11. if you do that, the most specific error
handlers are executed first, and the least specific error handlers are executed last.
The stored procedure in this figure begins by declaring three variables that
are used to indicate whether an error condition has occurred. Here, all three
variables are set to a default value of FALSE.
After declaring these three variables, this stored procedure defines a block
of code. Within this block, the first three statements declare three condition
handlers that correspond to the three variables. These handlers all exit the block
of code if the specified error occurs. Of these handlers, the first two are specific
to MySQL, error codes 1062 and 1048, but the third is a general handler that
catches any other errors that may occur.
After the block of code, an IF statement examines the variables that are set
by the condition handlers. Then, it executes the appropriate code. For the first
two variables, this code displays a user-friendly message that’s appropriate for
the corresponding MySQL error code. For the third variable, this code displays
information about the unanticipated error that occurred. In other words, if
MySQL error code 1062 or 1048 occurs, this code displays a user-friendly
error that includes information about the error that's useful to the programmer.
Otherwise^ it displays a user-friendly error message that includes information
that's less useful to the programmer.
If you run the stored piocedure shown in this figure, it returns a result set
like the one that's shown. In this case, the row wasn't inserted because the
first column contained an illegal NULL value. To test for other errors, you can
change the values in the INSERT statement. For example, if you enter a third
column with a value of *xx’, the stored procedure executes the condition handler
for the SQLEXCF.PTION condition.
 Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs 417

A stored procedure that uses multiple condition handlers

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE teat()

BEGIN
DECLARE duplicataentryforkey BOOL DEFAULT FALSE;
DECLARE column cannot^be null BOOL DEFAULT FALSE;
DECLARE fiqlaxcaption BOOL DEFAULT FALSE;

BEGIN
DECLARE EXIT HANDLER FOR 1062
SET duplicate entryfor key ■ TRUE;
DECLARE EXIT HANDLER FOR 1048
SET column cannot bonull = TRUE;
DECLARE EXIT HANDLER FOR SQLEXCEPTION
SET sql_exception ■ TRUE;

INSERT INTO general ledger accounts VALUES (NULL, ’Test');

SELECT "1 row was inserted.1 AS message;

END;

IF duplicateentryforkey ■ TRUE THEN

SELECT 'Row was not inserted - duplicate key encountered.1 AS message;
ELSEIF column cannotbe null ■ TRUE THEN
SELECT 'Row was not inserted - column cannot be null.1 AS message;
ELSEIF sql_exception = TRUE THEN
SELECT 'Row was not inserted - SQL exception encountered.1 AS message;
END IF;
END//

The response from the system

message

» Row was no! inserted-coMrr camo (be nul.

Description
• You can declare multiple condition handlers for a single stored program if you do
that, the most specific error handlers are executed first and the least specific error
handlers are executed last.
• The MySQL error codes and the NOT FOUND condition identify specific errors.
The SQLSTATE codes identify less specific ANSI-standard errors. And the
SQLEXCEPTION and SQLWARNING conditions identify general errors.

Figure 13-11 How to use multiple condition handlers

418 Section 4 Stoned program development

Perspective
In this chapter, you were introduced to stored programs, and you learned how
to use MySQL to write procedural code. In the next three chapters, you’ll learn
more about writing stored programs. In chapter 14. you’ll learn how to manage
transactions and locking. In chapter 15, you'll learn how to code stored procedures
and functions. And in chapter 16, you'll learn how to code triggers and events.

Terms
stored program searched CASE statement
stored procedure loop
stored function WHILE loop
stored routine REPEAT loop
trigger label
event simple LOOP
block of code cursor
variable condition handler
IF statement error handler
Boolean expression exception handler
nested statement named condition
simple CASE statement

Exercises
Each of the scripts that you create in the following exercises should use the
same general structure as the script presented in figure 13-1.
I. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named test. This
stored procedure should declare a variable and set it to the count ot all rows
in the Invoices table that have a balance due that’s greater than or equal to
$5.(XX). Then, the stored procedure should display a result set that displays the
variable in a message like this:
3 invoices exceed $5,000.

2. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named test. This stored
procedure should use two variables to store (1) the count of all of the invoices
in the Invoices table that have a balance due and (2) the sum of the balances
due for all of those invoices. If that total balance due is greater than or equal
to $30,000. the stored procedure should display a result set that displays the
values of both variables. Otherwise, the procedure should display a result set
that displays a message like this:
Total balance due is less than $30,000.

3. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named test. This proce­
dure should calculate the factorial for the number 10. (To calculate a factorial,
you multiply an integer by every positive integer less than itself.) Then, it
should display a string that includes the factorial like this:
 Chapter 13 Language skills for writing stored programs 419

The factorial of 10 is: 3,628,800.

4. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named test. This proce­
dure should create a cursor for a result set that consists of the vendor_name.
nnoice_number, and balance_due columns tor each invoice with a balance
due that’s greater than or equal to $5.(XX). The rows in this result set should
be sorted in descending sequence by balance due. Then, the procedure should
display a string \ariable that includes the balance due. invoice number, and
vendor name for each invoice so it looks something like this:
16896.06 IP-0608I Malloy Lithographing Inc//9878.45|0-2436 Malfoy
Lithographing Inc//
Here, each column is separated by a pipe character (I) and each row is
separated by two front slashes (//).
5. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named test. This
procedure should attempt to update the invoice_due_date column so it's equal
to NULL for the invoice with an invoice ID of 1. If the update is successful,
the procedure should display this message:
1 row was updated.
If the update is unsuccessful, the procedure should display this message:
Row was not updated - column cannot be null.

6. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named test. Tnis proce­
dure should identify all of the prime numbers less than 1 (X). (A prime number
is an integer that can't be divided by another integer other than 1 and itself.)
Then, it should display a string variable that includes the prime numbers like
this:
2 I 3 I 5 I 7 I 11 I 13 I 17 I 19 I 23 I 29 I 31 |...
Hint: To get this to work, you will need to nest one loop within another loop.
In addition, you will need to code an IF statement within the inner loop.
7. Enhance your script for exercise 4 so it shows the invoice data in three groups
based on the balance due amount with these headings:
$20,000 or More
$10,000 to $20,000
$5,000 to $10,000
When you're done, the string variable that's returned should be in this format:
$20,000 or More: $10,000 to $20,000: 16896.06|P-0608 Halloy
Lithographing Inc//$5,000 to $10,000: 9878.45|0-2436(Malloy
Lithographing Inc//
To accomplish this, you can loop through the cursor three times by opening
and closing the cursor for each loop. Hint: For each group of invoices, you
can code a separate block of code that contains an EXIT handler for the NOT
FOUND condition.
 14

How to use transactions

and locking
If you've been working with MySQL on your own computer, you've been the
only user of your database. In the real world, though, a database may be used
by thousands of users at the same time. Then, what happens when two users
try to update the same data at the same time? In this chapter, you'll learn how
MySQL handles this situation. But first, you'll leam how to combine multiple
SQL statements into a single logical unit of work known as a transaction.

How to work with transactions............... .............................. 422

How to commit and rollback transactions.............. __ ...... _422
How to work with save points........................................... 424
How to work with concurrency and locking...................... 426
How concurrency and locking ate related...................................................... 426
The four concurrency problems that locks can prevent................................428
How to set the transaction isolation level....................................................... 430
How to lock selected rows................................................................................ 432
How to prevent deadlocks........................ „434
Perspective...................... ............ ........___________ ..._____ 436
422 Section 4 Stored program development

How to work with transactions

A transaction is a group of SQL statements that you combine into a single
logical unit of work. By combining SQL statements like this, you can prevent
certain kinds of database errors.
Before you begin using MySQL to work with transactions, you should
realize that some storage engines don't support transactions. In particular, the
MylSAM storage engine doesn't support transactions. As a result, the skills
presented in this topic only apply to storage engines such as InnoDB that support
transactions.

How to commit and rollback transactions

By default, a MySQL session uses autocommit mode, which automatically
commits INSERT. UPDATE, and DELETE statements immediately after you
execute them. So far in this book, we have assumed that you have been using
autocommit mode. It that’s not what you want, though, you can use transactions
to control when changes are committed.
Since transactions are often coded within stored procedures, figure 14-1
presents a stored procedure named test that contains three INSERT statements
that are coded as a transaction. To start, this stored procedure declares a variable
named sql_error and sets it to FALSE to indicate that no SQL error has occurred.
Then, the second DECLARE statement creates a condition handler that sets the
sql_error variable to TRUE if a SQL error occurs.
The START TRANSACTION statement identifies the start of the transac­
tion. which temporarily turns off autocommit mode. Then, the first INSERT
statement adds a new invoice to the Invoices table. Next, two more INSERT
statements add the line items for the invoice to the Invoice_Line_Items table.
After the INSERT statements, an IF statement uses the sql_error variable to
check whether an error occurred when executing any of the INSERT statements.
If a SQL error did not occur, this code uses the COMMIT statement to commit
the changes to the database, which makes the changes permanent. Otherw ise, the
ROLLBACK statement rolls back the changes, which cancels them.
To understand why this is necessary, suppose that each of these INSER T
statements is committed to the database immediately after it's executed. Then,
what will happen it die third INSERT statement fails? In that case, the Invoices
and Ii)voice_Line_Items tables won't match. Specifically, the sum of the
line_ item_amounl columns in the Invoice_Lme_ Items table won't be equal to
the invoice_total column in die Invoices table. In other words, the integrity of the
data won't be maintained.
Similarly, consider the example of a transfer between a checking and a
savings account in a banking system. In that case, one update reduces the
balance in the checking account and another update increases the balance in the
savings account Then if one of these updates fails, the customer either gains
or loses the amount of the transaction. But again, treating the two updates as a
single transaction solves this problem. Usually, that's what you want.
 Chapter 14 How to use transactions and locking 423

A stored procedure that runs three INSERT statements as a transaction

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE test()

BEGIN
DECLARE fiqlerror BOOL DEFAULT FALSE;

DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR SQLEXCEPTION

SET sqlerror * TRUE;

START TRANSACTION;

INSERT INTO invoices

VALUES (115, 34, 'ZXA-080', '2023-01-18',
14092.59, 0, 0, 3, •2023-04-18•, NULL);

INSERT INTO invoiceline items

VALUES (115, 1, 160, 4447.23, 1HW upgrade;

INSERT INTO invoice_line items

VALUES (115, 2, 167, 9645.36, 'OS upgrade1);

IF sql error - FALSE THEN

COMMIT;
SELECT 'The transaction was committed.1;
ELSE
ROLLBACK;
SELECT 'The transaction was rolled back.1;
END IF;
END//

When to use transactions

• When you code two or more INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statements that alfect
related data.
• When you move rows from one table to another table by using INSERT and
DELETE statements.
• Whenever the failure of an INSERT. UPDATE, or DELETE statement would
violate data integrity.

Description
• By default. MySQL runs in autocommit mode, which automatically commits
changes to the database immediately after each INSERT. UPDATE, or DELETE
statement is executed. It that's not w'hat you want you can group statements into a
logical unit of work called a transaction.
• To start a transaction, code the START TRANSACTION statement. This turns off
autocommit mode until the statements in the transaction are committed or rolled
back. To commit the changes, code a COMMIT statement. To mil back tlie changes,
use a ROLLBACK statement.
• MySQL automatically commits changes after a DDL statement such as a CREATE
TABLE statement. As a result, you shouldn't code a DDL statement within a
transaction unless you want to commit the changes and end the transaction.

Figure 14-1 How to commit and roll back transactions

424 Section 4 Stored program development

How to work with save points

The script in figure 14-2 shows how to use the SAVEPOINT statement to
identify one or more save points within a transaction. Here, a SAVEPOINT
statement is used to identify a save point before each of the three INSERT state­
ments that are included in the script. As a result, the script includes three save
points.
This script also shows how to use the ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT
statement to roll back all or part of a transaction. Here, the three ROLLBACK
TO SAVEPOINT statements rollback the transaction to each of the three save
points. The first statement rolls back to the point before the second line item was
inserted. The second statement rolls back to the point before the first line item
was inserted. And the third statement rolls back to the point before the invoice
was inserted.
At this point, the script calls the COMMIT statement to commit any changes
that have been made. However, the three ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT state­
ments have rolled back all three INSERT statements, so this doesn’t commit any
changes to the database. To verify this, you can use a SELECT statement to view
the rows in the Invoices and Invoice_Line_Items tables that have an invoice_id
of 115.
In general, save points are used when a transaction contains so many state­
ments that rolling back the entire transaction would be inefficient. In that case,
an application can roll back to the last save point before an error occurred.
Then, the appropriate processing can be done from there. For most applications,
though, you won’t need to use save points.
In most cases, a transaction and its save points are coded within a stored
procedure as shown in figure 14-1. In this figure, though, the transaction and its
statements are coded in a script. Although this isn’t a realistic example, it does
show how save points work. In addition, this example shows that you can use
the statements for working with transactions within a script, which is sometimes
helpful when working with database creation scripts like the ones described in
chapter 11
 Chapter 14 How to use transactions and locking 425

A script that uses save points

USE ap;

START TRANSACTION;

SAVEPOINT baforeinvoica;

INSERT INTO invoices

VALUES (115, 34, *ZXA-0801, *2023-01-18*,
14092.59, 0, 0, 3, *2023-04-18*, NULL);

SAVEPOINT before line itezal;

INSERT INTO invoice line items

VALUES (115, 1, 160, 4447.23, • HW upgrade*);

SAVEPOINT bafore_line_item2;

INSERT INTO Invoiceline items

VALUES (115, 2, 167, 9645.36,*OS upgrade*);

ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT before line ,item2;

ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT before_line iteml;

ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT before invoice;

COMMIT;

Description
• When you use save points, you can roll back a transaction to the beginning of the
transaction or to a particular save point.
• You can use the SAVEPOINT statement to create a save point with the specified
name.
• You can use the ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT statement to roll back a transaction
to tiie specified save point.
• Save points are useful when a single transaction contains so many SQL statements
that rolling back the entire transaction would be inefficient.

Figure 14-2 How to work with save points

426 Section 4 Stored program development

How to work with concurrency

and locking
When two or more users have access to the same database, it’s possible for
them to be working with the same data at the same time. This is called concur­
rency. Although concurrency isn’t a problem when two users retrieve the same
data at the same time, it can become a problem when one user updates data that
othei users are also viewing or updating. In the topics that follow, you'll learn
how to prevent concurrency problems.

How concurrency and locking are related

Figure 14-3 presents two transactions that show how MySQL handles
concurrency by default To start, transaction A submits an UPDATE statement
that adds a value of KM) to the value that's stored in the credit_total column
of the invoice that has an invoice_id value of 6. Because transaction A hasn't
yet committed this change to the database, it retains a lock on this row. This is
know n as locking.
At this point if you run the SELECT statement in transaction B. the result
set doesn't include the updated value m the credit_total column. In other words,
the SELECT statement only reads changes that have been committed.
In addition, die UPDATE statement in transaction B won t be able to update
the row due to the lock that transaction A has on the row. As a result it will have
to wait for transaction A to finish before it updates the row.
Once transaction A commits the change made by the UPDATE statement
the SELECT statement in transaction B w ill show the updated value in the
credit .total column if you run it again. In addition, when transaction A commits
the update, it releases its lock on the row. Then, the UPDATE statement in
transaction B finishes executing if it has been waiting. Or. if you execute the
UPDATE statement in transaction B again, it will execute immediately.
To experiment with concurrency, you need to simulate multiple users by
opening multiple connections and using them to execute SQL statements. For
example, when you’re using MySQL Workbench, you can use the Home tab
to open two connections. (You can even open both connections for the same
user.) Then, you can use the first connection to execute transaction A and the
second connection to execute transaction B. To do that, you can run one state­
ment at a time by placing the cursor in each statement and using the Execute
Cuirent Statement button (Ctii+Enter). This allows you to slow down the
execution of each script. Otherwise, if you use the Execute SQL Script button
(Ctrl+Shift+Enter). the script runs so quickly that you won't be able to get both
scripts to access the same row at the same time.
This example shows that MySQL's default locking behavior prevents most
concurrency problems. However, if you find that the default locking behavior
is insufficient, you may need to override it. You 1! leam how to do that in a
moment. But first, you need to understand the four concurrency problems that
locks can prevent.
 Chapter 14 How to use transactions and locking 427

Two transactions that retrieve and then modify the data in the same row
Transaction A
-- Execute each statement one at a time.
-- Alternate with Transaction B as described.

START TRANSACTION;

UPDATE invoices SET credit_total ■ credit total ♦ 100 WHERE invoiceid « 6;

- - the SELECT statement in Transaction Bwon't show the updated data

- - the UPDATE statement in Transaction B will wait for transaction A to finish

COMMIT;

- - the SELECT statement in Transaction B will display the updated data

- - the UPDATE statement in Transaction B will execute immediately

Transaction B
- - Use a second connection to execute these statements!
- - Otherwisej they won't work as described.

START TRANSACTION;

SELECT invoiceid, credittotal FROM invoices WHERE invoice id ■ 6;

UPDATE invoices SET credit_total » credit total ♦ 200 WHERE invoice_id - 6;

COMMIT;

Description
• Concurrency is the ability of a system to support two or more tiansactions working
with the same data at the same time.
• By default. MySQL prevents most concurrency problems by using locks. A lock delays
the execution of another transaction if it conflicts with a transaction that is already
running.
• Concurrency is a problem only when the data is being modified. When two or more
transactions read the same data, the transactions don't affect each other.

Figure 14-3 How concurrency and locking are related

428 Section 4 Stored program development

The four concurrency problems

that locks can prevent
Figure 14-4 describes the four most common concurrency problems. To
start, a lost update is the problem that you learned about in the previous figure. It
occurs when two transactions select the same row and then update the row based
on the values originally selected. Since each transaction is unaware of the other,
the later update overwrites the eat her update.
Lost updates might not adversely affect a database That depends on the
nature of the data. In fact tor many systems, when lost updates occur, they can
be corrected by resubmitting the query that caused die problem. However, for
some databases, lost updates can cause serious problems with data integrity.
Like lost updates, the other three concurrency problems might not adversely
affect a database. 1 lowe\ er. for some databases, these problems can cause
serious problems with data integrity.
If your database has a relatively small number of users, the likelihood of
concurrency problems is low. However, for a large system, you should expect
concurrency problems to occur.
Although locks can prevent the problems listed in this figure. MySQL’s
default locking behavior doesn't prevent phantom reads. If this level of locking
isn't acceptable, you can change the default locking behavior by setting the
transaction isolation level as shown in the next figure.
 Chapter 14 How to use transactions and locking 429

The four types of concurrency problems

Problem Description
Lost updates Occur when two transactions select the same row and then update the row
based on the values originally selected. Since each transaction is unaware
of the other, the later update overwrites the earlier update.
Dirty reads Occur when a transaction selects data that hasn't been committed by
another transaction. For example, transaction A changes a row. Transaction
B then selects the changed row before transaction A commits the change.
If transaction A then rolls back the change, transaction B has selected data
that doesn't exist in the database.
Nonrepeatable reads Occur when two SELECT statements that try to get the same data get
different values because another transaction has updated the data in the
time between the two statements. For example, transaction A selects a row.
Transaction B then updates the row. When transaction A selects the same
row again, the data is different.
Phantom reads Occur when you perform an update or delete on a set of rows at the same
time that another transaction is performing an insert or delete that affects
one or more rows in that same set of rows. For example, transaction A
updates the payment total for each invoice that has a balance due. but trans*
action B inserts a new. unpaid, invoice while transaction A is still running.
After transaction A finishes, there is still an invoice with a balance due.

Description
• In a large system with many users, you should expect for these kinds of problems
to occur. In general, you don't need to take any action except to anticipate the
problem. In many cases, if the SQL statement is resubmitted, the problem goes
away.
• On some systems, if two transactions overwrite each other, the validity of the
database is compromised and resubmitting one of the transactions won't eliminate
the problem If you're working on such a system, you must anticipate these concur­
rency problems and account for them in your code.
• You should consider these locking problems as you write your code. If one of these
problems could affect the data integrity of your system, you can change the default
locking behavior by setting the transaction isolation level as shown in the next
figure.

Figure 14-4 The four concurrency problems that locks can prevent
430 Section 4 Stored program development

How to set the transaction isolation level

The simplest way to prevent concurrency problems is to change the default
locking behavior. To do that, you use the SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION
LEVEL statement shown in figure 14-5 to set the transaction isolation level. By
default, this statement sets the isolation level for the next new transaction in the
current session. If you want to set the isolation level for all the transactions in a
session, though, you can include the SESSION keyword. And if you want to set
the isolation level for all sessions, you can include the GLOBAL keyword. The
examples in this figure illustrate how this works.
This figure also lists the four transaction isolation levels that MySQL
provides and shows which concurrency problems they prevent or allow. For
example, if you use the SERIALIZABLE option, all four concurrency problems
will be presented.
When you set the isolation level to SERIALIZABLE, each transaction is
completely isolated from every other transaction and concurrency is severely
restricted. The server does this by locking each resource, preventing other
transactions from accessing it. Since each transaction must wait for the previous
transaction to commit, the transactions are executed serially, one after another.
Since the SERIALIZABLE level eliminates all concurrency problems, you
may think that this is always the best option. However, this option requires more
overhead to manage all of the locks, so the access time for each transaction is
increased. For some systems, this may cause significant performance problems.
As a result, you typically want to use the SERIALIZABLE isolation level only
for situations in which phantom reads aren't acceptable.
The lowest isolation level is READ UNCOMMI TTED, which allows all
four of the concurrency problems to occur. It does this by performing SELECT
queries without setting any locks and without honoring any existing locks. Since
this means that your SELECT statements will always execute immediately, this
setting provides the best performance. Since other transactions can retrieve and
modify the same data, however, this setting can’t prevent concurrency problems.
The READ COMMITTED isolation level prevents transactions from
seeing data that has been changed by other transactions but not committed. This
prevents dirty reads, but allows for other types of concurrency problems.
The default isolation level for MySQL is REPEATABLE READ. With
this level, rows read by a transaction w ill be read consistently within the same
transaction. To accomplish that, the server places locks on all the data used by
the transaction that prevent other users from updating the data.
The REPEATABLE READ level allows more concurrency than the
SERIALIZABLE level but less than the READ COMMUTED level As you
might expect, then, it results in faster performance than SERIALIZABLE and
permits fewer concurrency problems than READ COMMUTED. In most situa­
tions. then, the default isolation level of REPEATABLE READ is acceptable.
 Chapter 14 How to use transactions and locking 431

The concurrency problems prevented by each transaction isolation level

Dirty Lost Nonrepeatable Phantom
Isolation level reads updates reads reads
READ UNCOMMITTED Allows Allows Allows Allows
READ COMMITTED Prevents Allows Allows Allows
REPEATABLE READ Prevents Prevents Prevents Allows
SERIALIZABLE Prevents Prevents Prevents Prevents

The syntax of the SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL statement

SET {GLOBAL|SESSION} TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL
{READ UNCOMMITTED|READ COMMITTED|REPEATABLE READ|SERIALIZABLE}

Set the transaction isolation level to SERIALIZABLE

for the next transaction
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL SERIALIZABLE

Set the transaction isolation level to READ UNCOMMITTED

for the current session
SET SESSION TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ UNCOMMITTED

Set the transaction isolation level to READ COMMITTED for all sessions
SET GLOBAL TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ COMMITTED

Description
• The transaction isolation level controls the degree to which transactions are isolated
from one another. At the more restrictive isolation levels, concurrency problems are
reduced or eliminated. However, at the least restrictive levels, performance is enhanced.
• To change the transaction isolation level, you use the SET TRANSACTION
ISOLATION LEVEL statement.
• If you include the GLOBAL keyword, the isolation level is set globally for all new
transactions in all sessions. If you include the SESSION keyword, the isolation level
is set for all new transactions in the current session It you omit both GLOBAL and
SESSION, the isolation level is set for the next new transaction in the current session.
• The default transaction isolation level is REPEATABLE READ. This level places
locks on all data that's used in a transaction, preventing other users from updating that
data. However, this isolation level still allows inserts, so phantom reads can occur.
• The READ UNCOMMITTED isolation level doesn’t set any locks and ignores
locks that are already held. This level results in the highest possible performance
for your query, but at the risk of every kind of concurrency problem. For this
reason, you should only use this level for data that is rarely updated.
• The READ COMMITTED isolation level locks data that has been changed but not
committed. This prevents dirty reads but allows all other types of concurrency problems.
• The SERIALIZABLE isolation level places a lock on all data that’s used in a
transaction. Since each transaction must wait for the previous transaction to commit,
the transactions are handled in sequence. This is the most restrictive isolation level.

Figure 14-5 How to set the transaction isolation level

432 Section 4 Stored program development

How to lock selected rows

In some cases, the default isolation level of REPEATABLE READ doesn’t
work the way you want. For example, suppose you want to c-ode a transaction
that selects data and then inserts or updates data in related tables. In that case,
because a SELECT statement doesn't lock the data it retrieves by default,
another transaction could update or delete the rows read by the first transaction
before that transaction is done modifying the related tables.
To solve this type of problem. MySQL provides two ways to lock the rows
returned by a SELECT statement. First, you can add a FOR SHARE clause to
the end of a SELECT statement. This locks the selected rows so other transac­
tions can read them but can t modify them until your transaction commits.
Second, you can add a FOR UPDATE clause to the end of a SELECT statement.
This locks the selected rows and any associated indexes just like an UPDATE
statement does. Then, other transactions can't read or modify these rows until
your transaction commits.
When you use the FOR SHARE clause, the SELECT statement waits if it
encounters rows that have been locked for update by another statement such as
an UPDATE. DELETE, or SELECT...FOR UPDATE statement. That way, it
can read the most current data. However, the FOR SHARE clause doesn't wait
for rows that have been locked for share. On the other hand, the FOR UPDATE
clause waits for rows that have been locked for share or for update. Because
of this, the FOR SHARE clause provides better performance than the FOR
UPDATE clause. As a result, you should use the FOR SHARE clause if you
don't need to prevent other transactions from reading the same rows.
With MySQL 8.0 and later, you can also keep your transactions from
waiting for locks to be released. To do that, you can add the NO WAIT or SKIP
LOCKED option to the end of a FOR SHARE or FOR UPDATE clause. The
NO WAIT option causes the statement to immediately return an error that the
developer can handle. The SKIP LOCKED option skips any row’s tliat have been
locked and returns the rest.
Figure 14-6 presents a series of transactions that show how the FOR
SHARE and FOR UPDATE clauses of a SELECT statement work To start,
transaction A executes a SELECT statement that uses the FOR SHARE clause
to lock the row in the Sales_Reps table that has a rep_id value of 2. At this point,
no other transactions can modify this row until transaction A completes. This
makes sure that transaction A can modify the data in a child table before any
other transaction can update or delete the corresponding row in the parent table.
In transaction B. the SELECT statement includes the FOR UPDATE clause.
As a result, it attempts to lock 4 rows for update. If transaction A still has a lock
on one of these rows, though, transaction B waits for that lock to be released.
Once transaction A completes, the SELECT statement in transaction B is
executed. This returns four rows w ith rep_id values of 1. 2, 3, and 4.
 Chapter 14 How to use transactions and locking 433

Four transactions that show how to work with locking reads

Transaction A
- - Execute each statesaent one at a time.
- - Alternate with Transactions B, C, and D as described.
START TRANSACTION;

- - lock row with rapid of 2 in parent table

SELECT * FROM sales reps WHERE rap id - 2 FOR SHARE;

- - Transaction B waits for transaction A to finish

- - Transaction C returns an error immediately
- - Transaction D skips the locked row and returns the other rows immediately

-- insert row with rep id of 2 into child table

INSERT INTO sales_totals (rapid, sales ^rear, sales total)
VALUES (2, 2023, 138193.69);

COMMIT; — Transaction B executes now

Transaction B
START TRANSACTION;
SELECT ♦ FROM sales_reps WHERE rep_id < 5 FOR UPDATE;
COMMIT;
Transaction C
START TRANSACTION;
SELECT * FROM sales„reps WHERE rapid < 5 FOR UPDATE NOWAIT;
COMMIT;
Transaction D
START TRANSACTION;
SELECT * FROM sales_reps WHERE rep_id < 5 FOR UPDATE SKIP LOCKED;
COMMIT;

Description
• If you add the FOR SHARE clause to the end of a SELECT statement, the selected rows are
locked so other transactions can read those rows but can't modify them until the transaction
commits.
• If you add the FOR UPDATE clause to the end of a SELECT statement, the selected rows
and any associated indexes are locked so other transactions can't read or modify them until
the transaction commits. This works the same as the locks for an UPDATE statement.
• If a SELECT...FOR SHARE statement attempts to read any rows that have been locked for
update by another transaction, it waits until that transaction commits so it retrieves the most
current values.
• If a SELECT...FOR UPDATE statement attempts to read any rows that have been locked for
share or for update by another transaction, it waits until that transaction commits so it can
use the most current values.
• When the NOWAIT option is included on a FOR SHARE or FOR UPDATE clause, the
statement doesn’t wait for a lock to be released. Instead, it returns an error immediately. This
allows a developer to handle the error instead of waiting for the lock to release.
• When the SKIP LOCKED option is included on a FOR SHARE or FOR UPDATE clause,
the statement doesn't wait for a lock to be released Instead, it skips the locked rows and
returns any rows that are not locked.

Figure 14-6 How to lock selected rows

434 Section 4 Stoned program development

Transaction C works like transaction B, except that it includes the NO WAIT

option. As a result, if transaction A still has a lock on any rows selected by trans­
action C. running its SELECT statement causes an error to occur immediately.
This allows a developer to handle the error instead of having to wait for the lock
to be released.
Transaction D also works like transaction B. except that it includes the
SKIP LOCKED option. As a result, if transaction A still has a lock on any rows
selected by transaction D. its SELEC T statement executes but skips any locked
rows. In this example, it skips the row with a repid value of 2 and returns three
rows that have rep_id values of 1,3. and 4.

How to prevent deadlocks

A deadlock occurs w hen neither of two transactions can be committed
because each has a lock on a resource needed by the other transaction. This
is illustrated by the banking transactions in figure 14-7. Here, transaction A
updates the savings account first and then the checking account, while transac­
tion B updates the checking account first and then the savings account.
Now, suppose that the first statement in transaction A locks the savings
account, and the first statement in transaction B locks the checking account. At
that point, a deadlock occurs because transaction A needs the savings account
and transaction B needs the checking account, but both are locked. Eventually,
one of the transactions has to he rolled back so the other can proceed, and the
loser is known as a deadlock victim.
To prevent deadlocks, you can use the four techniques that are presented in
this figure. First, you shouldn't leave transactions open any longer than is neces­
sary. That’s because the longer a transaction remains open and uncommitted,
the more likely it is that another transaction will need to work with that same
resource.
So, when you’re coding transactions, make sure to include the appropriate
COMMIT and ROLLBACK statements. In addition, don’t code statements that
take a long time to execute between the START TRANSACTION statement that
starts the transaction and the COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement that finishes
the transaction.
Second, you shouldn't use a higher isolation level than you need. That’s
because the higher you set the isolation level, the more likely it is that two
transactions will be unable to work with the same resource at the same time.
Third, you should schedule transactions that modify a large number of rows
to run w hen no other transactions, or only a small number of other transactions,
will be running. That way, it’s less likely that the transactions will try to change
the same rows at the same time.
Finally, you should consider how the SQL statements you write could cause
a deadlock. To prevent the situation that's illustrated in this figure, for example,
you should always update related accounts in the same sequence.
 Chapter 14 How to use transactions and locking 435

Don t allow transactions to remain open for very long

• Keep transactions short.
• Keep SELECT statements outside of the transaction except when absolutely
necessary.
• Never code requests for user input during a transaction.

Don't use a transaction isolation level higher than necessary

• I’hc default level of REPEATABLE READ is usually acceptable, but you should
consider changing to READ COMMITTED if deadlocks become a problem.
• Reserve the use of the SERIALIZABLE level for short transactions that make
changes to data where integrity is vital.

Make large changes when you can be assured of nearly exclusive access
• If you need to change millions of rows in an active table, don't do so during hours
of peak usage.
• If possible, give yourself exclusive access to the database before making large
changes.

Take locking behavior into consideration when coding your transactions

• If you need to code two or more transactions that update the same resources, code
tiie updates in the same order in each transaction.

UPDATE statements that illustrate deadlocking

Transaction A
START TRANSACTION;
UPDATE savings SET balance ■ balance - transfer amount;
UPDATE checking SET balance = balance ♦ transfer amount;
COMMIT;

Transaction B (possible deadlock)

START TRANSACTION;
UPDATE checking SET balance = balance - transfer amount;
UPDATE savings SET balance = balance ♦ transfer_amount;
COMMIT;

Transaction B (prevents deadlocks)

START TRANSACTION;
UPDATE savings SET balance ■ balance + transfer amount;
UPDATE checking SET balance ■ balance - transfer amount;
COMMIT;

Description
• A deadlock occurs when neither of two transactions can be committed because
each transaction has a lock on a resource needed by the other transaction.

Figure 14-7 How to prevent deadlocks

436 Section 4 Stored program development

Perspective
In this chapter, you learned the ways that MySQL protects your data from
the problems that can occur on a real-world system. Since the failure of one
or more related SQI. statements can violate data integrity, you learned how
to prevent these problems by grouping the statements into transactions. Since
multiple transactions can simultaneously modify the same data, you learned
how to prevent concurrency problems by setting the transaction isolation level
to change the default locking behavior. And since changing the isolation level
can increase the chances of deadlocks, you learned defensive programming
techniques to prevent deadlocks.

Terms
transaction dirty read
commit a transaction nonrepeatabie read
roll back a transaction phantom read
save point transaction isolation level
concurrency deadlock
locking deadlock victim
lost update

Exercises
1. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named test. This
procedure should include a set of three SQI., statements coded as a transaction
to reflect the following change: United Parcel Service has been purchased by
Federal Express Corporation and the new company is named EedL’P. Rename
one of the vendors and delete the other after updating the vendor_id column
in the Invoices table.
If these statements execute successfully, commit the changes. Otherwise, roll
back the changes.
2. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named test. This
procedure should include a set of two SQL statements coded as a transaction
to delete the row with an invoice ID of 114 from the Invoices table. To do this,
you must first delete all line items for that invoice from the
Invoice_Line_Iteins table.
If these statements execute successfully, commit the changes. Otherwise, roll
back the changes.
 15
How to create
stored procedures
and functions
In chapter 13, you learned how to code simple stored procedures that didn't use
parameters. Now. you'll learn some additional skills for coding stored proce­
dures. including how to use parameters. In addition, you'll learn how to code
stored functions.
As you'll see. stored procedures allow you to store procedural logic such
as data validation in a central location. In addition, they provide a powerful
way to control how users are allowed to access the database.

How to coda stored procedures...................... 438

How to create and call a stored procedure......................... .......... ................ 438
How to code input and output parameters................................................... 440
How to set a default value for a parameter..................................................... 442
How to validate parameters and raise errors..................................................444
A stored procedure that inserts a row...................... 446
How to work with user variables.................................................................... 450
How to work with prepared statements...........................................................452
How to drop a stored procedure...................................................................... 454
How to code stored functions__ ____ ______ ....................456
How to create and call a function.................................................................... 456
How to use function characteristics................................................................. 458
A function that calculates balance due...................................................... 460
How to drop a function..................................................................................... 462
How to use Workbench
with procedures and functions............................................. 464
How to view and edit stored routines .......................................................... .. 464
How to create stored routines.......................................................................... 464
How to drop stored routines......................................................................... _ 464
Perspective____ _________ ......................___ ______ .........466
438 Section 4 Stored program development

How to code stored procedures

A stored procedure. which can also be referred to as a sproc or just a
procedure, is a database object that contains procedural SQL code. You can use
stored procedures to retrieve or modify the data that's stored within a database.
You learned the basic skills for coding stored procedures in chapter 13. Now. the
topics that follow expand on those skills.

How to create and call a stored procedure

Figure 15-1 shows how to use the CREATE PROCEDURE statement to create
a stored procedure. To start, you code the CREATE PROCEDURE keywords
followed by the name of the procedure. In this figure, for example, the state­
ment creates a procedure named update_invoices_credit_total. This name clearly
indicates that the procedure updates the credit_total column of the invoices table.
After the name of the procedure, you code a set of parentheses. Within the
parentheses, you can code one or more parameters for the procedure. A param­
eter can be used to pass a value to the stored procedure from a calling program.
When you declare a parameter, you code the name of the parameter followed
by its data type. If a procedure accepts more than one parameter, you must
use commas to separate the parameters. When you declare a parameter, you
code the name of the parameter followed by its data type. In this figure, for
example, the procedure accepts two parameters. 1 he first parameter is named
invoice_id_param with a data type of INT. and the second parameter is named
credit_total_param with a data type of DECIMAL.
After the parentheses, you code the body of the procedure. In most cases,
the procedure body consists of a block of statements identified by the BEGIN
and END keywords. Then, within the block, you can code most SQL statements,
including the ones for writing procedural code presented in chapter 13 and the
ones for working with transactions presented in chapter 14.
When you run the CREATE PROCEDURE statement, MySQL compiles the
code for the procedure and stores the compiled code in the database. As part of
this process. MySQL's compiler checks the syntax of the code within the proce­
dure. If you've made a coding error, the system responds u ith an appropriate
message and the procedure isn't created.
You can execute, or call, a stored procedure by using the CALL statement.
Ln this figure, for example, the CALL statement calls the procedure that was
created in the first example. This statement passes one value for each of the
parameters that are defined by the procedure. Here, the first parameter is a literal
value that specifies the invoice ID. and the second parameter is a literal value
that identifies the new amount for the credit total.
When you use the CALL statement, you must pass parameters by position.
In other words, you must code the parameters in the same order as they are
coded in the CREATE PROCEDURE statement.
In chapter 18, you will learn how to grant INSERT. UPDATE, and DELETE
privileges to specific users. However, if you want to have more fine-grained
 Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 439

The syntax of the CREATE PROCEDURE statement

CREATE PROCEDURE procedure name
(
[parameter_nama 1 datatype]
(, parameter name 2 data type]...
)
procedure body

A script that creates a stored procedure that updates a table

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE update invoicescredit total

(
invoiceidparam INT,
credit-totalparam DECIMAL(9,2)
)
BEGIN
DECLARE fiql_error BOOL DEFAULT FALSE;

DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR SQLEXCEPTION

SET sqlerror ■ TRUE;

START TRANSACTION;

UPDATE invoices
SET credit_total ■ credittotal param
WHERE invoice.id = invoice id param;

IF sqlerror > FALSE THEN

COMMIT;
ELSE
ROLLBACK;
END IF;
END//

A statement that calls the stored procedure

CALL update invoicescredittotal(56, 300);

Description
• You use the CREATE PROCEDURE statement to create a stored procedure. A
stored procedure is an executable database object that contains procedural SQL
code. A stored procedure can also be called a sptoc or a procedure.
• You can use parameters to pass one or more values from the calling program to the
stored procedure, from the procedure to the calling program, or both.
• To declare a parameter within a stored procedure, you code the name of the param­
eter followed by its data type. To declare two or more parameters, separate the
parameters with commas.
• You can use the CALL statement to call a procedure. When a procedure accepts
parameters, you pass them to the procedure by coding them within the parentheses
that follow the procedure name, and by separating the parameters with commas.

Figure 15-1 How to create and call a stored procedure

440 Section 4 Stored program development

control over the privileges that you grant to users, you can create stored proce­
dures that perf orm all of the types of data manipulation that you want to allow
within your database. Then, you can grant privileges to execute these stored
procedures. For systems where security is critical, this can be an excellent way
to prevent both accidental errors and malicious damage to your data.

How to code input and output parameters

Figure 15-2 shows how to code input and output parameters for a stored
procedure. An input parameter is passed to the stored procedure from the
calling program. You can explicitly identify an input parameter by coding the
IN keyword before the name of the parameter. In this figure, for example, the
first two parameters are identified as input parameters. However, if you omit this
keyword, the parameter is assumed to be an input parameter. In figure 15-1, for
example, both parameters are input parameters.
Within a procedure, you can use input parameters like variables However,
you can't change the value of the parameter. In this figure, for example, the
procedure uses the first parameter within an UPDATE statement to specify the
invoice ID for the invoice row’ to be updated.
An output parameter is returned to the calling program from the stored
procedure. To code an output parameter, you must explicitly identify the param­
eter by coding the OUT keyword bef ore the name of the parameter. In this
figure, for example, the third parameter is an output parameter. If the UPDATE
statement executes successfully, a SET statement stores a value of 1 in the
output parameter. Otherwise, a SET statement stores a value of 0 in the output
parameter Either way, the value of the output parameter is returned to the calling
program when the procedure finishes.
To show’ how a calling program works, this figure includes a script that calls
the procedure. Here, initial values are supplied for the two input parameters.
Then, a variable named @row_count is supplied for the output parameter. This
variable is a special type of variable known as a user variable. A user variable
is a global variable that's available to the user for the rest of the current session.
You'll learn more about user variables later in this chapter.
After the procedure executes, (he value of the output parameter is stored in
the @row_count van able. Then, the calling program can access this variable. In
this figure, for example, the script uses a SELECT statement to display (he value
of the variable. However, it could also use an IF statement to check the value of
the variable and perform an appropriate action.
In addition to input and output parameters. MySQL provides for a parameter
that can be used for both input and output. An input/output parameter can store
an initial value that's passed in from the calling program like an input parameter.
However, the procedure can change this value and return it to a calling program
like an output parameter. To identify an input/output parameter, you must code
the INOUT keyword before the name of the parameter. Although this can be
useful in some situations, it can also be confusing. As a result, it often makes
sense to avoid the use of input/output parameters.
 Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 441

The syntax for declaring input and output parameters

[IM I OUT|INOUT] parameter name data type

A stored procedure that uses input and output parameters

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE update invoices credittotal

(
IN invoice id param INT,
IN credit-total param DECIMAL(9,2),
OUT update count INT
)
BEGIN
DECLARE sqlerror BOOL DEFAULT FALSE;

DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR SQLEXCEPTION

SET sqlerror ■ TRUE;

START TRANSACTION;

UPDATE invoices
SET credit_total ■ credittotal param
WHERE invoice_id ■ invoice—id param;

IF sql error = FALSE THEN

SET update_count ■ 1;
COMMIT;
ELSE
SET update count ■ 0;
ROLLBACK;
END IF;
END//

A script that calls the stored procedure and uses the output parameter
CALL update_invoicea_credit-total(56, 200, Grow count);
SELECT CONCATprow count: *f Grow count) AS update.count;

Description
• Input parameters accept values that are passed from the calling program. These
values cannot be changed by the body of the stoned procedure. By default, param­
eters are defined as input parameters. As a result, the IN keyword is optional for
identifying input parameters.
• Output parameters store values that are passed back to the calling program. These
values must be set by the body of the stored procedure. To identify an output
parameter, you must code the OUT keyword.
• hiput/output parameters can store an initial value that's passed from the calling
program. However, the body of the stored procedure can change this parameter. To
identify an input/output parameter, you must code the INOUT keyword.
• When you work with output parameters or input/output parameters, the calling
program typically passes a user variable to the parameter list.

Figure 15-2 How to code input and output parameters

442 Section 4 Stored program development

How to set a default value for a parameter

Figure 15-3 shows how to set a default value for a parameter. This is useful
if a null value is passed for the parameter. Then, the default value can be used
instead of the null value.
In this figure, the stored procedure sets a default value for the second param­
eter. which contains the credit total to be assigned to the credit_total column for
an invoice. To do that, it uses an IF statement to check if the parameter contains
a null value. If it does, the value of the parameter is set to 100.
The two CALL statements in this figure show two ways that you can provide
values to the stored procedure. Here, the first CALL statement supplies a value
for each parameter. As a result, the credit total for the invoice is set to 200. In
contrast, the second CALL statement supplies a value of NULL for the second
parameter. In that case, the credit total for the invoice is set to the default value
of 100.
When you set default values for one or more parameters, it usually makes
sense to code these parameters at the end of the parameter list. That way. when
you call the stored procedure, you can code all the non-null values first.
 Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 443

A CREATE PROCEDURE statement that provides a default value

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE update invoices_cradit_totai

(
invoiceidparan INT,
credittotal param DECIMAL(9,2)
)
BEGIN
DECLARE sqlerror BOOL DEFAULT FALSE;

DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR SQLEXCEPTION

SET sql_error ■ TRUE;

— Set default values for NULL values

IF credit-total param IS NULL THEN
SET credit_totalparam » 100;
END IF;

START TRANSACTION;

UPDATE invoices
SET credit_total ■ credit-total param
WHERE invoice_id - invoiceidparam;

IF sql_error ■ FALSE THEN

COMMIT;
ELSE
ROLLBACK;
END IF;
END//

A statement that calls the stored procedure

CALL update invoiceS-Credittotal(56, 200);

Another statement that calls the stored procedure

CALL update invoiceacredittotai(56, NULL);

Description
• You can provide a default value for a parameter so that if the calling program
passes a null value for the parameter, the default value is used instead.
• To set a default value for a parameter, you can use an IF statement to check if the
parameter contains a null value. If it does, you can assign a default value to the
parameter.
• It’s a good programming practice to code your CREATE PRCX'EDURE statements
so they list parameters that require values first, followed by parameters that allow
null values.

Figure 15-3 How to set a default value for a parameter

444 Section 4 Stored program development

How to validate parameters and raise errors

Within a stored procedure, it’s generally considered a good practice to
prevent errors by checking the parameters before they're used to make sure
they’re valid. This is often referred to as data validation. Then, if the data isn’t
valid, you can execute code that makes it valid, or you can raise an error, which
returns the error to the calling program.
Figure 15-4 shows how to raise an error using one of the predefined errors
that are available from MySQL. To do that, you code the SIGNAL statement
followed by the SQLSTATE keyword, followed by a SQLSTATE code. Then,
you can optionally include a SET statement that sets a message and .MySQL
error code for the error.
In this figure, for example, the IF statement checks whether the value of the
second parameter is less than zero. If it is. the SIGNAL statement raises an error
with a SQLSTATE code of 22003, a MySQL code of 1146. and a message that
indicates that the credit total column must be greater than or equal to 0. These
SQLSTATE and MySQL codes are commonly used to validate parameters since
they are used to indicate that the value is out of range for the column.
If the calling program doesn't contain code to catch this error, the system
displays an error message. In this figure, for example, the CALL statement passes
a negative value to the second parameter, which causes the error to be raised.
As a result, the system displays an error message that contains the MySQL error
code and message specified by the SIGNAL statement. Since this error code
and message accurately desciibe the error, the programmer or user of the calling
program should be able to identify and fix the problem.
On the other hand, it the calling prognun catches this error, it can include
code that handles the error. For example, the calling program can handle the
error by printing a user-friendly message and asking the user to input the data
again.
 Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 445

The syntax of the SIGNAL statement

SIGNAL SQLSTATE [VALUE] sqlstate value
[SET MESSAGE TEXT - message[, MYSQL ERRNO - myogl error nunber]]

A stored procedure that raises a predefined exception

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE update invoiceacredlttotal

<
invoice^id param INT,
credittotal param DECIMAL(9,2)
)
BEGIN
— Validate paramater values
IF credit-total param < 0 THEN
SIGNAL SQLSTATE 1 220031
SET MESSAGE TEXT -
'The credittotal column must be greater than or equal to 0.',
MYSQL ERRNO = 1146;
ELSEIF credittotal param >■ 1000 THEN
SIGNAL SQLSTATE *22003*
SET MESSAGE TEXT ■
'The credit-total column must be less than 1000. *,
MYSQL ERRNO - 1146;
END IF;

— Set default values for parameters

IF credit-total param IS NULL THEN
SET credit_total param = 100;
END IF;

UPDATE invoices
SET credit_total ■ credittotal param
WHERE invoice id ■ invoiceid param;
END//

A statement that calls the procedure

CALL update_invoices_credit-total(56, -100);

The response from the system

Error Code: 1146.
The credit_total column must be greater than or equal to 0.

Description
• It s generally considered a good practice to validate the data within a stored proce­
dure before using the data. This is referred to as data validation.
• The SIGNAL statement raises an error. When you raise an error, you must specify
a SQLSTATE code as specified in chapter 13. In addition, you can optionally
specify an error message or MySQL error number.
• When you raise an error. MySQL returns the error to the caller in the same way that
it returns errors that are raised by the database engine. Then, the calling program
can handle the error.

Figure 15-4 How to validate parameters and raise errors

446 Section 4 Stored program development

A stored procedure that inserts a row

Figure 15-5 presents a stored procedure that inserts new rows into the
invoices table. This should give y ou a better idea of how you can use stoied
procedures.
This procedure uses six parameters that correspond to six of the columns in
the Invoices table. All of these parameters are input parameters, and each param­
eter is assigned the same data type as the matching column in the Invoices table.
As a result, if the calling program passes a value that can't be converted to the
proper data type, an error will be raised when the procedure is called.
None of these parameters corresponds to the invoice_id column since that
column is an auto increment column. Similarly, the stored procedure sets a
default value for the last two parameters. As a result, if the calling program
provides a null value for these parameters, the procedure automatically sets a
default value for them.
The body of the procedure begins by declaring three variables. Of these
variables, the first two have data types that correspond to columns in the invoices
table. However, the third one uses the 1NT data type to store the number of days
before the invoice is due.
All three of these variables have a suffix of “_var” while all of the param­
eters defined earlier have a suffix of "_param". This makes it easy to tell the
difference between the parameters that are passed to the procedure from the
calling program and the variables that are used withm the procedure.
After the variables are declared, the procedure begins by using an IF state­
ment to check the value of the parameter for the invoice_total column to see if
it is less than zero. If so. the procedure uses the SIGNAL statement to raise an
error with an appropriate error code and message. This statement exits the stored
procedure and returns the error to the calling program. Similarly the ELSEIF
clause checks whether this parameter is greater than one million. If so, it raises
an appropriate error. Although this figure only uses this IF statement to check
for two conditions, it’s common to code a series of IF statements like this one to
provide more extensive data validation.
Next, anothei IF statement is used to check the terms_id parameter for a
null value. If the parameter is null, a SELECT statement gets the value of the
default_terms_id column for the vendor and stores it in the tenns_id variable. If
this parameter isn't null, the value of the terms_id parameter is assigned to the
terms_id variable.
The next IF statement is similar. It checks the value of the parameter for the
invoice_due_date column for a null value. If the parametet is null, a SELECT
statement uses the value of the terms_id variable to get the number of days
until the invoice is due from the terms table, and it stores this value in the
terms_due_days variable. Then, it calculates a due date for the invoice by using
the DATE_ADD function to add the number of days to the invoice date. If the
invoice_due_date parameter isn't null, though, this code sets the
mvoice_due_date variable to the value that’s stored in the parameter.
 Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 447

A stored procedure that validates the data in a new invoice

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE insert—invoice

(
vendor id param INT,
invoicenumber param VARCHAR(50),
invoicedateparam DATE,
invoice total param DECIMAL(9,2),
terms id param INT,
invoice duedate param DATE
)
BEGIN
DECLARE terms _id_var INT;
DECLARE invoice due date_var DATE;
DECLARE terms due days var INT;

-- Validate paramater values

IF invoicetotal param < 0 THEN
SIGNAL SQLSTATE 122003*
SET MESSAGE TEXT -
1 The invoice_total column must be a positive number.*,
MYSQL ERRNO - 1264;
ELSEIF invoice total param >■ 1000000 THEN
SIGNAL SQLSTATE *22003*
SET MESSAGE TEXT -
* The invoicetotal column must be less than 1,000,000.*,
MYSQL ERRNO = 1264;
END IF;

— Set default values for parameters

IF terms id^param IS NULL THEN
SELECT defaulttermsid INTO terms id_ var
FROM vendors WHERE vendor_id - vendorid param;
ELSE
SET terms id var ■ terms id param;
END IF;
IF invoice due date param IS NULL THEN
SELECT terms due days INTO terms duedaysvar
FROM terms WHERE terms id ■ terms idvar;
SELECT DATE ADD(invoice date-param, INTERVAL terms due days_var DAY)
INTO invoicedue date var;
ELSE
SET invoiceduedatejvar ■ invoice.duedateparam;
END IF;

INSERT INTO invoices

(vendor_id, invoice_number, invoicedate,
invoice total, termS-id, invoicedue date)
VALUES (vendor id param, invoice number param, invoicedate param,
invoice total param, terms id var, invoicedue datevar);
END//

Figure 15-5 A stored procedure that inserts a row (part 1 of 2)

448 Section 4 Stoned program development

After the values have been set for the variables for the terms_id and
invoice_due_date columns, this procedure executes an INSERT statement. If this
statement executes successfully, the row is inserted into the database.
In most cases, a stored procedure like this is called from an application
program. However, to test a procedure before it’s used by an application
program, you can use CALL statements hke the ones in part 2 of figure 15-5.
The first two CALL statements provide valid values that successfully insert
a new row. Of these statements, the first supplies non-null values for all of the
parameters for the procedure. The second supplies non-null values for the first
four parameters, but not for the last two. This shows that the first four parameters
are the only parameters that require non-null values.
The third CALL statement provides a negative number for the invoice total
parameter. As a result, this CALL statement causes the stored procedure to raise
an error. Since the CALL statement doesn't handle this error, an error message
like the one shown in this figure is displayed. However, if you call the stored
procedure from another stored procedure or from an application, you can include
code that handles the error.
 Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 449

Two statements that call the stored procedure

CALL insert_invoice(34, 'ZXA-080', '2023-01-18', 14092.59,
3, '2023-03-18');

CALL insert invoice(34, 'ZXA-082', 12023-01-18 1, 14092.59,

NULL, NULL);

The message from the system for a successful insert

1 row(s) affected

A statement that raises an error

CALL insert-invoice(34, 'ZXA-080', '2023-01-18', -14092.59,
NULL, NULL);

The message from the system when a validation error occurs

Error Code: 1264. The invoicetotal column must be a positive number.

Description
• If the data for each of the columns of the row is valid, the procedure executes an
INSERI statement to insert the row. Otherwise, the procedure or database engine
raises an error and exits the procedure.
• If an application program calls this procedure, ii can handle any errors that arc
raised by the procedure or by the database engine.

Figure 15-5 A stored procedure that inserts a row (part 2 of 2)

450 Section 4 Stored program development

How to work with user variables

In figure 15-2, you saw an example that stores the value of an output
parameter in a user variable. Now. figure 15-6 presents some additional skills for
working with user variables.
A user variable is a special type of MySQL variable that’s globally avail­
able to the current user Unlike the variables you learned about in chapter 13,
you don't need to code a DECLARE statement to declare the data type of a user
variable. That’s because a user variable can store various data types including
string, numeric, and date/time types. Instead, you can create and work with a
user variable simply by coding an at sign (@) in front of its name. For example,
you can set the value of a user variable using the SET statement syntax shown at
the top of this figure.
A user variable is only available to the current user as long as the user
remains connected to the server. When the user disconnects. MySQL releases
the variable. In addition, a user variable is only available to the current user and
cannot be seen or accessed by other users.
Since a user variable is globally available to die current user, multiple stored
programs can share the variable. In this figure, for instance, the stored procedure
named set_global_count sets the user variable named ©count to a specified INT
value. Then, the stored procedure named increment_global_count increments rhe
©count variable by a value of 1. To set the value of this user variable, both of
these stored procedures use the SET statement.
Although user variables are often used within stored programs, you can also
access user variables outside of stored programs. Then, you can use standard
SQL statements such as the SELECT statement to work with them. In this
figure, for instance, the SELECT statement displays the value of the
©count variable after it has been set and incremented by CALL statements
to the two stored procedures. You can also use the SET statement outside of a
stored program to set the value of a user variable.
Note that the body of both stored procedures shown in this figure consist of
a single statement. Because of that, they could be coded without using a block of
code like this:
CREATE PROCEDURE SUt_global count
(
count_yar INT
)
SET 3count = count var;

CREATE PROCEDURE incrementglobal count()

SET icount ■ ?count ♦ 1;
The advantage of not specifying a block of code is that you don’t have to change
the delimiter or identify the start and end of the block of code. The disadvantage
is that it’s more difficult to add statements to the procedure if you ever need to
do that. In most cases, you'll want to code the body of a stored procedure within
a block.
 Chapter 15 How to create stored pmeedtors and functions 451

The syntax for setting a user variable

SET £variable name ■ expression

Two stored procedures that work with the same user variable
DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE set global count

<
countvar INT
)
BEGIN
SET Bcount ■ count_var;
END//

CREATE PROCEDURE increment.global count()

BEGIN
SET Bcount ■ £count ♦ 1:
END//

Two statements that call these stored procedures

CALL set.global.count(100);
CALL increment_global.count();

A SELECT statement that directly accesses the user variable

SELECT 0count AS count.var
axnt_vw

» 101

Description
• A user variable is a special type of MySQL variable that’s globally available to the
current user.
• To identify a variable as a user variable, you code an at sign ((fl) in front of the
variable name.
• A user vanable is only available to the current user and cannot be seen or accessed
by other users.
• A user variable is available as long as the user remains connected to the server, but
it is released when the user disconnects.
• A user variable can store various data types including string, numeric, and
date/time types. However, you don’t have to declare a data type for a user variable.
• A user variable is available from statements coded both inside and outside of stored
programs.

Figure 15-6 How to work with user variables

452 Section 4 Stored program development

How to work with prepared statements

A prepared statement is a pre-compiled statement that can include place­
holders for parameters whose values can vary. Then, when you execute the state­
ment. you can set the values of those parameters. MySQL 8.0 and later provides
support for prepared statements, and figure 15-7 shows how to work with them
using the PREPARE. EXECUTE, and DEALLOCATE PREPARE statements.
The example in this figure begins by creating a stored procedure named
select_invoices. This stored procedure includes two input parameters for the
minimum date and the minimum total.
Within the stored procedure, the PREPARE statement creates a prepared
SELECT statement that includes two question marks as placeholders. These
placeholders indicate where the parameter values will he substituted when the
stored procedure is called. In this case, the value of the date parameter will be
substituted for the first placeholder, and the value of the total parameter will be
substituted for the second placeholder. Note that these placeholders are coded
where you would normally code a literal value such as a date or a number. You
can't code a placeholder anywhere you wouldn't code a literal value, such as for
a SQL keyword, a table name, or a column name.
After the SELECT statement is prepared, the two SET statements create
user variables to store the values of the twro parameters of the procedure. This
is necessary because the EXECUTE statement only accepts user variables in its
USING clause.
Next, the EXECUTE statement executes the prepared statement and names
the two variables to be passed as parameters. This returns the result set of the
SELECT statement. For this to w'ork. the USING clause must name the user
variables in the same sequence that the placeholders are coded in the SELECT
statement. In addition, the number of user variables must match the number of
placeholders in the SELECT statement.
Finally, the DEALLOCATE PREPARE statement releases the resources
used by the prepared statement. Once a prepared statement is released, it can no
longer be executed. In general, it's a good practice to deallocate prepared state­
ments after you're done using them.
Prepared statements provide several benefits. To start, they allow you to
dynamically change values used by a SQL statement. When executed more
than once, they are also more efficient than regular statements because they are
precompiled and optimized. In addition, they prevent most ty pes of SQL injec­
tion attacks. In a SQL injection attack, an attacker can append SQL statements to
a parameter that’s passed to your procedure. Because the EXECUTE statement
can only execute one statement at a time, however, this type of injection attack
will fail.
Although it’s not show n in this figure, you should know that you can also
use prepared statements w ith dynamic SQL. Dynamic SQL lets you use proce­
dural code to budd a string that contains a SQL statement that includes the
values of one or more parameters that have been inserted into it. Then, you can
use the statements shown in this figure to prepare and execute the dynamic SQL.
 Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 453

The syntax of the PREPARE statement

PREPARE stdtwunt FROM pr«parable_stat«ment

The syntax of the EXECUTE statement

EXECUTE statement [USING Gvarl [, 0var2] __ ]

The syntax of the DEALLOCATE PREPARE statement

(DEALLOCATE | DROP) PREPARE Statement

A script that creates a stored procedure that uses a prepared statement

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE select invoices

(
min_date param DATE,
mln total param DECIMAL(9,2)
)
BEGIN
PREPARE statement FROM
'SELECT invoice id, invoice number, invoicadate, invoicetotal
FROM invoices
WHERE invoice^date > ? AND invoice total > ?' ;

SET Mate = mindate param;

SET etotal ■ min total param;

EXECUTE statement USING Mate. Gtotal;

DEALLOCATE PREPARE statement;

END//

A statement that calls the stored procedure

CALL select invoices('2022-07-25', 100);
rrvocejd <rv«ce_rx*nber rrvo«_date invoice JOOI

> 11* 963253249 202246-02 127.75

113 547490102 202243-01 224,00
112 0-2436 3)2247-31 10976.06

Description
• Prepared statements were introduced with MySQL 8.0. They run more efficiently
than regular SQL statements when executed repeatedly, and they are more secure
than using dynamic SQL statements.
• The PREPARE statement creates a precompiled statement that can use question marks
(?) to identify placeholders whose values can be supplied when the procedure is called.
• The EXECUTE statement can pass user variables to the prepared statement, with
the first variable being substituted for the first placeholder, the second variable for
the second placeholder, and so on.
• The values that are passed to a prepared statement must be stored as user variables.
• In general, it’s a good practice to release the system resources for a prepared state­
ment after you're done using it by deallocating the prepared statement.

Figure 15-7 How to work with prepared statements

454 Section 4 Stoned program development

Unfortunately, the use of dynamic SQL makes your code vulnerable to a SQL
injection attack. As a result, you should avoid using dynamic SQL unless you
understand the security risks and are comfortable with them.

How to drop a stored procedure

Figure 15-8 shows how to drop a stored procedure. To do that, you can code
the DROP PROCEDURE keywords followed by the name of the procedure.
In this figure, the first example uses the CREATE PROCEDURE statement to
create a procedure named clear_invoices_credit_total. Then, the second example
uses the DROP PROCEDURE statement to drop that procedure.
If you attempt to drop a stored procedure that doesn’t exist MySQL returns
an error. To prevent this error, you can add the optional IF EXISTS keywords
to the DROP PROCEDURE statement as shown by the third example. Then,
MySQL only attempts to drop the stored procedure if it exists.
If you drop a table or view used by a procedure, you should be sure to drop
the procedure as well. If you don't, the procedure can still be called by any user
or program that has been granted the appropriate privileges. Then, an error will
occur because the table or view that the procedure depends on no longer exists.
 Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 455

The syntax of the DROP PROCEDURE statement

DROP PROCEDURE [IF EXISTS] procedure narr.e

A statement that creates a stored procedure

DELIMITER //

CREATE PROCEDURE clear invoices credittotal

<
invoiceidpararo INT
)
BEGIN
UPDATE invoices
SET credlt_total ■ 0
WHERE invoice id = invoiceid param;
END//

A statement that drops the stored procedure

DROP PROCEDURE clear_involcefi_credit_total

A statement that drops the stored procedure only if it exists

DROP PROCEDURE IF EXISTS clear invo£caa_cradit„total

Description
• To drop a stored procedure from the database, use the DROP PROCEDURE
statement.

Figure 15-8 How to droo a stored procedure

456 Section 4 Stored program development

How to code stored functions

In chapter 9. you learned about some of MySQL’s built-in functions. Now,
you’ll learn how to create your own functions. These functions are referred to as
stored functions, or just functions.
If you've worked with databases other than MySQL, you may be familiar
with functions that return a result set. With MySQL, though, a function can only
return a single value. This type of function is called a scalar function.
In many ways, the code for creating a function works similarly to the code
for creating a stored procedure. The primary difference between stored proce­
dures and functions is that a MySQL function always returns a single value.

How to create and call a function

To create a function, you use the CREATE FUNCTION statement shown in
figure 15-9. To start, you code the CREATE FUNCTION keywords, followed by
the name of the function. In this figure, the first example shows how to create a
function named get_vendor_id.
After the name of the function, you code a set of parentheses. Within
the parentheses, you code the parameters for the function. In this figure, for
example, the function contains a single parameter of the VARCHAR ty pe that's
named vendor_name_param. Since this is similar to the way you declare param­
eters for a stored procedure, you shouldn't have much trouble understanding
how this works. The main difference is that functions only allow input param­
eters. In other words, functions don't allow output or input/output parameters.
After the parentheses, you code the RETURNS keyword, followed by the
data type that's returned by the function. In this figure, the example returns a
value of the INT type.
After the declaration of the return type, you can code one or more charac­
teristics that describe the function In this example, the function includes the
DETERMINISTIC and READS SQL DATA characteristics. You’ll leam more
about these and other characteristics in the next figure.
After any characteristics, you code the body of the function. In this figure,
the procedure consists of a block of code that begins by declaring a variable of
the INT type named vendor_id_var. Then, it uses a SELECT statement to get
the vendor ID value that corresponds to the vendor name parameter and to store
this value in the variable. Finally, it uses the RETURN statement to return this
value to die calling program.
To call a function, you can use it in an expression as if it's one of MySQL's
built-in functions. Then, the value that's returned by the function is substi­
tuted for the function, hi this figure, the last example shows how to use the
get_vendor_id function within a SELECT statement to return the vendor ID
value for the vendor w ith the name of “IBM”.
If you find yourself repeatedly coding the same expression within a SQL
statement, you may want to create a scalar function for the expression. Then,
you can use that function in place of the expression, which can save you coding
time and make your code easier to maintain.
 Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 457

The syntax of the CREATE FUNCTION statement

CREATE FUNCTION function name
<
[paramatarname 1 data type]
(, paramatar nama 2 data typa] ...
>
returns data typa
[NOT] DETERMINISTIC
{CONTAINS SQL’NO SQL READS SQL DATA MODIFIES SQL DATA}
function body

A function that returns the vendor ID that matches a vendor's name

DELIMITER //

CREATE FUNCTION get vendor id

(
vendor name param VARCHAR(50)
)
RETURNS INT
DETERMINISTIC READS SQL DATA
BEGIN
DECLARE vendor id var INT;

SELECT vendorid
INTO vendor id_var
FROM vendors
WHERE vendor_name = vendor name param;

RETURN(vendoridvar);
END//

A SELECT statement that uses the function

SELECT invoice_number, invoicetotal
FROM invoices
Where vendor_id = getvendor_id(‘IBM1);

The response from the system

rrvoee^rnnber rnoce_tntal
> QP5B872 116.54
Q545443 1083.56

Description
• A stored function, or just function, is an executable database object that contains
procedural SQL code.
• With MySQL, you can only create scalar functions, which return a single value.
• To identify the data type that’s returned by a function, you use the RETURNS
keyword in the declaration for the function. Then, in the body of the function, you
use the RETURN keyword to specify the value that’s relumed.
• A function can accept input parameters that work like the input parameters tor a
stored procedure.
• When you create a function, you can include one or more characteristics that
describe the function.
• To call a stored function, you can use it in an expression just like a built-in function.

Figure 15-9 How to create and call a function

453 Section 4 Stored program development

How to use function characteristics

Figure 15-10 describes some of the characteristics you can code on the
CREATE FUNCTION statement. If binary logging is enabled, you must code at
least one of the DETERMINISTIC. NO SQL. or READS SQL DATA charac­
teristics on a function. If you don't code at least one of these characteristics.
MySQL displays an error and doesn't create the function. That’s because these
characteristics affect how statements that change the contents of a database are
recorded in the binary' log. which is a log that’s used to record all changes that
have been made to the contents of a database. This log is enabled by default with
MySQL 8.0 but not w ith earlier releases of MySQL.
The DETERMINISTIC characteristic indicates that a function always
produces the same results given the same input values and the same data. In figure
15-9, for example, the get_vendor_id function is deterministic because it always
returns the same vendor ID value from the Vendors table for a given vendor name.
The get_vendor_id function also includes the READS SQL DATA charac­
teristic. This indicates that it reads data from a database but doesn't write data to
the database. This characteristic is optional, but it can improve the performance
ol the function.
In general, it’s more common to use a stored procedure to modify the data
in a database than it is to use a function. If a function modifies the data in a
database, it should be marked as deterministic if two identical databases will
remain identical af ter the function is executed with tlie same input values. In
addition, you can mark the function with the optional MODIFIES SQL DATA
characteristic to indicate that the function modifies data.
If you compare the get_vendor_id function in figure 15-9 to the rand_int
function in this figure, you should get a better idea of how' the DETERMINISTIC
characteristic works. The rand_int function uses the built-in RAND function to
get a random number betw een 0 and 1. Then, it multiplies that number by 1 (MX),
rounds it to a whole number, and returns the result. Because the RAND function
can return a different number each time it's executed, the rand_int function
can return any integer between 0 and I (XX). That means it’s non-deterministic.
Because the NOT DETERMINISTIC characteristic is the default characteristic,
you don't need to code it. However, it’s included in this example to make it clear
to other programmers that this function is non-deterministic.
The rand_int function also includes the NO SQL characteristic. This
characteristic indicates that the function doesn’t include any SQL statements.
It’s required because binary' logging is enabled and the DETERMINISTIC and
READS SQL DATA characteristics don’t apply.
If you don't code a NO SQL. READS SQL DATA, or MODIFIES SQL
DATA characteristic in a function, it will default to CONTAINS SQL. This
characteristic indicates that the function doesn't use SQL statements to read
from or write to a database. However, it may contain other statements such as a
SET statement that sets global variables. In most cases, that’s not what you want.
As a result, it’s a good practice to include one of the other characteristics. In
most cases, that means including the READS SQL DATA characteristic.
 Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 459

Some of the characteristics for a MySQL function

Characteristic Description
DETERMINISTIC Indicates that the function always produces the same results given the
same input values.
NOT DETERMINISTIC Indicates that the function does not always produce the same results
given the same input values. This is the default.
READS SQL DATA Indicates that the function contains one or more SQL statements such
as SELECT statements that read data from a database but no statements
that write data.
MODIFIES SQL DATA Indicates that the function contains SQL statements such as INSERT.
UPDATE, and DELETE statements that write data to a database.
CONTAINS SQL Indicates that the function contains one or more SQL statements such as
SET statements that don't read from or write to a database. This is the
default.
NO SQL Indicates that the function doesn't contain SQL statements.

A function that gets a random number

DELIMITER //

CREATE FUNCTION rand_int()

RETURNS INT
NOT DETERMINISTIC
NO SQL
BEGIN
RETURN ROUND(RAND() * 1000);
END//

A SELECT statement that uses the function

SELECT rand int() AS random number;
r andon _rujrber

► 315

Description
• If binary logging is enabled, which it is by default with MySQL 8.0 and later, each
function must include the DETERMINISTIC, NO SQL. or READS SQL DATA character­
istic. To ox erode this requirement, you can set the log_bin_trust_function_creators system
variable to 1 (ON J. For more information on working with system variables, see chapter
17.
• The binary log contains a record of all the changes that have been made to the
contents of a database. It can be used for replication between two servers.
• Unless you code the DETERMINISTIC keyword, a function is considered to be
non-deterministic. This affects the type of information that’s stored in the binary log.
• It’s more common to use a stored procedure rather than a function to modify a database.

Figure 15-10 How to use function characteristics

460 Section 4 Stored program development

A function that calculates balance due

Figure 15-11 shows a function that calculates the balance due tor an invoice.
To do that this function accepts a parameter that contains an invoice II) value.
Then, the body ot the function calculates the balance due. stores the result of the
calculation in a variable named balance_due_var, and uses the RETURN state­
ment to return that value.
The SELECT statement in this figure uses this function to return the balance
due for the specified invoice ID value. Note that calling the function like this:
get balance due(invoiceid) AS balance due
has the same effect as perf orming a calculation like this:
invoice total - payment total - credittotal AS balance due
I lowever. using a function has two advantages. First, the code is shorter, which
makes it easier to type. Second, the code for calculating the balance due is stored
in a single location. As a result, if the formula for calculating the balance due
changes, you only need to change it in one location.
 Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 461

A function that calculates balance due

DELIMITER //

CREATE FUNCTION get.balancedue

(
invoiceidparam I NT
)
RETURNS DECIMAL (9,2)
DETERMINISTIC READS SQL DATA
BEGIN
DECLARE balanca_due„var DECIMAL(9,2);

SELECT invoice_total - paymenttotal - credittotal

INTO balance due var
FROM invoices
WHERE invoiceid ■ invoice id param;

RETURN balance duevar;

END//

A statement that calls the function

SELECT vendorid, invoice number,
get balance due(invoiceid) AS balancedue
FROZI invoices
WHERE vendor id ■ 37

The response from the system

vendor jd voce jurtoer balance .due

► 37 547481328 0.00
37 547479217 0.00
37 547480102 224.00

Description
• This function accepts a single parameter that specifies the ID for an invoice, and it
returns the balance due for that invoice.

Figure 15-11 A function that calculates balance due

462 Section 4 Stored program development

How to drop a function

Figure 15-12 shows how to drop a function. To do that, you code the DROP
FUNCTION keywords followed by the name of the function. This is illustrated
by the third example in this figure. In addition, the fourth example illustrates
how you can add the IF EXISTS keywords to check if a function exists before
dropping it.
To start, though, the first example presents another function named
get_sum_balance_due. This function uses the aggregate SUM function described
in chapter 5 to return the sum of the total balance due for the specified vendor.
What's interesting here is that this function calls the get_balance_due function
presented in the previous figure. In other words, this function “depends” on the
get_balance_due function.
Then, the second example shows a SELECT statement that uses the
get_sum_balance_due function. This statement gets the invoice number and
balance due for each invoice for the vendor with an ID of 37. In addition, it gets
the total balance due for that vendor.
Like stored procedures, functions depend on underlying database objects
such as tables and views as well as other procedures and functions. Because
of that if you drop a database object that a function depends on. the function
won’t work properly. For example, if you drop the get_balance_due function,
the get_sum_balance_due function won’t work. As a result, you should avoid
dropping any database objects that other database objects depend on.
 Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 463

The syntax of the DROP FUNCTION statement

DROP FUNCTION [IF EXISTS] function none

A statement that creates a function

DELIMITER //

CREATE FUNCTION get sun balance due

(
vendor ran I NT
)
RETURNS DECIMALS,2)
DETERMINISTIC READS SQL DATA
BEGIN
DECLARE sum balance,duevar DECIMAL(9,2);

SELECT SUM(get balance due(invoice_id))

INTO sum balance due var
FROM invoices
WHERE vendor id = vendor id param;

RETURN sum balance due var;

END//

A statement that calls the function

SELECT vendor id, invoice number,
get balance due(invoice_id) AS balance due,
get sum balancedue(vendor_id) AS sum balance due
FROM invoices
WHERE vendorid - 37;

The response from the system

vendor r voice _rxjmber balance _due sum _ba lari ce_due

► 37 547481328 0.00 224.00

37 547479217 0.00 224.00
37 547480102 224.00 224.00

A statement that drops the function

DROP FUNCTION get sum balance due;

A statement that drops the function only if it exists

DROP FUNCTION IF EXISTS get sum balance due;

Description
• To delete a function from the database, use the DROP FUNCTION statement. If
you want to check whether the function exists before you drop it, add the optional
IF EXISTS keywords.
• The function in this figure uses the get_balance_due function that's presented in the
previous figure. As a result, if you drop the get_balance_due function, the function
in this figure won’t work.

Figure 15-12 How to droo a function

464 Section 4 Stored program development

How to use Workbench

with procedures and functions
MySQL Workbench provides some basic features for working with stored
procedures and functions. Figure 15-13 describes these features. Collectively,
stored procedures and functions are sometimes referred to as stored routines.

How to view and edit stored routines

To start, this figure shows how to use MySQL Workbench to view stored
procedures and functions. To do that, you can connect to the server and then
expand the Stored Procedures or Functions node for the appropriate database. In
this figure, for example, 1 have expanded the Stored Procedures and Functions
nodes for the AP database so you can see all of the procedures and functions that
were presented in this chapter.
After you display the stored procedures or functions for a database, you
can view the code for a procedure or function by right-clicking on its name and
selecting the appropriate Alter item Then. MySQL Workbench displays the
procedure or function in a tab as show n in this figure. This may come in handy if
you need to work with stored procedures or functions that were created by other
programmers and you don't understand what they do. It may also come in handy
if you need to modify one of these stored procedures or functions.

How to create stored routines

You can use MySQL Workbench to help you get started wilting scripts that
create stored procedures and functions. To do that, you can right-click on the
Stored Procedures or Functions node and then select Create Stored Procedure
or Create Function. When you do. Workbench generates some basic code for
a procedure or function that includes a DELIMITER statement, a CREATE
PROCEDURE or CREATE FUNCTION statement, and BEGIN and END
keywords. Then, you can modify this code as necessary and add the code that's
specific to the stored procedure or function you're creating.
After you create a stored procedure or function, it won’t appear in the
Navigator window' right away. To display it. you can refresh the Navigator
window. The easiest way to do that is to click the Refresh button near the upper
right corner of the Navigator window.

How to drop stored routines

Once a stored procedure or function is displayed in the Navigator window,
you can drop it by right-clicking on it and selecting Drop Procedure or Drop
Function. Then, you can use the resulting dialog box to confirm the drop.
 Chapter 15 How to create stored procedures and functions 465

A stored procedure displayed in MySQL Workbench

9 MySQL Wetabonch

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RCREATE DEF INER- -OOt f LocilhOSt PROCEDURE lflS«rt_lnvoicc (

vendej- id p«r»T iwt,
Invoice. *webe«\p*^i VAMNM( ),
invoice dote par mb DAIl,
5 lnvolce_total_porae MCIML( , )lt
term-ld_per»e IMT,
7 invoice due date.perao DAT I
L)
8
9 RBEGIN
ie DECLARE teras_ld_var INTj
11 DtCLAME invoice dwe.date ver DATtj
u DCCIAM ter*B_due_dey«_ver 1N1|
Create Sterad Procedure
<) 13
<1 get,**"*!1 itar Stored Procedure 14 validate pa'-**3if*- value:
13 I IF Invoice^tctal_par«a < imin
16 MGAM MJLMATt '22—5'
17 «I MESSAGE 1 EAT - ‘The l/wolcatotal coluen wit ba « pot It
18 MYSQL ERRNO - j
19 ELSEIF l-Tvoice^tctal parer x then
2b SIUIM SQL STATE *22M1
71 4(1 MESSAGflfll - ‘The lnvuice_total celwan wit be leti tf
22 MYSQL ERRNO - j
23

Object krfo Sanaa

Description
• To view the stored procedures and functions for a database, you can expand the
node for the database. 1 hen. you can expand the Stored Procedures or Functions
node.
• To view the code for an existing procedure or function, right-click on its name and
select Alter Stored Procedure or Alter Function.
• To create a new stored procedure, right-click on the Stored Procedures node and
select Create Stored Procedure.
• To create a new function, right-click on the Functions node and select Create
Function.
• After you create a new procedure or function, you can refresh the Navigator
window to include it in the list of stored procedures or functions. To do that, click
the Refresh button near the upper right comer of the Navigator window.
• To drop a procedure or function, right-click on its name and select Drop Stored
Procedure or Drop Function. Then, use the resulting dialog box to confirm the drop.
• You can use the SHOW PROCEDI RE STATE’S and SHOW FUNCTION STATUS
statements to display information about the stored procedures and functions on a
server. For more information, see the My SQL Reference Manual.

Figure 15-13 How to create, view, and drop stored routines

466 Section 4 Stored program development

Perspective
In this chapter, you learned how to create two types of stored programs:
procedures and functions. The focus of this chapter has been on the skills that
SQL developers typically need for working with procedures and functions.
However, you should know that there's a lot more to coding procedures and
functions than what this chapter has shown. You can learn more by looking up
“Stored Procedures and Functions” in the online documentation.

Terms
stored procedure raising an error
sproc prepared statement
procedure dynamic SQL
parameter SQL injection attack
compiling a procedure stored function
calling a procedure function
passing parameters by position scalar function
input parameter binary log
output parameter deterministic function
input/output parameter non-deterministic function
user variable stored routine
data validation
 Chapter 15 How to create stored provedtires and functions 467

Exercises
1. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named
insert_glaccount. First. code a statement that creates a procedure that adds a
new row to the General_Ledger_Accounts table in the Al* schema. To do that,
this procedure should have two parameters, one for each of the two columns
in this table. Then, code a CALL statement that tests this procedure. (Note
that this table doesn't allow duplicate account descriptions.)
2. Write a script that creates and calls a stored function named
test_glaccounts_description. First, create a function that tests whether an
account description is already in the General_Ledger_Accounts table. To do
that, this function should accept one parameter for the account description,
and it should return a value of TRUE if the account description is in the table
or EALSO if it isn’t. (Note: If a SELECT statement doesn’t return any data, it
raises a NOT FOUND condition that your function can handle.)
3. Modify the script that you created in exercise I so it creates and calls a stored
procedure named insert_glaccount_with_test. This procedure should use the
function that you created in exercise 2 to test whether the account description
is a duplicate before it issues the INSERT statement. If the account descrip­
tion is a duplicate, this procedure should raise an error with a SQLSTATE
code of 23000, a MySQL code of 1062. and a message that says "Duplicate
account description.”
4. Write a script that creates and calls a stored procedure named msert_terms.
First, code a statement that creates a procedure that adds a new row to the
Terms table in the AP schema. To do that, this procedure should have two
parameters: one for the terms_due_days column and another for the
terms_description column.
If the value for the description column is null, the stored procedure should be
able to create a default value for the description column based on the value of
the due days column. For example, for a due days column of 120, the descrip­
tion column should have a default value of “Net due 120 days'*. Then, code a
CALI, statement that tests this procedure.
 16
How to create triggers
and events
Now that you’ve learned how to work with stored procedures and functions,
you’re ready to Icam about two more types of stored programs: triggers and
events. Triggers can be executed before or after an INSERT. UPDATE, or
DELETE statement is executed on a table. As a result, they provide a powerf ul
way to enforce data consistency, log changes to the database, and implement
business rules. Events can be executed at a scheduled time. As a result, they
provide a convenient way to automatically perform any task that needs to be
run regularly, such as scheduled maintenance of tables.

How to work with triggers.................................. „................... 470

Howto create a BEFORE trigger........................................ ........ ................... 470
How to use a trigger to enforce data consistency.......................................... 472
How to create an AFTER trigger.................................................................... 474
How to view or drop triggers......................................................................... „476
How to work with events_______ -___ ..............________ ..478
How to turn the event scheduler on or off...................................................... 478
How to create an event.............. .............. .......................................... 478
How to vtew. alter, or drop events....................................... 480
Perspective...................................... ..482
470 Section 4 Stored program development

How to work with triggers

A trigger is a named database object that is executed, or fined, automatically
when a particular type of SQL statement is executed. When using MySQL, a
trigger is fired when an INSERT. UPDATE, or DELETE statement is executed
on a table.

How to create a BEFORE trigger

Figure 16-1 presents the syntax for the CREATE TRIGGER statement. To
start, you code the CREATE TRIGGER keywords followed by the name of the
trigger. In this figure, for instance, the first example creates a trigger named
vendors_before_update. This name indicates that the trigger is associated with
the Vendors table and that it is fired before an update. This chapter uses a similar
naming convention for the other triggers.
After the name of the trigger, you code the BEFORE or AFTER keyword to
indicate w'hen the trigger is fired. Then, you identify the statement that causes
the trigger to fire. Next, you code an ON clause that identifies the name of
the table. In this figure, tor instance, the first example creates a trigger that's
executed before any UPDATE statements on the Vendors table.
Although each trigger is associated with a single table, you can code multiple
BEFORE and AFTER triggers for the same event on the same table. Since this
can be confusing to manage and debug, however. I recommend you have no more
than one BEFORE and one AFTER trigger for each event.
After the ON clause, you code the FOR EACH ROW keywords. These
key words indicates that the trigger is a row-level trigger that tires for each row
that's modified. For example, an UPDATE statement that updates five rows
would cause the trigger to be executed five times, once for each row. Although
some databases support other types of triggers. MySQL only supports row-level
triggers.
Within the body of a trigger, you can use the NEW keyword to work with
the new values in a row that's being inserted or updated. In this figure, for
example, the NEW keyword gets and sets the value for the vendor_state column
of the new row. If you try to use this keyword with a row that's being deleted,
you’ll get an error since this row doesn’t have any new values.
You can also use the OLD keyword to work with the old values in a row'
that's being updated or deleted. You can't use this keyword with a row that’s
being inserted, though, since a new row doesn't have any old values.
The body of a trigger typically contains a block of code that’s identified
by the BEGIN and END keywords. In this figure, for example, the body of
the trigger contains a block of code with a single statement that updates the
vendor_state column so state codes are always stored with uppercase letters.
To accomplish that, this statement uses the UPPER function to convert the new
value for the vendor_state column to uppercase.
 Chapter 16 How to create triggers and events 471

The syntax of the CREATE TRIGGER statement

CREATE TRIGGER triggername
{BEFORE।AFTER) (INSERT|UPDATE|DELETE} ON table name
FOR EACH ROW
trigger body

A CREATE TRIGGER statement that capitalizes state abbreviations

DELIMITER //

CREATE TRIGGER vendors before update

BEFORE UPDATE ON vendors
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
SET NEW.vendor state » UPPER(NEW.vendor state);
END//

An UPDATE statement that fires the trigger

UPDATE vendors
SET vendor state ■ 1wi'
WHERE vendor_id « 1

A SELECT statement that shows the new row

SELECT vendor name, vendor state
FROM vendors
Where vendor_id = 1
vendorname vendor _state

fr U5 Postal Service Wl

Description
• A trigger is a named database object that executes, or fires, in response to an
INSERT. UPDATE, or DELETE statement.
• You can fire a trigger before or after an INSERT. UPDATE, or DELETE statement
is executed on a table.
• You must specify the FOR EACH ROW keywords after the table name. This
creates a row-level trigger that fires once for each row that’s modified.
• You can use the OLD and NEW keywords to get and set the values for the columns.
OLD refers the values of an existing row befoie it’s updated or deleted, and NEW
refers to either the values of a new row being inserted or the values of an existing
row after it's updated.

Figure 16-1 How to create a BEFORE trigger

472 Section 4 Stored program development

In the last chapter, you learned that if the body of a stored procedure or
function consists of a single statement, it can be coded without specifying a
block of code. The same thing applies to triggers. For example, the trigger in this
figure could be coded like this:
CREATE TRIGGER vendors bi?tore update
BEFORE UPDATE ON vendors
FOR EACE ROW
SET NEW.vendor_state ■ UPPER(NEW.vendor state);
Like stored procedures and functions, the advantage of not specifying a block of
code for a lugger is that you don't have to change the delimiter or identify the
start and end of the block of code. The disadvantage is that it’s more difficult to
add statements to the trigger if you later decide that you want the trigger to do
more work.

How to use a trigger to enforce data consistency

Triggers are commonly used to enforce data consistency. For example,
the sum of Lne item amounts for an invoice in the Invoice_Lme_ltems table
should always be equal to the corresponding invoice total amount in the Invoices
table. L’nfortunately, you can't enforce this rule using a constraint on either
the Invoices table or the Invoice_Line_Items table. However, you can use a
trigger like the one in figure 16-2 to enforce this rule when an invoice amount is
updated.
The trigger shown here fires before an UPDATE statement attempts to
update the invoice_total column in the Invoices table. When tins trigger fires,
it checks if the sum of the line items is equal to the invoice total. If it isn't, the
trigger raises an error with an SQLSTATE code of ‘ I I Y(XX)”, u hich indicates
a general error. Then, the application that issued the UPDATE statement can
handle the error.
Although this example isn't entirely realistic, you can use triggers like this
to enforce business rules or to verify data consistency. Since you can program
a trigger to accommodate many situations, triggers are more flexible than
constraints.
 Chapter 16 How to create triggers and events 473

A trigger that validates line item amounts when updating an invoice

DELIMITER //

CREATE TRIGGER invoices beforeupdate

BEFORE UPDATE ON invoicefl
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
DECLARE sumlins item amount DECIMAL ( 9 f 2 ) ;

SELECT SUM(lineitern amount)

INTO sura line_itera amount
FROM invoicelineiterns
WHERE invoice_id ■ NEW.invoice id;

IF sura-line item amount !■ NEW.invoice_total THEN

SIGNAL SQLSTATE 'HYOOO1
SET MESSAGE TEXT = 1 Line item total must match invoice total.1;
END IF;
END//

An UPDATE statement that fires the trigger

UPDATE invoices
SET invoice-total ■ 600
WHERE invoiceid a 100

The message from the system

Error Code: 1644. Line item total must match invoice total.

Description
• Triggers can be used to enforce rules for data consistency that can't be enforced by
constraints.

Figure 16-2 How to use a trigger to enforce data consistency

474 Section 4 Stored program development

How to create an AFTER trigger

Tuggers are commonly used to store information about actions that occur in
a database so these actions can be reviewed later In particular, AFTER triggers
are used to store information about a statement after it executes. Figure 16-3
shows how this works.
To start, this figure shows a CREATE TABLE statement that creates a table
named Invoices_Audit. This table contains five columns that store information
about the action that occurred on the Invoices table. Of these columns, the first
three store values from the Invoices table, and the last two store information
about the action that caused the statement to execute.
After the CREATE. TABLE statement, this figure shows two CREATE
TRIGGER statements that add rows to the Invoices_Audit table. The first
CREATE TRIGGER statement creates a trigger that executes after an INSERT
statement is executed on the Invoices table. This trigger inserts the new values
for the vendor_id, invoice_number. and invoice_total columns into the
Invoices_Audit table. In addition, it inserts a string value of‘inserted” to
indicate that the row has been inserted, and it uses the NOW function to insert
the date and time of the action.
The second CREATE TRIGGER statement works similarly, but it executes
after a DELETE statement. It inserts a string value of “Deleted” to indicate that
the row has been deleted.
Note that the first trigger inserts the new values for the row that’s being
inserted since there aren’t any old values for this row. However, the second
trigger inserts the old values for the row that's being deleted since there aren't
any new values for this row.
Although the example that’s presented in this figure has been simplified, it
presents all of the skills that you need for creating more complex audit tables.
For example, if you’re having a problem updating rows in a database, you can
create an audit table and a trigger to store whatever data you want about each
update. Then, the next time the update problem occurs, you can review the data
in the audit table to identify the cause of the problem.
 Chapter 16 How to create triggers and events 475

A statement that creates an audit table for actions on the invoices table
CREATE TABLE invoices audit
(
vendor_id I NT NOT NULL
invoicenumber VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL
invoice total DECIMAL(9,2) NOT NULL
action type VARCHAR(50) NOT MULL
action date DATETIME NOT NULL
)

Two AFTER triggers that insert rows into the audit table
DELIMITER //

CREATE TRIGGER invoices after insert

AFTER INSERT ON invoices
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
INSERT INTO invoicesaudit VALUES
(NEW.vendor id, NEW.invoice number. NEW.invoice total,
1INSERTED 1, NOW());
END//

CREATE TRIGGER invoices after,delete

AFTER DELETE ON invoices
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
INSERT INTO invoicesaudit VALUES
(OLD.vendor_id. OLD.invoice number. OLD.invoice_total,
■DELETED’. NOW());
END//

An INSERT statement that causes the first trigger to fire

INSERT INTO invoices VALUES
(115, 34, 'ZXA-080', ■2023-02-01', 14092.59, 0, 0, 3, *2023-03-01', NULL)

A DELETE statement that causes the second trigger to fire

DELETE FROM invoices WHERE invoice id - 115

A SELECT statement that retrieves the rows in the audit table

SELECT * FROM invoices audit
vendor jd fivoste_number rnvace-total action _type acton _date

► 34 ZXA-080 14092.59 HJSER’EZ 2023-07-27 10:04:40

34 ZXA-080 14092.59 DELETE) 2023-07-27 10:04:47

Description
• You can use an AFTER trigger to insert rows into an audit table.

Figure 16-3 How to create an AFTER trigger

476 Section 4 Stored program development

How to view or drop triggers

When you're working with triggers, you often need to view all of the
triggers that have been created for a database. Then, you can review information
about those triggers, and you can drop them if they are no longer needed.
Figure 16-4 starts by showing how to use the SHOW TRIGGERS statement
to view all the triggers in the current database. Usually, that’s what you want. In
some cases, though, you may want to use the IN clause to specify the database as
shown in the second example.
The result set for the second example shows that the AP database contains
four triggers, and it provides detailed information about each trigger. First,
the Trigger column shows the name of each trigger. Second, the Event
column shows the type of statement that causes the trigger to fire. I hird. the
Table column shows the table for the trigger. Here, three of these triggers are
associated with the Invoices table and one with the Vendors table. Fourth, the
Statement column shows the code for the body of the trigger. Fifth, the Timing
column indicates whether the trigger is a BEFORE trigger or an AFTER trigger.
After that, there are four other columns of information.
If a database contains a large number of triggers, you may want to use
the LIKE clause to display just the triggers with names that match a specified
pattern. In this figure, for instance, the third SHOW TRIGGERS statement only
shows triggers that start with “ven". As a result, this statement shows just the
UPDATE trigger that has been defined for the Vendors table.
Because MySQL doesn't provide a way to alter a trigger, you have to drop it
and then create a new trigger to change the way it works. To drop a trigger, you
code the DROP TRIGGER keywords followed by the name of the trigger. If you
want, you can add the optional IF EXISTS keywords. Since this drops the trigger
only if it exists, it prevents an error from occurring if the trigger doesn't exist.
MySQL doesn’t provide a way to disable a trigger either. Instead, you have
to drop the trigger and then create it again later. For example, you may want to
drop the triggers for one or more tables before inserting a large number of rows.
This can help the INSERT statements run faster, and it lets you insert data that
isn't allowed by the triggers.
 Chapter 16 How to create triggers and events 477

A statement that lists all triggers in the current database

SHOW TRIGGERS

A statement that lists all triggers in the specified database

SHOW TRIGGERS IN ap

Trigger Event Tabe Statement Tnrg Created

» in cm _a fte* _nser t INSBU rvoices BEGIN INSERT INTO rvoces audt VALUES AF’t^ 2023-07-2
ri voices .before .update LPOATE rvotces BEGIN DECLARE Sum Jnejtem.amoirit DECI .. BEFORE 2023-07-2
mvoicei .after .delete moces BEGIN H'JSERT INTO r-.0«s_aud! VALUES .. AFTBt 20 2 3-07-2
vendors_befor e.ipdate LFDAT1 vendors BEGIN SET NEW. vendor .state ® UPPER (ICW... BEFORE 2023-07-2

A statement that lists all triggers in a database that begin with 'ven”
SHOW TRIGGERS IN ap LIKE 'vanV

Trcse' Event TaCle Statement Tfimg Created

» vendor s _feeftx e_i®date LPDATE vendors BEGIN SET PCW.vendor.state-UPPS*(T€W.... B&=ORE 2023-07-2

A statement that drops a trigger

DROP TRIGGER vendors before update

A statement that drops a trigger only if it exists

DROP TRIGGER IF EXISTS vendors before update

Description
• To view triggers, use the SHOW TRIGGERS statement. To filter the result set
that's returned, include an IN clause or a LIKE clause.
• To drop a trigger, use the DROP TRIGGER statement. To be sure a trigger exists
before it’s dropped, include the IF EXISTS keywords.

Figure 16-4 How to view or drop triggers

478 Section 4 Stored program development

How to work with events

An event, or scheduled event, is a named database object that executes, or
fires. according to the event scheduler. With MySQL 8.0 and later, the event
scheduler is on by default. As a result, if you don't need to use events, you
should turn the event scheduler off to save system resources.

How to turn the event scheduler on or off

Figure 16-5 begins by showing how to check if the event scheduler is on.
To do that, you can use the SHOW VARIABLES statement to view the variable
named event_scheduler. Then, if the event scheduler isn’t on. you’ll need to turn
it on before you can work with events. To do that, you can use the SET statement
to set the value of the event_scheduler variable to ON.
Here, the ON keyword is a synonym for the LNT value of 1. Conversely,
the OFF keyword is a synonym for the ENT value of 0. Since the ON and OFF
keywords are easier to read than 1 and 0, this chapter uses these keywords.
When you use a SET statement to change the event_scheduler variable
as shown in this figure, the change only applies until the server is restarted.
However, if you want to make this change permanent, you can change this
variable in MySQL's configuration tile as described in the next chapter.

How to create an event

Figure 16-5 also shows how to use the CREATE EVENT statement to create
an event. You can use this statement to create a one-rune event that occurs only
once or a recurring event that repeats at a regular interval.
The first CREATE; EVENT statement in this figure creates a one-time event
named one_time_delete_audit_rows. To do that, this trigger uses the AT keyword
to specify that the event should be executed one month from the current date
and time. Then, it uses the DO keyword to identify the statements tlmt the event
should execute. Here, the statements include the BEGIN and END keywords that
identify a block of code. Within that block, a single DELETE statement deletes
all rows from the lnvoices_Audit table that are more than one month old.
Like the code for other stored programs, die code for an event doesn't have
to be coded within a block if it consists of a single statement. In this case. then,
the event could have been coded like this:
CREATE EVENT one_timedelete_audit_rows
ON SCHEDULE AT NOW() ♦ INTERVAL 1 MONTH
DO DELETE FROM invoices audit
WHERE action date < N0W() - INTERVAL 1 MONTH;
This has the same advantage and disadvantage as it does with other stored
programs.
 Chapter 16 How to create triggers and events 479

A statement that checks if the event scheduler is on

SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'event scheduler*
var-abte-name vaue

» event sdieduier ON

A statement that turns the event scheduler on

SET GLOBAL event scheduler “ ON

The syntax of the CREATE EVENT statement

CREATE EVENT [IF NOT EXISTS] event_name
ON SCHEDULE
{AT timestamp | EVERY interval [STARTS timestamp] [ENDS timestamp]}
DO evantbody

A CREATE EVENT statement that executes only once

DELIMITER //

CREATE EVENT one_time_delete_audit_rows

ON SCHEDULE AT NOW() ♦ INTERVAL 1 MONTH
DO BEGIN
DELETE FROM invoices audit WHERE actiondate < NOW() - INTERVAL 1 MONTH;
END//

A CREATE EVENT statement that executes every month

DELIMITER //

CREATE EVENT monthly delete auditrows

ON SCHEDULE EVERY 1 MONTH
STARTS '2023-06-01'
DO BEGIN
DELETE FROM invoicca audit WHERE action, date < NOW() - INTERVAL 1 MONTH;
END//

Description
• An event, or scheduled event, is a named database object that executes, or fires,
according to the event scheduler.
• Before you begin working with events, you need to be sure that the event scheduler
is on. With MySQL 8.0 and later, it’s on by default.
• To check the status of the event scheduler, you can use the SHOW VARIABLES
statement to view the variable named event_scheduler.
• To turn the event scheduler on or otf, you can use the SET statement to set the
value of the event_scheduler variable to ON or OFF. Here, the ON and OFF
keywords are synonyms for the INT values of 1 and 0.
• An event can be a one-time event that occurs once or a recurring event that occurs
regularly at a specified interval.

Figure 16-5 How to create an event

480 Section 4 Stoned program development

The second CREATE EVENT statement in figure 16-5 creates a recurring

event named monthly_delete_audit_rows. 'This statement works much like the
first statement, except that it uses the EVERY keyword to specify that the event
should be executed every month, and it uses the STARTS keyword to specify a
starting date of midnight on June 1. 2023. As a result, at the end of every month,
this event deletes all audit rows that are more than 1 month old.
The CREATE EVENT statement uses the date/tnne intervals that work with
date functions. As a result, you can use the INTERVAL keyword along w ith
other keywords such as MINUTE. HOUR. DAY. WEEK. MONTH, and YEAR
to specify a time.
Although it’s not illustrated here, you can also code the IF NOT EXISTS
keywords on the ('REATE EVENT statement. That way. the statement generates
a warning instead of an error if the event already exists. If this statement is part
of a script, that means that the script will continue executing instead of stopping
at the error

How to view, alter, or drop events

The skills that you learned for viewing and dropping triggers are similar to
the skills that you use to view and drop events. As a result, once you learn how to
view and drop triggers, you shouldn't have much trouble viewing and dropping
events. l or instance, the first three examples in figure 16-6 show how to use the
SHOW EVENTS statement to view events, and the last two examples show how
to use the DROP EVENT statement to drop an event Note that the last example
includes the IF EXISTS keywords so a warning is generated instead of an error
if the event doesn't exist. That way. if this statement is part of a script, the script
will continue executing instead of stopping at the error.
When working with events, you can also use the ALTER EVENT statement
to temporarily enable or disable an event or to rename an event. For instance,
the fourth example in this figure show's how to use the ALTER EVENT state­
ment to disable an event. To do that, you code the ALTER EVENT keywords,
followed by the name of the event and the DISABLE keyword. Then, the fifth
example shows how to use the ENABLE key word to enable an event that has
been disabled. Finally, the sixth example shows how to use the RENAME TO
keywords to rename an event.
 Chapter 16 Haw to create triggers and events 481

A statement that lists all events on the server

SHOW EVENTS

A statement that lists all events in a database

SHOW EVENTS IN ap
Tune Interval
□to Same Definer
zone
Type Execute at
value
CXN
» ap monthy _dde !e _audt_rows 'DOtCtocahost SYSTEM RECURRING 1
ap onejime _de*ete_audt_rO'M rootfikxahost SYSTEM ofc TM 2023-06-27 10:09:55

A statement that lists all events in a database that begin with “mon”
SHOW EVENTS IN ap LIKE 'monV
Tm Interval In ten
Db Name Definer Type Execute at
zone vaUe field

► ap mon th y_detete_audt_r ows roolCiocaihost SYSTEM RECURRING

EJ.B
1 monh

A statement that disables an event

ALTER EVENT monthly delete audit rows DISABLE

A statement that enables an event

ALTER EVENT monthly delete audit_rows ENABLE

A statement that renames an event

ALTER EVENT one_time delete audit rows RENAME TO one time delete audita

A statement that drops an event

DROP EVENT monthly deleteaudit rows

A statement that drops an event only if it exists

DROP EVENT IF EXISTS monthlydeletaauditrows

Description
* To view events, use the SHOW EVENTS statement. To filter the result set that's
returned, include an IN clause or a LIKE clause.
• To enable or disable an event, use the ALTER EVENT statement with the ENABLE
or DISABLE keyword.
• To rename an event, use the ALTER EVENT statement with the RENAME TO
keywords, followed by the new name.
• To drop an event, use the DROP EVENT statement. To be sure an event exists
before it’s dropped, include the IF EXISTS keywords.

Figure 16-6 How to view, alter, or drop events

482 Section 4 Stored program development

Perspective
In this chapter, you teamed how to use triggers to perform tasks that would
be difficult or impossible to perform with other features like constraints. At this
point, you should be able to create and use triggers that enforce data consis­
tency, implement business rules, and log changes to the database. In addition,
you should be able to use events to automatically perform tasks according to a
schedule.

Terms
trigger
fire a trigger
row-level trigger
event
scheduled event
fire an event
event scheduler
one-time event
recurring event

Exercises
1. Open the trigger named invoices_before_update that was shown in figure
16-2. Then, modify it so it also raises an error whenever the payment total
plus the credit total becomes larger than the invoice total in a row. Then, test
tins trigger with an appropriate UPDATE statement.
2. Create a trigger named invoices_after_update. This trigger should insert
the old data about the invoice into the Invoices_Audit table after the row is
updated. Then, test this trigger w ith an appropriate UPDATE statement If the
lnvoices_Audit table doesn't exist, you can use the code shown in figure 16-3
to create it.
3. Check whether the event scheduler is turned on. If it isn’t, code a statement
that turns it on. Then, create an event that inserts a test row that contains test
values into the Invoices_Audit table every minute. To make sure that this
event has been created, code a SHOW EVENTS statement that views this
event and a SELECT statement that views the data that's inserted into the
Invoices_Audit table. Once you’re sure this event is working correctly, code a
DROP EVENT statement that drops the event.
Section 5

Database administration
If you want to become a database administrator, this section should get
you started. Although it doesn't show you everything there is to know
about database administration, it does teach you the skills you need to be
the database administrator for a MySQL database that runs on a single,
local server. This should be enough for many types of projects, such as a
database that's used by a medium-sized website or a database that's used
for a departmental system.
In chapter 17, you’ll get an overview of database administration. In
addition, you'll leam some practical skills that you can use to monitor and
configure a server and work with its logs. In chapter 18, you'll leam how
to secure a database and work with user accounts. Finally, rn chapter 19.
you'll learn how to back up and restore a database.
At this point, you'll have a solid foundation in database administration.
Then, in chapter 20, you'll leam some additional skills for administering a
database that’s hosted in the cloud.
 17
An introduction
to database administration
This chapter begins by presenting an overview of database administration,
including the responsibilities of a database administrator and the various types
of hies that are used by a database. Then this chapter presents some practical
skills that you can use to get stalled with database administration. These skills
include monitoring the server, conhguung the server, and working with the
server’s logs.

Database administration concepts________________ ....486

Database administrator responsibilities.................................... ................... 486
Types of database files...................................................................................... 488
Types of log files........................................................................... .................... 488
How to monitor the server.......... ...........................
How to view the server status.......................................................................... 490
How to view and kill processes....................................................................... 492
How to view the status variables....... ..............................................................494
How to view the system variables..................... 496
How to configure the server...... ............................. ..........498
How to set system variables using MySQL Workbench ... ................... 498
How to set system variables using a text editor............................................. 500
How to set system variables using the SET statement.................................. 502
How to work with logging....... ............ ............... .............504
How to enable and disable logging.............................................. ................... 504
How to configure logging................................................................................. 506
How to view text-based logs.............................. .............................................. 508
How to manage logs............................................ _........................ „........ 510
Perspective..................................... 512
486 Section 5 Database administration

Database administration concepts

Before you learn practical skills for administering a database, it helps to
understand some general concepts. To start, you should have a clear under­
standing of the responsibilities of a database administrator. In addition, you
should understand the types of files that are used by MySQL.

Database administrator responsibilities

A database administrator (DBA) has many responsibilities that vary
depending on the database. Some common DBA responsibilities are summarized
in figure 17-1. For most databases, a DBA designs and creates the database.
Once created, a DBA may be responsible for securing the database. A DBA may
also be responsible for making sure that the database is backed up regularly so it
can be restored if necessary.
W hen a database goes into production, the DBA is responsible for
monitoring the server to make sure it can handle its workload. If necessary,
the DBA may need to configure the server to fix a problem or to get it to work
more efficiently. To help with these tasks, the DBA may need to review logs to
monitor database performance or to identify problems such as queries that run
slowly.
A database can also be administered by multiple people. For example, a
large, mission-critical database might be designed and created by a specialist
before being handed over to another DBA who is responsible for monitoring
it. Or. if the database is hosted remotely, one DBA at the remote site might be
responsible for certain administrative tasks while another DBA might perform
other administrative tasks remotely.
This chapter and the next two chapters focus on the skills that a DBA
needs to administer a database that's running on a single, locally hosted server.
However, it makes sense to run some databases on multiple servers either
locally or m the cloud. For example, you can often improve the performance of
a large database by running the MySQL server on multiple machines and then
running the database on each machine. Then, you can use database replication
to synchronize the databases so any change made to one database is automati­
cally propagated to the other databases. When you do this, you identify one
server as the source and the other servers as the replicas.
Note that if a database is hosted in the cloud, the responsibilities of a DBA
may differ from what's shown here. For example, some of these responsibilities,
such as backing up the database, can be automated. However, it's still important
to understand the responsibilities that may be required.
 Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 487

Common database administrator responsibilities

Maintenance
- Monitor the server
- Configure the server
- Maintain log tiles

Design
- Design the database
- Create the database

Security
- Maintain user accounts
- Secure the server and its databases

Backup
- Backup the database regularly
- Restore the database
- Migrate data to another server

Miscellaneous
- Start or stop the server
- Optimize the server
- L'pdate software
- Enable and manage replication

Description
• A database administrator iDBA < has many responsibilities that vary depending on
the database.
• Database replication involves setting up two or more MySQL servers, usually
running on different machines, where one server is the source and the other servers
are the replicas. Then, any changes made to databases on one server are automati­
cally propagated to the databases on the other servers.

Figure 17-1 Database administrator responsibilities

488 Section 5 Database administration

Types off database files

Figure 17-2 summarizes three types of database files used bv MySQL server.
When it starts. MySQL reads a configuration file. For Windows, this file is
named my.ini and it's usually stored in the parent directory of the data directory.
For macOS and L'nix/Linux. this file is named my.cnf and is usually stored in the
/private/etc or /etc directory.
MySQL's data directory contains subdirectories and files that MySQL uses
to store the data for its databases. Here, each subdirectory corresponds to a
database. For example, the AP database is stored within a directory named AP.
Within a subdirectory, the files correspond to the tables and other objects of the
database. The table files differ depending on the release of MySQL and whether
the tables use the InnoDB or MylSAM storage engine. For example, with
MySQL 8.0 and later. InnoDB uses one tile per table w ith the extension .ibd. and
MylSAM uses two files per table with the extensions .myd and .myi. By contrast,
with MySQL 5.7 and earlier, both InnoDB and MylSAM use one additional file
with the extension .frm. In addition to subdirectories, the data directory may
contain logfiles that contain information that's written by the server.
By default, MySQL's data directory is hidden. To view this directory with
Windows, you need to change the settings for File Explorer so it shows hidden
files, folders, and drives. To do that, display File Explorer, click the View tab,
and check the "Hidden items” option in the Show/hide group. To view the data
directory with macOS, open Finder and press Command+Shift+. (a period).

Types of log files

Figure 17-2 also summarizes the different types of log files that MySQL
can create, fo start, a general log contains a record of client connections, SQL
statements received from the clients, and other information. This file is useful
for monitoring the server. An error log contains messages about server startup
and shutdow n as well as error messages. This file is useful for troubleshooting
problems with starting or stopping the server. And a slow query' log contains a
list of SQL statements that take a long time to execute. This file is useful for
identifying queries that need to be rewritten to optimize database performance.
A binary- log consists of an index file and a series of numbered binary files.
l'he index file contains a list of the binary tiles, and the binary files contain a
record of the changes that have been made to the database. This log can be used
with backups to restore a database after a crash. It can also be used to enable
replication between a source server and a replica server.
Like a binary log, a re lay log consists of an index file and a series of
numbered binary tiles. These tiles are used on a replica server to relay any
changes that have been made on the source server to the replica server. This log
is only necessary when you're using replication.
Not all logs are enabled by default. So if you want to use a log, you may first
need to enable it. Alternately, you may want to disable one or more logs to speed
up performance.
 Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 489

Types of database files

File type Description
Configuration Files that contain configuration options that the MySQL server uses
to set its defaults when it starts. For Windows, this file is named
my.ini. For macOS and Unix/Linux. this file is named my.cnf.
Data Files that define the tables, indexes, and other database objects.
These files also store any data that’s used by the database objects.
With MySQL 8.0 and later. InnoDB uses one file per table (.ibd)
and My IS AM uses two files per table i.myd and .myi). Both
InnoDB and MylSAM use one additional file with MySQL 5.7 and
earlier (.frm). Other files are used for other database objects such as
views and triggers.
Log Files that contain information that's written (logged) by the data*
base server. You can configure your server to turn these files on or
off and to control how they work.

Types of log files

Log type Description
General A text file that contains a record of client connections. SQL statements
received from the clients, and other information.
Error A text file that contains messages about server startup and shutdown
and error messages.
Slow query A text file that contains SQL statements that take a long time to execute.
Binary One or more binary files that contain a record of changes that have been
made to the database. These files can be used with backups to restore a
database after a crash. These files can also be used to enable replication
between a source server and a replica server.
Relay One or more binary files that are used on a replica machine to relay any
changes that have been made on the source machine. This log is only
necessary when you're using replication.

The base and data directories for Windows

C:\Prograa Files\MySQL\MySQL Server 8.0
C:\ProgramData\MySQL\MySQL Server 8.0\Data

The base and data directories for macOS and Unix/Linux

usr/local/mysql/
uer/local/raysql/Data

Description
• The database server uses several types of files, including configuration files, data
files, and log files.
• By default. MySQL’s data directory is hidden. As a result, you need to be able to
view hidden files to see this directory.
• Before you can use some logs, you need to enable them.

Figure 17-2 Types of database and log files

490 Section 5 Database administration

How to monitor the server

When a database is running on a server, you should monitor the server to
make sure that it’s running efficiently That includes making sure the server isn't
using more of the system's CPI' and memory than it should, and that the number
of connections and traffic aren't too much for the server. To do that, you can
view the process list, status variables, and system variables.

How to view the server status

To view information about the server’s status, connect to the server in
Workbench and then select Servei-> Server Status to display a Server Status
window like the one shown in figure 17-3. Alternately, you can display this
window by clicking Server Status in the Administration tab of the Navigator
window.
The information in the Server Status window' is divided into two sections. To
the left, you can see the name and version of the server and other information,
such as available features and whether some of the logs are enabled. To the right,
you can see if the server is running, along with graphs of the amount of CPL'
and memory being used by the server, the number of connections, the traffic in
kilobytes per second, and so on. By viewing these graphs, you can get an idea of
w hcther the server has enough resources to handle its connections and traffic.
 Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 491

The Server status window

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Description
• To view the server status, start MySQL Workbench and open a connection to
the server. Then, select Sen er-> Server Status Or, select Server Status from the
Administration tab of the Navigator window
• By viewing the server status, you can get an idea of whethei the server has enough
resources to handle its connections and traffic.

Figure 17-3 How to view the server status

492 Section 5 Database administration

How to view and kill processes

A process is a connection to the database. To view a list of all the processes
that are running, you can open a connection to the server. Then, you can select
the Client Connections item to display a Client Connections window like the one
shown in figure 17-4. If you display this window and the process list is empty,
you can click on the Refresh button to display the processes. Alternatively, you
can change the Refresh Rate option so the list is refreshed at the rate you specify.
This window shows information about the connections to the database. In
this figure, eight connections have been established. The first connection is for
the event scheduler that you learned about in chapter 16. Since no events are
currently being processed, the Command column for this connection indicates
that it is sleeping.
The second connection is for the MySQL Server process itself. Here, the
Command column refers to the name of the process, called the mysqld program
or the MySQL daemon.
The third and fourth connections are for the root user that MySQL
Workbench used when it connected to the server to display the SQL Editor tab.
Since no processing is currently being performed in this tab. the Command
column for these connections indicates that they are sleeping.
The filth and sixth connections are also for the root user, but they were used
by MySQL Workbench to connect to the server to display the Administration tab
for the Client Connections window. Hie Command column for the first connec­
tion indicates that it is being used to execute a query. Specifically, the SHOW
PROCESSLIST statement is being executed on this connection. This is the
statement that displays the information in the Client Connections window.
The last two connections are for a user named jim. You'll learn more about
working with users other than the root user in the next chapter.
If necessary, you can stop one or more processes by selecting them and
clicking on the Kill Connection(s) button. For example, you might want to do
that if a process isn't responding. You can also stop one or more queries by
selecting them and clicking on the Kill Query(s) button. You might want to do
that if a query is stuck or is taking too long to ran. This stops the query, but
doesn't stop the process.
Since the Client Connections window of MySQI. Workbench provides
a convenient way to view the process list and stop a query or process, you’ll
usually want to use it to perform these operations. However, if you don't have
access to MySQL Workbench, you can use the SHOW PROCESSLIST state­
ment to view a list of processes from the MySQL Command Line Client. You
can also use the KILL statement to stop a query or process whenever that's
necessary . For more information about these statements, you can look them up in
the MySQL Reference Manual.
 Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 493

The process list

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Description
• A process is a connection to the database.
• To view the processes that are running for a connection from .MySQL Workbench,
select Sen er->< Client Connections, or select Client Connections from the
Administration tab of the Navigator window.
• It the Refresh Rate option is set to Don’t Refresh, click the Refresh button to
display the process list
• To stop a query, select it and click the Kill Query(s) button.
• To stop a process, select it and click the Kill Connection(s) button.
• To manually view a list of processes, use the SHOW PROCESSLIST statement. To
manually stop a query or process, use the KILL statement For more information
about these statements, you can refer to the MySQL Reference Manual.

Figure 17-4 How to view and kill processes

494 Section 5 Database administration

How to view the status variables

Although viewing the process list is often enough to determine whether a
server is performing adequately, you can view the status variables if you need
additional information about the status of the server. To view these variables, you
select Status and System Variables to display the Server Variables window. Then,
if the Status Variables tab isn't displayed, you can click on it to display it instead
of the System Variables tab. Finally, you can click on one of the categories to
display the variables in that category. For example, you can click on the Binlog
category to view all status variables that are associated with binary logs. You can
click on the Replication category to view all status variables that are associated
with replication. And so on. To display all the variables at once, you click on the
All category.
As figure 17-5 shows, the Status Variables tab includes the name of each
status variable along with its current value. In addition, most variables have a
description. Although you might not understand the information that all of these
variables provide, you’ll learn a lot about the status of your server by reviewing
them.
You can also use the search box in the Status Variables tab to search for
specific variables In this figure, for example, the tab displays only the status
variables that include “conn” somewhere in the variable name. As a result, this
search displays most status variables that display information about connections
to the server.
 Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 495

Status variables
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Description
• A status variable is a variable that contains information about the status of the
MySQL server.
• To view status variables from MySQL Workbench, select Server->Status and
System Variables, or select Status and System Variables from the Administration
tab of the Navigator window. If necessary, click the Status Variables tab. Within the
Status Variables tab. you can click on any of the categories to display the variables
in that category.
• To search for a status variable, use the Search box at the top of the tab.
• To manually view status variables, use the SHOW STATUS statement in a query
window.

Figure 17-5 How to view the status variables

496 Section 5 Database administration

How to view the system variables

If you need to check how the MySQL server is currently configured, you can
view its system variables as shown in figure 17-6. In general, view ing system
variables works like viewing status variables. As a result, if you understand
how to view status variables, you shouldn’t have any trouble viewing system
variables.
In tha next few figures, you'll learn how to set system variables. As you do,
you’ll leam more about how these variables work and what they can do.
 Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 497

System variables
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Description
• A system variable is a variable that stores a setting for the cunent configuration of
the MySQL server.
• To view system variables, select Server->Status and System Variables, or select
Status and System Variables from the Administration tab of the Navigator window.
If necessary, click the System Variables tab. From that tab. you can click any of the
categories to display the variables in that category.
• To search for a system variable, use the Search box at the top of the tab.
• To manually view system variables, use the SHOW VARIABLES statement in a
query window.

Figure 17-6 How to view the system variables

498 Section 5 Database administration

How to configure the server

When you install MySQL, the MySQL Server Instance Configuration
Wizard generates a configuration file that’s appropriate for your system. For
example, if you followed the instructions in the appendixes of this book to install
MySQL on your computer, it has been configured appropriately for a developer
who is using MySQL for learning and testing. However, if you install MySQL
for a production system, you can use this wizard to configure the server so it's
appropriate for that system.
If you need to change the server configuration after installing it, you can do
that by editing MySQL's configuration file with either MySQL Workbench or a
text editor. This sets the system variables for the server. Then. MySQL reads the
system variables from the configuration file every time it starts.
You can also use SET statements to set system variables dynamically. When
you do that, the settings go into effect immediately and aren't saved in the
configuration file. This allows you to change a system variable w ithout having
to restart the server. This is sometimes useful if you want to experiment with
different settings to see if they work correctly before you change them in the
configuration file.

How to set system variables

using MySQL Workbench
Figure 17-7 shows how to use MySQL Workbench to set system variables in
the configuration file. To do that, you select Server->Options File to display the
Options File w indow. Then, you click on an appropriate tab and use it to change
options.
In this figure, the General tab show's some of the options that you can
change. For example, you can use the basedir and datadir variables to change the
base directory and the data directory that are used by MySQL.
When you’re done making changes, you can click the Apply button to w rite
the changes to the configuration file. However. MySQL only reads the configu­
ration tile when it starts. As a result, your changes w'on't go into effect until you
stop and restart the server.
If Workbench isn’t able to write your changes to the configuration file, it
may be because it doesn't have appropriate privileges. In that case, you may be
able to solve the problem by running Workbench as an administrator.
You also won't be able to make your changes if the connection isn't pointing
to the correct configuration file. In this figure, for example, the bottom of the
window show's the configuration file that Workbench is attempting to modify.
In this case, that file is correct for my Windows system. If this file isn't correct
for your system, you can use a text editor to set system variables as ?>hown in the
next figure.
On macOS. the bottom of this window typically points to the my.cnf file in
the etc directory. However, a default install of MySQL doesn’t create this file.
 Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 499

Server configuration options

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Description
• When MySQL starts, it reads the server configuration file and uses it to set system
variables.
• To use MySQL Workbench to change the server configuration file, select
Server->Options File, or select Options File from the Administration tab of the
Navigator window. Then, click an appropriate tab and use it to change options.
Finally, click the Apply button to write the changes to the configuration file.
• To use MySQL Workbench to change the server configuration file, you may need to
run it as an administrator. To do that on a Windows system, right-click the MySQL
Workbench icon and then select ‘"Run as administrator’’.
• If the configuration file shown at the bottom of the window isn’t correct for your
system, you won’t be able to use Workbench to make changes to your system
configuration. In that case, you can use a text editor to set system variables as
shown in the next figure.
• On macOS. the configuration file isn't created when you install MySQL. Instead, it
is created when you use Workbench to apply changes to the default configuration.
It s often stored in the /private/etc directory with a name of my.cnf.
• The MySQL server only reads the configuration file when it starts. As a result, your
changes won’t go into effect until you restart the server.

Figure 17-7 How to set system variables using MySQL Workbench

500 Section 5 Database administration

Instead. Workbench creates this file only after you use the Options File window
to apply changes to the configuration file.

How to set system variables using a text editor

Another way to set system variables is to use a text editor to edit the
configuration file directly. On Windows, the configuration file is named
my.ini and is typically stored in MySQL's data directory. On macOS or
L'nix/Linux, this file is named my.cnf and is typically stored in the /private/
etc or /etc directory.
Figure 17-8 shows an excerpt from a typical configuration file for a
Windows system. Here, 1 have stripped out the settings for the MySQL
clients, and I have stripped out most comments. This makes it easy to see
the system variables that are set in a typical MySQL configuration file.
To start, the first line of the configuration file specifies that the
following system variables apply to the mysqld program. In the first group
of variables, the port variable sets the port to 3306. Then, the basedir and
datadir variables set MySQL's base and data directories. These directories
are typical for a Windows system. Next, the character-set-server and
default-storage-engine variables set the default character set and storage
engine for the server. Notice that the names of these variables use dashes
instead of underscores. This is acceptable only when you enter a variable
name in a configuration file.
The second and third groups of variables begin with a comment that
indicates that these variables only apply to MylSAM and InnoDB tables
respectively. This shows that you can code a comment by using a pound
sign (#1 to start the line. Then, the variable values show that w hen editing
these or any other variable that uses a number of bytes, you can add a suffix
to specify kilobytes (Ki. megabytes (Mi, or gigabytes (G).
As you review the settings for these variables, you should know that
MySQL provides over 300 system variables. However. MySQL defines
default values for these system variables. As a result, the configuration file
only needs to override the system variables when you want to change the
default value that's defined by MySQL.
If you start MySQL server from a command line, you should know that
you can code system variables by preceding the variable name with two
dashes like this:
--port»3307
Instructions tor how to do this for each operating system are provided at the top
of the configuration file.
 Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 501

Part of a configuration file for Windows

[mysqld]
port=3306
baaedir="C:/Program Files/MySQL/MySQL Server 8.0/"
datadir-C:/ProgramData/MySQL/MySQL Server 8.0/Data
character-set -server=utf8mb4
default-storage-engina=INNODB
defaultauthenticationplugin-caching sha2 jpassword
Eql-mode-"STRICT TRANS TABLES,NO ENGINE SUBSTITUTION”
log-output=FILE
general-log=0
generallogfile-"JOEL-PC.log”
slew-query-log-1
slow query log file-"JOEL-PC-slow.log"
long query time-10
log-bin-"JOEL-PC-bin”
log-error-"JOEL-PC.err"
server-id-1
1owercasetable names=1
secure-file-priv=”C:/ProgramData/MySQL/MySQL Server 8.0/Uploads"
max connections-151
tableopen cache-2000
tmp_tablesize=35M
thread cachesize-10

#*** MyISAM Specific options

myisam max sortfile size=100G
myisam sort buffer_size-62M
key buffer size-8M
read buffer_size-64K
read rnd buffer size-256K

#*** INNODB specific options ***

innodb flushlog at trx conmit-1
innodb log buffer_size-lM
innodb buffer jpool size-8M
innodb log files!ze=48M
innodb thread concurrency-9

Description
• To edit the configuration tile directly, use a text editor. This file is named my.ini
(Windows) or my.cnf tmacOS or L’nix/Linux).
• With Windows, you may need to start your text editor as an administrator. To do
that, right-click the shortcut for your text editor and select “Run as administrator”.
• Will) macOS. you may need to use Finder to give yourself permission to read and
write the my.cnf file with a text editor. To do that, go to the /private/etc directory,
Ctrl-click on the my.cnf file, select Get Info, click the lock icon, and modify the
permissions. When you're done editing the file, revoke your write peimission.
• When specifying a number of bytes, you can add a suffix to a number to specify
kilobytes (Ki. megabytes (Ml. or gigabytes (G).

Figure 17-8 How to set system variables using a text editor

502 Section 5 Database administration

How to set system variables

using the SET statement
in the previous two figures, you learned how to edit the configuration file
so changes to the system variables are stored permanently and read by MySQL
when the server starts. Now. figure 17-9 shows how to use the SET statement to
set system variables dynamically. When you use this approach, you don't need
to restart the server for the changes to take effect. As a result, you can use this
approach to expet iment with different values for system variables, Then. if you
want to make these changes permanent, you can add them to the configuration
file as described in the previous two figures.
When you use the SET statement to set system variables, you can set most
of them at either the global level or the session level. When you set variables at
the global level, any new connections start with these settings. Then, you can
override these settings for individual sessions if you need to. However, some
variables can only be set at the global level.
The first example in this figure uses a SET statement with the GLOBAL
keyword to set the variable named autocommit at the global level. This statement
sets this variable to a value of ON. which is a synonym for 1. Then, the second
example uses the SESSION keyword to set this variable at the session level to
a value of OFF. which is a synonym for 0. If you don't specify the GLOBAL or
SESSION keyword. MySQL sets the session variable if it exists. As a result, the
SESSION keyword is optional for setting session variables.
When specifying the value of a system variable, you can use tire DEFAULT
keyword to specify the default value that's compiled into MySQL. For instance,
the third example sets the autocommn variable to its default value.
The fourth and fifth examples show how to set the max_connections
variable. This variable specifies the maximum number of connections for the
server, not the session. As a result, it can only be set at the global level.
When specifying a value that’s a number of bytes, you can't use suffixes
hke you can in a configuration file. However, you can specify the number of
bytes as shown in the sixth example or use an expression as shown in the seventh
example. Both of these examples specify a value of 35 megabytes.
After you set a system variable, it s often helpful to be able to view it to
make sure it's set correctly. To get the value of a system variable, you code two
at signs (@@), the GLOBAL or SESSION keyword, a period, and the name of
the variable in a SELECT statement as shown in the next to last example. If you
don’t specify the GLOBAL or SESSION keyword. MySQL returns the session
value if it exists as shown in the last example. Otherwise, it returns the global
value.
When you use SET GLOBAL, you should know' that it only affects the
currently running instance of the MySQL server. So when you restart the server,
the variable will be reset to its original value. If that’s not what you want, you
can use SET PERSIST instead so the value of the variable is maintained across
restarts. To use SET PERSIST, however, you have to have sufficient privileges.
For more information, see the topic on persisted variables in the MySQL
Reference Manual.
 Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 503

The syntax for setting a system variable

Global variables
SET GLOBAL varnama ■ varvalue;

Session variables
SET [SESSION] var name ■ var value;

Examples that set system variables

SET GLOBAL autocommit ■ ON;
SET SESSION autocomnit = OFF;
SET GLOBAL autocomnit ■ DEFAULT;

SET GLOBAL max connections ■ 90;

SET GLOBAL max connections ■ DEFAULT;

SET GLOBAL tmp table_size ■ 36700160;

SET GLOBAL tmp tablesize - 35 * 1024 * 1024;

The syntax for getting a system variable

Global variables
MGLOBAL.var name

Session variables
00[SESSION.]var name

Examples that get system variables

Get the global and session values of a variable
SELECT MGLOBAL.au toe omni t, MSESS ION. autocomnit
§ ggoba. au tocommit .? . au tocommit

► 1 0

Get the session value if it exists or the global value if it doesn’t

SELECT Mautocommit
C &ajtDcornrrvt

► 0

Description
• You can use the SET statement to set the values of system variables dynamically.
• If you don't specify the GLOBAL or SESSION keyword when setting the value of
a system variable, MySQL sets the session variable if it exists.
• If you don't specify the GLOBAL or SESSION keyword when getting the value
of a system variable. MySQL returns the session value if it exists. Otherwise, it
returns the global value.
• The LOCAL keyword is a synonym for the SESSION keyword.
• You can use the DEFAULT keyword to set the value of a variable to the default
value that's compiled into MySQL.
• When specifying a number of bytes, you can't use suffixes i K. M, G). but you can
use expressions.

Figure 17-9 How to set system variables using the SET statement
504 Section 5 Database administration

How to work with logging

Earlier in this chapter, you learned about the types of logs that the MySQL
server can create. If these logs aren’t enabled on your system, you can enable
them and then configure them so they work, the way you want and view them
whenever necessary. Finally, if you use logs, you need to manage them so they
don't consume too much disk space.

How to enable and disable logging

When you enable a log. the server does extra work to write data to the log.
In addition, the log takes extra disk space. And since logs can contain sensitive
data, they can compromise the security of your data if you don’t secure the files
properly. As a result, you shouldn't enable a log unless you have a good reason
to do so, and you should disable any logs you don't use.
However, logs can also provide useful information. For example, the general
query log can help you monitor the server The error log can help you find and
fix errors. The binary log can help you restore data. And the slow query log can
help you optimize a database. So, if you need help w ith any of these tasks, you
can enable the appropriate log if it isn’t already enabled.
Figure 17-10 shows how to enable logging. To start. it shows the Logging
tab of the Options File window that you saw earlier in this chapter. Here, die
options in the Logging tab enable the general and error logs. Of course, you can
also use this tab to disable logs if you no longer need them. Although you can t
see all of the logging options here, you can use this tab to set all of the options
described in this figure.
In addition to enabling the logs, these options allow you to specify a direc­
tory and name for each log file. If you don’t specify a name. MySQL uses the
default names shown in this figure, which include the name of the host machine.
Similarly, if you don’t specify a directory. MySQL stores the log files in its data
directory.
If you want to edit the configuration file to set the logging options, you can
do that too In this figure, for instance, the code example shows how to set all six
options. Here, the first line enables the general log, and the second line speci­
fies a name and directory for its log file. The third line enables the error log and
specities a name and directory for its log file. The fourth line enables the binary
log and specifies a name and directory for its files. And the last two lines enable
the slow query log and specify a name and directory for its log file. Note that
this code works on a Windows. macOS, or Unix/Linux system. Although you
typically use backslashes for Windows, front slashes work as well. So, whenever
it makes sense, we've used front slashes in this book.
So, when would you want to store a log file in a directory other than the
default directory (the data directory)? Typically, you'd wrant to do that if you’re
using binary log files to incrementally back up your data. Then, you can store the
log files on a drive other than the drive that’s running the MySQL server. That
way, if the drive that the server is running on fails, you can still access the binary
files and restore the server.
 Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 505

Server configuration options for log files

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System variables for enabling logging

Variable Description
general log Enables the general log with a default name of HOST-
NAME.log.
general log file-logname Specifies the name of the general log file.
log error[slogname] Enables the error log. If no name is specified. MySQL
uses a name of HOSTNAME.err.
log bin[=logname] Enables the binary log. If no name is specified. MySQL
uses a name of HOSTNAME-bin. Since MySQL provides
its own extensions (.index. .000001. .000002. etc.) for the
binary log files, you don’t need to specify an extension
for the log name.
alow query log Enables the slow query log with a default name of
HOSTNAME-slow.log.
Glowquery log file»logname Specifies the name of the slow log file.

Logging options set in the server configuration file

genera11 og
general log file ■ "/murach/myeq1/genera1.log"

logerror ■ "/murach/mycql/error.log"

log bin ■ ■/murach/myfiql/bin-log"

g 1 owquerylog
alow query log file ■ "/murach/mysql/slow.log"

Description
* Logs can help you monitor the database, find and fix errors, restore data, replicate
changes, and optimize your database.
• Log files can take a significant amount of disk space, reduce server speed, and if you
don’t secure the log tiles properly, compromise security.
• If you don’t specify a directory for a log tile, the file is stored in MySQL's data directory.

Figure 17-10 How to enable and disable logging

506 Section 5 Database administration

To specify a drive on a Windows system, you just code the drive letter at the
beginning of the path like this:
lcqbin»‘c: /nturach/ntysql/bln-log*
To specify a drive on a Unix/Linux system, you code the Volumes directory and
the name of the drive at the beginning of the path like this:
log bin-"volume sI archive/murach/myaql/bin-log”
In this example. Archive is the name of the drive.
Unfortunately, you can’t specify a directory for the binary log on a macOS
system. If you attempt to do that, the server won t start. As a result, if you're
using macOS. you must store your binary log files in the default directory.

How to configure logging

If logging is enabled, you can configure it so it works the way you want.
To do that, you can use any of the techniques shown in this chapter for setting
system variables. Figure 17-11 summarizes some of the most commonly used
system variables for configuring logging.
The configuration file in this figure shows some examples of how to set
these options. To start, the log_output example sends the output of the general
and slow query logs to tables instead of to files. This causes these logs to be
written to the General_Log and Slow_Log tables of the database named mysql.
That way. you can use SELECT statements to view the data that’s written to
these logs. In addition, you can use events to automatically manage these tables.
The log_errur_verbosity example sets the level of w arnings that are logged
about connections to the highest level (3). As a result, the server logs errors,
warnings, and informational messages.
The expire_logs_days example deletes binary log files that are more than
seven days old. This setting is appropriate if you back up your database once a
w eek. That way, if you need to restore your database, you can use the database
backup to restore it to somew here within seven days of the current date. Then,
you can use the binary log to apply any changes that have been made since that
backup, as described in chapter 19.
The max_binlog_size example sets the maximum size of the binary log file
to one megabyte. As a result, when the server reaches this limit, it starts a new
binary log file with a new number. However, if MySQL is logging a transac­
tion when it reaches the limit, it finishes the transaction before skirting a new
file. So. the binary log files may be slightly larger than the size indicated by the
max_binlog_size setting.
The long_query_time example causes the server to write queries to the slow
query log if they take longer than five seconds. By default, this value is set to ten
seconds, but you can set it to a lower value if you want to include queries that
take a shorter time to run. Conversely, you can set it to a higher value if you only
want to include queries that take a longer time to run.
 Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 507

System variables that apply to multiple types of logs

Variable Description
logoutput["target] Sends the output for the general log and the slow query log to a
file (FILE), a table (TABLE), or nowhere (NONE). If you want
to send the output to both a file and a table, you can separate the
two targets with a comma (but no spaces).
log warnings["level] Determines whether errors (1). errors and warnings (2). or errors,
warnings, and informational messages (3) are logged. The default
is 2.

System variables for the binary log

Variable Description
expire logs days["days] Deletes binary log files that are more than the specified number
of days old. The default Ls 0. which means files aren't deleted.
max binlogsize[=bytes] Sets the maximum size of the binary log. The server starts a
new log file when the binary log reaches its maximum size.
The default is 1073741824 (1GB).

A system variable for the slow query log

Variable Description
long query time[^seconds] Sets the number of seconds that defines
a slow query. The default is 10.

Logging options set in the server configuration file

ft stores the output of the general and slow query logs in a table
logoutput = TABLE

ft logs errorsf warningst and informational messages

logerrorverboaity = 3

ft deletes binary log files that are more than 7 days old
expire logs days = 7

ft sets the maximum binary log file size to 1MB

max bin!og size ■ 1048576

ft writes queries to the slow query log if they take longer than 5 seconds
long query time * 5

Description
• You can use any of the techniques for setting global system variables that are
described in this chapter to set logging options.
• Many variables are available for configuring logging in addition to those shown
above. For a complete list, check the MySQL documentation.

Figure 17-11 How to configure logging

508 Section 5 Database administration

How to view text-based logs

By default, the general, error, and slow query logs are stored m text files.
As a result, you can use any text editor to open and view them. Or. you can use
MySQL Workbench to view them. To do that, select the Server Logs item, and
click on the tab for the log you want to view. In figure 17-12, for example, the
error log is opened in Workbench. Here, the error log shows some messages that
the server logs when it starts and stops. In addition, this Server Logs w indow
contains a tab for the slow query log file, since this log is enabled. However, it
doesn't include a tab for the general query log, since this log isn't enabled.
If you configure your system so it stores the general and slow query logs
in tables as shown in the previous figure, you can use MySQL Workbench to
view these tables, just as you would use it to view a log file. In addition, you
can use a SELECT statement to view them. In this figure, for example, the first
SELECT statement selects all rows from the General_Log table that's stored in
the database named mysql. Of course, if you wanted to. you could easily modify
this SELECT statement so it uses the event_time column to display just the most
recent row s of this table.
Notice that this SELECT statement also includes a column that displays the
text in the argument column. To do that, it converts this column to the CHAR
data ty pe. That’s necessary with MySQL 5.7 and later because the argument
column is a BLOB type.
The second SELECT statement selects all rows from the Slow_Log table of
the mysql database In tins figure, this SELECT statement doesn t retrieve any
rows because no queries have run slowly enough. As a result, the server hasn't
inserted any rows into the table. If the server had written rows to this table, you
could use the data in each row to help determine why the query is running so
slowly.
 Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 509

The error log displayed in MySQL Workbench

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How to view the log files when they are written to tables
The general log
SELECT ♦, CHAR(argument) AS argumenttext FROM myfiql.general„log
event-time user.host thread jd server Jd command .type argument argi A

► 2023-08-04 10:23:24.093886 stop-grants user D £ Q 0 1 Execute

2023-08-04 10:23:28.855908 [root] @ ocaihost [:: 1] 8 1 Connect
2023-08-04 10:23:28.862688 root[root] © localhost [::1] 8 1 Query co
2023-08-04 10:23:28.862996 rootfroot] ® localhost [:: 1] 8 1 <Mry 1 t1
9 'W^ M

< >

The slow query log

SELECT * FROM mysql.slawlog
start_!ime user_host query _bme lock_tme rows_sent rohs_examned cb Cast_nsert_id insert_d

Description
• By default, the general, error, and slow query logs are stored in text files. As a
result, you can use any text editor to open them and view them.
• You can also use MySQL Workbench to view logs. To do that select
Server-} Server Logs, or select Server Logs from the Administration tab of the
Navigator window. Then, click the tab for the log file.
• If you configure your system so it stores the general and slow query logs in tables,
you can use MySQL Workbench to view these tables, just as you would use it to
view a log file. In addition, you can use a SELECT statement to view them.

Figure 17-12 How to view the text-based logs

510 Section 5 Database administration

How to manage logs

Since logs can use a large amount of disk space and reduce server efficiency,
you should disable any logs that you don’t need. For example, since the general
log contains all queries that are sent to the server, it can quickly grow to be very
large. As a result, it's common to disable the general log. Then, if you want
to monitor all queries sent to the server, you can temporarily enable this log.
Similarly, when you're done optimizing the queries on your server, you may
want to disable the slow query log.
On the other hand, it’s usually a good idea to keep the error log enabled
since it contains useful information that can help you troubleshoot problems with
the server. In addition, if you're using the binary log to provide for incremental
point-in-time recovery, you can't disable it.
If you enable any logs, you need to manage them so they don't consume too
much disk space. For the text-based logs (general, error, and slow query), you
can use the log rotation strategy described in figure 17-13. With this strategy,
you delete any old log tiles. Then, you rename the current log file. When you do.
MySQL server starts a new error log file.
For example, let’s say you have an old error log named error.old and the
current error log is named error.log In that case, you can start by deleting the
file named error.old. Then, you can rename the current error log (error.log) to
error.old. When you do. MySQL starts a new error log named error.log. As a
result, you never have more than two error logs on your server at a time.
To get started, you can manage logs by manually deleting and renaming
files. Later, you can automate your log management. For example, you
can create a batch tile for a Windows system or a bash file for a macOS
or Unix/Linux system. You can also create a timer to execute these files
at regular intervals. Since the details for doing this vary depending on the
operating system, they’re not described here.
If you store the general log and the slow query logs in a table, you can use
SQL statements to rotate the log tables. You can also create an event that rotates
the log tables at a specified interval. For example, this figure shows an event that
rotates the general log table once every month.
To start, the DROP TABLE statement drops the table named
general_log_old if it exists. Then, the CREATE TABLE statement creates a
table named general_log_old that has the same structure and data as the table
named general_log. Finally, the TRUNCATE statement deletes all rows from
the general_log table. As a result, the general_log_old table now contains the
log rows from the previous month, and the general_log table is empty and ready
to store the log rows for the current month. Here, you must use a TRUNCATE
statement instead of a DELETE statement because the DELETE statement
doesn't work with the generaljog table.
Since the binary log uses an index file to keep track of its numbered binary
files, you can't just delete the old binary files that you no longer want. However,
you can use the expirejogs_days system variable that was described m figure
17-11 to delete old binary logs after the specified number of days. This deletes
the old binary tiles and updates the index file.
 Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 511

Strategies for managing logs

Strategy Description
Log rotation Applies to text-based logs (general, error, and slow query).
To rotate logs, you can save the current log file under a new
name and let the server create a new log file. Then, you can
delete any old log files when they're no longer needed. If
necessary, you can create a series of numbered logs.
Age-baaad expiration Applies to the binary log. For this log. you can use the
expire_logs_days system variable shown in figure 17-11 to
delete the old binary logs after the specified number of days.

An event that rotates the general log every month

USE myfiql;

DELIMITER //

CREATE EVENT generallog rotate

ON SCHEDULE EVERY 1 MONTH
DO BEGIN
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS generallogold;

CREATE TABLE general logold AS

SELECT *
FROM general log;

TRUNCATE general log;

END//

Description
• Il s generally considered a good practice to disable any logs that you don’t need.
• You can manually manage the text-based log Hies (general, error, and slow query)
by deleting and renaming log tiles.
• You can automatically manage text-based log files (general, error, and slow query)
by creating batch files (Windows) or bash files (macOS or L’nix/Linux) that run on
a specified schedule.
• If you send the output of the general and slow query logs to a table, you can create
an event that uses SQL statements to manage the log tables.
• You can't just delete tiles from the binary or relay log. since an index is used to
keep track of the files in these logs. However, you can set the expire_logs_days
system variable to delete files from the binary log after a specified number of days.

Figure 17-13 How to manage logs

512 Section 5 Database administration

Perspective
In this chapter, you were introduced to the responsibilities of a database
administrator. In addition, you learned how to perf orm some of these respon­
sibilities. including how to monitor the server, configure the server, and work
with log files.
In the next two chapters, you'll learn how to perform two more critical
responsibilities of a DBA. First, in chapter 18, you'll learn how to secure
a database. Then, in chapter 19, you’ll learn how to backup and restore a
database.

Terms
database administrator (DBA) slow query log
database replication binary log
source relay log
replica process
configuration tile mysqld program
data file MySQL daemon
log file status variable
general log system variable
error log

Exercises
1. Start MySQL Workbench and open the Client Connections window. If the
process list isn't displayed, click on the Refresh button in the lower right
corner to display it. Review the list to see that it includes two processes for
the current database. Then, return to the Home tab, open another connection
for the root user, and select a different database as the current database. Next,
return to the Client Connections window to see that it includes two additional
processes for the new connection.
2. Use Workbench’s Server Variables window to view these status variables:
connections, threads_connected. bytes_received. and bytes_sent. Read the
descriptions for these variables to get an idea of w hat they do.
3. Use Workbench’s Server Variables w indow to view the system variables
named basedir and datadir. Note the paths to these directories. Then, view
the system variables named log_error and log_bin. Note whether the log_bin
variable is set to a value of ON or OFF and w'hether the log_error variable is
set to the name of an error log, indicating that it is on.
 Chapter 17 An introduction to database administration 513

4. Use File Explorer (Windows) or Finder (macOS) to view MySQL's data

directory. To do that, you may have to modify your operating system settings
so you can see hidden directories and hies. With macOS. you may also need
to change the permissions for the directory to give yourself the read privilege.
Note that the subdirectories of the data directory correspond to the databases
that are running on your system. If the data directory contains any log hies,
note the names of these hies.
5. View the hies in the AP subdirectory and note how the names of the hies
correspond to the tables of this database. To do this on a Mac. you may need
to change the permissions for the directory to give yourself the read privilege
for the directory.
6. Use Workbench's Options File window to enable the error log and the binary
log. if they aren't already enabled. Use whatever directories and names you
want for the logs. If you get an error indicating that access is denied, you may
need to stop Workbench and run it as an administrator. After you enable these
logs, restart the server.
7. Use File Explorer (Windows) or Finder (macOS) to hnd MySQL's configura­
tion hie. Note the directory and name of this hie on your computer.
8. Use Workbench’s Server Logs window' to view the error log. Note that it
includes messages about the startup and shutdown of the server.
9. Write and execute an INSERT statement that inserts a new row into the
Invoices table.
10. Use a SET statement to temporarily enable the general log. Then, to make
sure that this variable was set, use a SELECT statement to view the variable.
If you get an error indicating that access is denied, you may need to stop
Workbench and run it as an administrator.
11. Use a SELECT statement to select all rows from the Invoices table.
12. Use Workbench's Server Logs window to view the general log. and click
on the Refresh button. Note that it includes the SELECT statement from the
previous step
13. Use a SET statement to disable the general log. Then, to make sure that this
variable was set, use a SELECT statement to view the sariable.
 18
How to secure a database
If you have installed MySQL on your own computer and you have only been
working with sample databases, security hasn't been much of a concern.
However, when you use MySQL in a production environment, you must
configure security to prevent misuse of your data. In this chapter, you’ll
learn how to do that by writing SQL statements to create users that have
restricted access to your database. In addition, you’ll learn how to use MySQL
Workbench to perform many of the security-related tasks that you can perform
with SQL code.

An introduction to user accounts..........................................516

An introduction to SQL statements for user accounts............... ........... .........516
A summary of privileges...................................................................................518
The four privilege levels................................................................................... 522
The grant tables in the mysql database....................~.................. ....................522
How to work with users and privileges........ ........... ..........524
Hou to create, rename, and drop users............. .............................................524
How to specify user account names................................................................ 526
How to grant privileges.................................................................................... 528
How to view privileges............. ........................................................................530
How to revoke privileges.......... ........................................................................ 532
How to change passwords................................................................................ 534
A script that creates users................................................................................ 536
How to work with roles.................. ...___ ............ ..538
How to create, manage, and drop roles........................................................... 538
A script that creates users and roles................................................................ 542
How to use MySQL Workbench........ ............... .......... .........544
Hou to work with users and privileges...................... ................. 544
How to connect as a user for testing................................................................548
Perspective................ ........................... ............550
516 Section 5 Database administration

An introduction to user accounts

Before you learn the details of managing database security, you should have
a general idea of how user accounts work. That's what you'll learn in this topic.

An introduction to SQL statements

for user accounts
Figure 18-1 presents a script that contains the SQL statements tiiat are used
to create two users and grant them privileges. You'll learn more about how the
statements in this script work later in this chapter. For now. we just want to
introduce you to the concepts of users and privileges.
This script starts with CREATE USER statements that create two users
named ap_admin and ap_user. Both users can only connect from the local server,
and both have a password of “pa55word'‘. Although this password isn't realistic,
it illustrates how these statements work.
After the users are created, the GRANT statements set up privileges for
each user. Here, the user named ap_admin is granted all the privileges on the AP
database. As a result, this user can select, insert, update, and delete data from the
tables of the AP database. In addition, this user has many other privileges such as
creating or dropping tables, indexes, and views in the AP database. By contrast,
the user named ap_user can only select, insert, update, and delete data in the AP
database.
If you want to view the privileges for a user, you can use the SHOW
GRANTS statement. In this figure, for example, you can see the privileges for
the user named ap_admin.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 517

A script that creates two users and grants them privileges

CREATE USER ap admlnGlocalhofit IDENTIFIED BY (pa55word(;
CREATE USER ap usarGlo-calhost IDENTIFIED BY 'paSSword';

GRANT ALL
ON ap.*
TO ap_admin01ocalhoflt;

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

ON ap.*
TO ap_uaer01ocalhost;

A statement that displays the privileges for the ap_admin user

SHOW GRANTS FOR ap adminGlocalhoat
Grants hr ap.atfrnn ssocahost

» GRANT USAGE ON TO ' ap_at*m '£ locafasf

GRANT All PRIvUfGES ON ap'.“TO ap.adnr $ ocahos!

Description
• You use the CREATE USER statement to create a user that has no privileges.
• You use the GRANT statement to grant privileges to a user.
• You use the SHOW GRANTS statement to view the privileges for a user.

Figure 18-1 An introduction to SQL statements for user accounts

518 Section 5 Database administration

A summary of privileges
Figure 18-2 summarizes some of the common privileges that a database user
can have. To start, a user can have privileges to work with the data that’s stored
in a database. These privileges allow a user to execute DML statements, such
as the SELECT, UPDATE. INSERT, and DELETE statements. They also allow
a user to execute stored procedures and functions. These are the most common
types of privileges, since most users need to be able to work with the data that's
stored in a database.
A user can also have privileges to modify the definition of a database. 'These
privileges allow a user to execute DDL statements such as the CREATE TABLE.
ALTER TABLE. DROP TABLE. CREATE INDEX, and DROP INDEX state­
ments. These privileges are common for administrative users of a database such
as database administrators and programmers, but they aren't commonly granted
to the end users of a database.
In addition, a user can have privileges to work with the stored programs of a
database. These privileges allow a user to execute the statements that you learned
about in chapters 15 and 16. For example, the CREATE ROUTINE privilege
allows a user to execute the CREATE PROCEDURE and CREATE FUNCTION
statements.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 519

Privileges for working with data

Privilege Description
SELECT Select data from a table.
INSERT Insert data into a table.
UPDATE Update data in a table.
DELETE Delete data from a table.
EXECUTE Execute a stored procedure or function.

Privileges for modifying the database structure

Privilege Description
CREATE Create a database or a table.
ALTER Alter a table.
DROP Drop a database or a table.
INDEX Create or drop an index.
CREATE VIEWS Create views.
CREATE ROUTINE Create a stored procedure or function.
ALTER ROUTINE Alter or drop a stored procedure or function.
TRIGGER Create or drop a trigger on a table.
EVENT Create, alter, drop, or view an event for a database.

Description
• The privileges a user has control the operations that the user can perform on the
database.
• Privileges for working with the data in a database are typically given to all users of
the database, including end users.
• Privileges for modifying the structure of a database are typically given only to
database administrators and programmers.

Figure 18-2 A summary of privileges (part 1 of 2)

520 Section 5 Database administration

The privileges you learned about in part I of figure 18-2 are called object
privileges because they allow the user to create and work with database objects,
such as tables, views, and stored procedures. The exact privileges that arc avail­
able for an object depend on the type of object In contrast to object privileges,
administrative privileges allow the user to create new user accounts and roles,
show the databases available from the sen er, shut down the server, and so on.
These privileges are listed in the first table in part 2 of this figure.
The second table lists some other privileges you’ll use frequently. The ALL
privilege grants all privileges available at the specified level except die GRANT
OPTION privilege. In general, you only grant the ALL privilege to users like
database administrators or programmers. In some cases, you may also want
to grant these users the GRANT OPTION privilege. If you do. they can grant
privileges to other users.
The USAGE privilege doesn’t grant any privileges to a user. In most cases,
you'll use this privilege when you wrant to give a user the ability to grant privi­
leges to other users. In that case, this privilege indicates that the existing privi­
leges for the user shouldn't be changed. You'll see an example of how this works
later in this chapter.
Before you go on. you should know that My SQL provides many privileges
othei than the ones shown here. As a result, if the privileges presented in
this chapter aren’t adequate for your security needs, you can use the SHOW
PRIVILEGES statement to view a list of all the privileges that are available with
your version of MySQL Then, you can refer to the MySQL documentation for
information on any of these privileges.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 521

Administrative privileges
Privilege Description
CREATE USER Create new user accounts.
CREATE ROLE Create a new role.
SHOW DATABASES Show the names of all databases on the server.
SHUTDOWN Shut down the server.

Other privileges
Privilege Description
ALL [PRIVILEGES] All privileges available at the specified level except the
GRANT OPTION privilege.
GRANT OPTION Allows a user to grant his or her privileges to other users.
USAGE No privileges. It can be used to modify existing accounts
without changing the privileges for that account.

Description
• Object privileges allow the user to create and work with database objects such as
tables, views, and stored procedures. The privileges that are available for an object
depend on the ty pe of object.
• Administrative privileges allow the user to create users, grant privileges, and
manage operations on the server. They are not specific to a particular database.
• To see a list of the privileges that are supported by your version of MySQL along
with their definitions, use the SHOW PRIVILEGES statement.

Figure 18-2 A summary of privileges (part 2 of 2)

522 Section 5 Database administration

The four privilege levels

To understand how privileges work, you need to understand that My SQL
grants them at the four different levels shown in the first table in figure 18-3:
global, database, table, and column. Global privileges provide a user access
to all the tables in all the databases. Database privileges provide a user access
to all tables in a specific database. Table privileges provide a user access to all
columns on a specified table. And column privileges provide a user access only
to specific columns on specific tables.

The grant tables in the mysql database

To store user and privilege information, MySQL uses the grant tables in
an internal database named mysql. The second table in figure 18-3 summarizes
some of these tables. The table named User stores the usernames, passwords, and
global privileges lor ail users on the server. The table named DB stores informa­
tion about the database privileges for each user. The table named Tables_Pnv
stores information about the table and column privileges for each user. The table
named Columns_Priv stores information about the column privileges for each
user. And the table named Procs_Priv stores information about the privileges for
accessing stored procedures and functions.
You may be interested to know that the User and DB tables list each privi­
lege in a separate column that's defined as ENUM('N',’Y') that indicates if a
privilege is enabled or disabled. By contrast, the other three tables use SET
columns that list the privileges that are enabled. This illustrates a practical use
for the ENUM and SET types that you learned about in chapter 8.
W hen you grant users access to the databases on a server, you typically want
to restrict all users other than administrative users from accessing the mysql
database. That's because if a user has access to the mysql database, they can
change the user or privilege information directly. For example, the user could
insert a row into the User table to create a user with global privileges, or the user
could change the privileges of other users. If you restrict access to administrative
users, though, this security risk is greatly reduced.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 523

The four privilege levels

Level Description
Global All databases and all tables.
Database All tables in the specified database.
Table All columns in the specified table.
Column Only the specified column or columns.

Some of the grant tables in the mysql database

Table name □escription
user Stores the usernames and passwords for all users on the server. In addition,
stores the global privileges that apply to all databases on the server.
db Stores the database privileges.
tablas priv Stores the table and column privileges.
columns priv Stores the column privileges.
procs priv Stores the privileges for accessing stored procedures and functions.

Description
• You can use MySQL to grant privileges at four different levels.
• MySQL stores all users for the server and their privileges in grant tables in an
internal database named mysql.

Figure 18-3 MySQLs privilege levels and grant tables

524 Section 5 Database administration

How to work with users and privileges

Now that you have a basic understanding of users and privileges, you’re
ready to learn the details for working with users and privileges. This includes
creating and dropping users, granting and revoking privileges, and changing the
password for an existing user.

How to create, rename, and drop users

Figure 18-4 shows how to work with users. To start, when you use the
CREATE L'SER statement, you typically specify the name of the user, followed
by the @ sign, followed by the name of the host that the user can connect from.
This is usually followed by the IDENTIFIED BY clause, which specifies a
password for the user. If you omit this clause, no password is assigned, which
isn’t usually what you want.
The first example in this figure illustrates how this works. Here, the
CREATE USER statement creates a user named joel that can connect from the
host named localhost with a password of “sesame”. In other words, joel can only
connect from the same computer where MySQL server is running.
If you don’t use the @ sign to specify a host, MySQL uses a percent sign
(%) as the name of the host. This indicates that the user can connect from any
host. In the second example, for instance, the CREATE USER statement creates
a user named jane that can connect from any host with a password of “sesame”.
This statement also includes the IF NOT EXISTS clause so the statement isn’t
executed if the user already exists. If the user does exist and this clause is
included, a warning is generated instead of an error. That way, if the statement is
included in a script, the script will continue executing instead of aborting.
You can also code the PASSWORD EXPIRE, PASSWORD HISTORY, and
PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL clauses on the CREATE USER statement.
The PASSWORD EXPIRE clause allows you to control how often a password
needs to be changed. In the third example in this figure, for instance, this clause
causes the password to expire immediately. As a result, the CREATE USER
statement doesn’t specify a password because the user will have to change the
password the next time she connects.
The PASSWORD HISTORY and PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL clauses
became available with MySQL 8.0. The PASSWORD HISTORY clause allows
you to control how many of the most recent passwords can’t be reused when
a user’s password is changed. This is illustrated by the fourth example, which
prevents the user from using the last five passwords.
The PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL clause is similar to the PASSWORD
HISTORY clause, except that it controls the number of days during which a user
can’t reuse a previously used password. For instance, the fifth example specifies
that the user can’t reuse a password for a year.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 525

How to create a user

The simplified syntax of the CREATE USER statement
CREATE USER [IF NOT EXISTS] username [IDENTIFIED BY password]
[PASSWORD EXPIRE [DEFAULT|NEVER|INTERVAL days DAY] |
PASSWORD HISTORY {DEFAULT | nuriber passwords) |
PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL {DEFAULT|days DAY}]

A statement that creates a user from a specific host

CREATE USER joelSlocalhost IDENTIFIED BY 'sesane'

A statement that creates a user from any host

CREATE USER IF NOT EXISTS jane IDENTIFIED BY ■sesame■ — creates jone0%

A statement that creates a user whose password expires immediately

CREATE USER anneSlocalhO^t PASSWORD EXPIRE

A statement that creates a user whose last five passwords can't be reused
CREATE USER jIDENTIFIED BY 'sesame' PASSWORD HISTORY 5

A statement that creates a user whose passwords can t be reused for 365 days
CREATE USER John IDENTIFIED BY 'sesame* PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL 365 DAY

How to rename a user

The syntax of the RENAME USER statement
RENAME USER usamAM TO naw ussrnaiM

A statement that renames a user from a specific host

RENAME USER joeldlocalhost TO joelmurachdlocalhoGt

How to drop a user

The syntax of the DROP USER statement
DROP USER [IF EXISTS] username

A statement that drops a user from a specific host

DROP USER joelunir achelocal ho st

A statement that drops a user from any host

DROP USER IF EXISTS jane -- drops jane9%

Description
• You use ihe CREATE USER statement to create a user that has no privileges.
• When you code a username, you can specify the host that a user can connect from.
• The PASSWORD EXPIRE clause determines how often the specified password
needs to be changed. If no option is coded, the password expires immediately.
• The PASSWORD HISTORY clause determines how many of the most recent
passwords can't be reused.
• The PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL clause determines the number of days until a
previously used password can be used again.
* You can use the RENAME USER statement to change the name of a user.
• You can use the DROP USER statement to drop a user.

Figure 18-4 How to create, rename, and drop users

526 Section 5 Database administration

After you use the CREATE USER statement to create a user, the user has no
privileges. However, you can use the GRANT statement to assign privileges to
the user as you’ll see shortly.
The sixth example in figure 18-4 uses the RENAME USER statement to
change the name of the user named joel@localhost to joelmurach©1 localhost. If
this user has privileges, the privileges are transferred to the new name.
The last two examples use the DROP USER statement to drop the users
named joelmurach&localhost and jane@%. These statements delete the user
accounts and their privileges from the mysql database. Of these statements,
the second includes the IF EXISTS clause. That way, if the user doesn’t exist,
the statement generates a warning instead of an error. This allows a script to
continue executing instead of being stopped. Before dropping users, remember
that they are for all databases on the server. As a result, you should check with
anyone else who is using the server to make sure that the user isn't needed.

How to specify user account names

In the last figure, you saw some examples of user account names. Now.
figure 18-5 presents the details for coding these names. Here, the first example
shows the account name for a user named john who can connect only from the
local host.
The second example shows how to code an account name for the same user
using quotation marks In this example, neithei the username nor the hostname
contains special characters. As a result, these quotation marks are optional.
In this book, we typically code the quotation marks only when they’re neces­
sary. However, some programmers prefer to always code then, for consistency.
Also, when we use quotes in this book, we typically use single quotation marks
(’). However, you can use double quotation marks (") or backticks (') if you prefer.
The third example shows yet another way to code the same user as the first
example. For the host, this example uses an IP address of 127.0.0.1. which is
synonymous with the localhost keyword. Although it isn't shown in this figure,
you can use an IP address to identify a remote server too if necessary.
The fourth example shows how to create a user that can connect from any
host, local or remote In this example, the account name doesn't use the @ sign
to specify a host. As a result, MySQL automatically uses the percent sign (%)
wildcard character for the hostname. This indicates that the user can connect
from any host.
The fifth example shows how to explicitly code the hostname tor a user that
can connect from any computer. In this example, the percent sign (%) must be
enclosed in quotes because it's a special character.
The sixth and seventh examples show' an account name for a user that can
connect from a host for a specific domain. Since the percent sign is coded before
the domain name, the user can connect from any computer within a domain name
that ends with murach.com. In both examples, the hostname must be enclosed
in quotes since it includes the percent sign (%). In addition, the usemame in the
seventh example must be enclosed in quotes since it includes dashes (-).
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 527

The syntax of an account name

username[@hostname]

A user that can only connect from the same server as MySOL
j ohnOlocalhost

The same user with optional quotation marks

1 John10*localhofit1

The same user with an IP address instead of the localhost keyword

johnP127.3.0.1

A user that can connect from any computer

John

The same user but with the wildcard character explicitly coded
john9'Js1

A user that can only connect from the murach.com domain

john^'^.murach.com*

A username that needs to be coded with quotes

1 qu inn-the-mighty' 0A.ffiurach.can'

Description
• If you want to specify the host that a user can connect from, you can code the
username, followed by the @ character, followed by the hostname.
• If you specify a user without specifying a hostname, MySQL uses a percent sign
(%) as a wildcard character to indicate that the user can connect from any host.
• The username and hostname do not need to be quoted if they are legal as unquoted
identifiers. Quotes are necessary to specify a usemame string containing special
characters such as a dash (-), or a hostname string containing special characters or
wildcard characters such as a percent sign (%).
• To quote a username or hostname, you can enclose it in single quotation marks ('),
double quotation marks (**), or backticks (').

Figure 18-5 How to specify user account names

528 Section 5 Database administration

How to grant privileges

Figure 18-6 shows several ways to grant privileges to users. The first state­
ment grants all privileges on all databases to a user named jim@'%. To do that,
this statement uses the ALL privilege. In addition, the ON clause is coded with
an asterisk for both the database name and table name. These asterisks are
wildcards that indicate that the user has privileges on all databases and all tables.
In other words, this usei is given a global privilege level. Finally, this statement
includes the WITH GRANT O1TION clause. This grants the GRANT OPTION
privilege to the user, which means that they can grant any of their privileges to
other users.
Note that when you code the WITH GRANT OPTION clause, the user is
only given the GRANT OPTION privilege at the level that's specified on the ON
clause. In this example, the user is granted global privileges, so he will he able
to grant all of his privileges to other users. If you want to restrict the privileges
a user can grant to other users, you grant individual database, table, or column
privileges instead. Then, the user will only be able to grant privileges on those
objects.
Although using the ALL keyword makes it easy to grant all privileges to a
user, it also makes it easy to grant more privileges than the user needs. And that
can make your database less secure. In general, then, it's a good practice to grant
users just the privileges that they need.
The second statement grants just SELECT, INSERT, and UPDATE privi­
leges to all tables in the AP database. These privileges are given to a user named
joel on the local host. The third statement is similar, except it grants privileges
on just the Vendors table in the AP database.
The fourth statement grants privileges to specific columns of a table.
Specifically, it grants the SELECT privilege on three columns of the Vendors
table, and it grants the UPDATE privilege on another column. To do that, the
column names are listed in parentheses after each privilege.
The fifth statement assumes that the AP database is the current database.
As a result, this statement doesn't specify the database name. Although this can
simplify the code for granting privileges, it risks granting privileges to the wrong
database. As a result, it’s a good idea to specify the database when you use the
GRANT statement
The sixth statement gives the user the ability to grant their privileges to
other users To do that, it includes the WITH GRANT OP TION clause. Unlike
the first example that uses this clause, though, the USAGE privilege is speci­
fied. As a result, no additional privileges are given to the user. If you want to
grant additional privileges to a user, you can code those privileges instead of the
USAGE privilege.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 529

The syntax of the GRANT statement

GRANT privilegelist
ON (db name.]table
TO userl [, user2 ]...
[WITH GRANT OPTION]

A statement that grants global privileges to a user

GRANT ALL
ON *.*
TO jiffi
WITH GRANT OPTION

A statement that grants database privileges to a user

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE
ON ap.*
TO joelBlocalhost

A statement that grants table privileges to a user

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE
ON ap.vendors
TO joeieiocalhost

A statement that grants column privileges to a user

GRANT SELECT (vendor name, vendor_state, vendor zip_code),
UPDATE (vendor address1)
ON ap.vendors
TO joelQlocalhost

A statement that uses the current database

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
ON vendors
TO ap_userdlocalho6t

A statement that gives a user the ability to grant privileges to other users
GRANT USAGE
ON ♦.*
TO annedlocalhost
WITH GRANT OPTION

Description
• You use the GRANT statement to grant privileges to an existing user.
• The ON clause determines the level at which the privileges are granted. You can use
the asterisk (*) to specify all databases or tables. If you don't specify a database.
MySQL uses the current database.
• WITH GRANT OPTION allows the user to grant their privileges to other users.
• The USAGE keyword indicates that no privileges are being granted to the user.
Instead, the user account is being modified in some way.

Figure 18-6 How to grant privileges

530 Section 5 Database administration

How to view privileges

When you're done granting privileges, you may want to view the privileges
that have been granted to make sure that you have granted the correct privileges
to each user. To do that, you can use the techniques described in figure 18-7.
To start, if you want to get a list of users for the current server, you can use
a SELECT statement like the one shown in the first example. This statement
queries the table named User in the mysql database.
In this figure, the server has twelve users. Here, the root user is the admin
user for MySQL. Note that the Host column for this user specifies localhost.
Similarly, the users named anne. ap_admin. ap_tester. and ap_user have a Host
value of localhost. In addition, the built-in users named mysql.infoschema,
mysql.session, and mysql.sys have a Host value of localhost. By contrast, the
users named jane, jim and john have a Host value of %.
Once you know the names of the users and hosts, you can use the SHOW
GRANTS statement to view the privileges for a user. For instance, the second
example shows how to view the privileges for a user from any host. In particular,
it shows how to view the privileges for the user named jim@% The result set for
this user shows that it has all privileges, including the GRANT OPTION privi­
lege, for all tables and databases on the server.
The third example show's how to view the privileges for a user from a
specific host. In particular, it shows how to view the privileges for the user
named ap_user@localhost. Here, the result set shows that this user has a global
USAGE privilege (*.*). By itself, this privilege only allow's the user to view
the mysql database. It doesn't allow the user to view or work with any other
databases. However, this user also has SELECT. INSERT. UPDATE, and
DELETE privileges for all tables on the database named AP. As a result, they can
work with the data in that database.
lire fourth example shows how to view' the privileges for the current user.
To do that, you can execute a SI IOW GRANTS statement without a FOR clause.
Here, the result set is for the root user. This user has all privileges, including the
GRANT OPTION privilege. This user also has the PROXY privilege, which
allows the user to impersonate another user.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 531

A statement that displays a list of users

SELECT User, Host FROM mysql.user
i
User Host A

► jane %
jim %
John %
anne localhost
ap_admr locabost
ap_tester localhost
ap_user localhost
joel localhost
mysql. info schema localhost
mysql. session localhost
mysql.sys localhost
locahost__________________________________________
root_________________ V

The syntax of the SHOW GRANTS statement

SHOW GRANTS [FOR user]

A statement that shows the privileges for a user from any host
SHOW GRANTS FOR j im
Grants for jim©%

» GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, CREATE, DROP, RELOAD, SHUTDOWN, ...
GRANT BACKUP _ADMIN,BINLOG-ADMIN, COttf£CTION_ADMIN,ENCRYPT] ON

A statement that shows the privileges for a user from a specific host
SHOW GRANTS FOR apuser@localhost
Grants for apusef ©localhost

k GRANT USAGE ON " TO ' ap_user ’ @ ’ locabost*

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap‘.*TO ‘ap.user’ ©locafriosf

A statement that shows the privileges for the current user

SHOW GRANTS
Grants for root ©localhost

k GRANT SELECT, INSERT. UPDATE. DELETE, CREATE. DROP. RELOAD, SHUTDOWN, ...
GRANT BACKUP_ADMIN,BINLOG_ADMIN, CONNECT] ON _ADMIN,ENCR¥iPTI ON _KE/_...
GRANT PROXY ON TO root’©locabost WITH GRANT OPTION

Description
• You can query the User table in the mysql database to get a list of users for the
current MySQL server.
• You can use the SHOW GRANTS statement to display the privileges for a user.

Figure 18-7 How to view privileges

532 Section 5 Database administration

How to revoke privileges

After you’ve created users and granted privileges to them, you may later
need to revoke privileges. To do that, you can use the REVOKE statement as
shown in figure 18-8. This statement works similarly to the GRANT statement.
Here, the first statement shows how to revoke all privileges from a user
named jim. To do that, you can code a REVOKE statement that uses the
ALL keyword to revoke all privileges. In addition, you must specify GRANT
OPTION to revoke the GRANT OPTION privilege. This revokes all privileges
from the user on all databases. To be able to use this syntax, you must be logged
in as a user who has the CREATE USER privilege. Otherwise, you won't have
the privileges you need to execute the REVOKE statement.
The second statement works like the first statement. However, it revokes all
privileges from two users. To do that, this statement separates the useinames in
the F ROM clause with a comma.
This statement also uses the IF EXISTS and IGNORE UNKNOWN USER
keywords that were introduced with My SQL 8.0.30. The IF EXISTS keywords
cause a warning to occur instead of an error if any of the users don't have one
or more of the specified privileges. That way, the privileges will still be revoked
for the users who do have the specified privileges. The IGNORE UNKNOWN
USER keywords are similar, except they allow privileges to be revoked for all
specified users who exist. In other words, any users who don't exist are ignored.
These keywords are typically used together so the revoke statement is executed
for all existing users with the existing privileges.
The third statement revokes specific privileges from a user. To do that, you
separate the privileges w ith commas. For example, this statement revokes the
INSERT and UPDATE privileges on the Invoices table in the AP database from
the user joel@ localhost. To be able to use this syntax, you must be logged in
as a user that has the GRANT OPTION privilege and the privileges that you’re
revoking.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 533

The syntax of the REVOKE statement for all privileges

REVOKE [IF EXISTS] ALL[ PRIVILEGES], GRANT OPTION
FROM userl[, user2]...
[IHJORE UNKNOWN USER]

A statement that revokes all privileges from a user

REVOKE ALL, GRANT OPTION
FROM jim

A statement that revokes all privileges from multiple users

REVOKE IF EXISTS ALL, GRANT OPTION
FROM apuser, anne£localhost
IGNORE UNKNOWN USER

The syntax of the REVOKE statement for specific privileges

REVOKE [IF EXISTS] privilegelist
ON [db name .]table
FROM userl[, user2]___
[IGNORE UNKNOWN USER]

A statement that revokes specific privileges from a user

REVOKE INSERT, UPDATE
ON ap.vendors FROM joeieiocalhost

Description
• You can use the REVOKE statement to revoke privileges from a user.
• To revoke all privileges, you must have the global CREATE USER privilege.
• To revoke specific privileges, you must have the GRANT OPTION privilege and
you must have the privileges that you are revoking.
• If any of the specified privileges don't exist for a user, an error occurs and the
statement isn't executed. To change this error to a warning and allow the statement
to execute for privileges that do exist, include the IF EXISTS keywords.
• If any of the specified users don’t exist, an error occurs and the statement isn’t
executed. To change this error to a warning and allow the statement to execute for
users who do exist, include the IGNORE UNKNOWN USER keywords.

Figure 18-8 How to revoke privileges

534 Section 5 Database administration

How to change passwords

To change a password, you can use the ALTER USER statement. The syntax
and examples at the top of figure 18-9 show how this works.
To change the password for a user other than the user who's currently logged
on. you code the name of the user, followed by the IDENTIFIED BY clause with
the new password. This is illustrated by the first example. For this to work, the
current user must have the CREATE USER privilege or the UPDATE privilege
for the mysql database.
You use a similar technique to change the password for the current user.
Instead of coding the name of the user, though, you code the USER function.
This is illustrated by the second example.
The third example includes the IF EXISTS clause to check that the user
exists before changing the password. Then, it uses the PASSW( )RD EXPIRE
clause to set the password to expire in 90 days. This clause, as well as the
PASSWORD HISTORY and PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL clauses, work
just like they do for the CREATE USER statement.
For security reasons, you typically assign a password to each user. Another
option, however, is to include the PASSWORD EXPIRE keywords without an
option on the CREATE USER or ALTER USER statement so the password
expires immediately. That way. the first time a user tries to connect to the server,
they will be asked to enter a password.
To make sure that every user either has a password or that their password
has expired, you can execute a SELECT statement like the one in this figure.
This statement retrieves information from the User table of the mysql database
for each user who doesn t have an authentication stung, which is typically the
password in encry pted format, and whose password hasn't expired. In this case,
the SELECT statement returned an empty result set. However, if this statement
returns a result set, you can set a password for each user in the result set or
change the password so it has expired. Or, if those users aren’t needed, you can
drop them.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 535

How to use the ALTER USER statement

The syntax
ALTER USER [IF EXISTS] (UBStnacc|USER()} [IDENTIFIED BY 'password']
[PASSWORD EXPIRE [DEFAULT|NEVER I INTERVAL days DAY] |
PASSWORD HISTORY (DEFAULT|numberpasEwords} |
PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL (DEFAULT|days DAY?]

A statement that changes a user’s password

ALTER USER jolrn IDENTIFIED BY 'pa55word'

A statement that changes the current user’s password

ALTER USER USER() IDENTIFIED BY 'secret'

A statement that forces a user to change their password every 90 days

ALTER USER IF EXISTS John PASSWORD EXPIRE INTERVAL 90 DAY

A SELECT statement that selects all users that don’t have passwords
SELECT Host, User
FROM mysql.user
WHERE authentication string
AND password expired ■ 'N*
Host U50
CEO EBI

Description
• You can use the ALTER L’SER statement to change a password.
• To change the password for another user, you must have the CREATE USER
privilege or the UPDATE privilege for the mysql database.
• To change the password for the current user, include the USER function instead of
a user name.
• The PASSWORD EXPIRE. PASSWORD HISTORY, and PASSWORD REUSE
INTERVAL clauses of the ALTER USER statement work just like they do for the
CREATE USER statement.
• To be sure you've assigned passwords to all users, you can select data from the
User table of the mysql database for all users without authentication strings.

Figure 18-9 How to change passwords

536 Section 5 Database administration

A script that creates users

Figure 18-10 presents a script that creates users and grants privileges for the
AP database. This script starts with DROP USER statements that delete the users
named john. jane. jim. and joel if they exist.
Next the CREATE USER statements create these same users. Because these
statements are coded within a script, passwords are omitted for security reasons.
Then, the PASSWORD EXPIRE clause is included with no option. That way, the
first time each of these users tries to connect to the server, they will be asked to
enter their old password as well as a new password. Because no passwords are
assigned here, however, the old password can be left blank.
After the CREATE USER statements execute, the users exist but they don’t
have any privileges. Then, the GRANT statements grant specific privileges to
each user. Here, because the user named joel is a developer, he is given access
to all databases and tables on the server. In addition, he is given the GRANT
OPTION privilege. As a result, he can work with the data or structure of any
table of any database on the server, and he can grant his privileges to other users.
However, he can only connect from the local host. This helps prevent hackers
from connecting as this user. In general, it's considered a best practice to limit
connectivity in this way whenever possible, especially for administrative users.
Unlike the user named joel. the user named jim can only work with data
in the AP database. In other words, jim can't modify the structure of the AP
database by adding, altering, or dropping objects. That makes sense because jim
is a manager, not an administrator. However, |im can grant all of his privileges
to other users. For example, he might need to grant privileges to users that he
manages. In addition, jim can connect from any host computer. Although this is
a security risk, at least a hacker who is able to connect as jim only has access to
the AP database.
The users named john and jane have the fewest privileges, since they are
end users. These users can work with data in the AP database, but only with the
specified tables and privileges. Specifically, they can select, insert, update, and
delete data in the Vendors. Invoices, and Invoice_Line_ltems tables. However,
they can only select data from the General_Ledger_Accounts and Terms tables.
Like jim. these users can connect from a computer on any host. Again, this is
a security risk but a hacker who can connect as john or jane has even fewer
puvileges and can do less damage.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 537

A script that sets up the users and privileges for a database

-- drop the users
DROP USER IP EXISTS John;
DROP USER IF EXISTS jane;
DROP USER IF EXISTS jim;
DROP USER IF EXISTS joelOlocalhosti

-- create the users

CREATE USER john PASSWORD EXPIRE;
CREATE USER jane PASSWORD EXPIRE;
CREATE USER jin PASSWORD EXPIRE;
CREATE USER joelSlocalhost PASSWORD EXPIRE;

-- grant privileges to a developer (joel)

GRANT ALL ON *.* TO joel?localhost WITH GRANT OPTION;

-- grant privileges to the ap manager (jim)

GRANT SELECT. INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.* TO jim WITH GRANT OPTION;

-- grant privileges to ap users (john, jane)

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.vendors TO john, jane;
GRANT SELECT. INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.invoices TO john, jane;
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.invoice lineitems TO john, jane;
GRANT SELECT ON ap.generalledgeraccounts TO john, jane;
GRANT SELECT ON ap.terms TO john, jane;

Figure 18-10 A script that creates users

538 Section 5 Database administration

How to work with roles

Now that you’ve learned how to work with users and privileges, you can
set up basic security on your database. If a system has many users, however,
granting and revoking privileges one by one would require a lot of coding. To
help reduce the amount of coding and to help you keep your database security
organized, you can use a feature of MySQL 8.0 and later called roles.

How to create, manage, and drop roles

A n>le is a collection of privileges. When you assign a user to a particular
role, you grant them all of the privileges associated with that role. Figure 18-11
presents the statements for working with roles.
To start, you use the ('REATE ROLE statement to create one or more roles.
The example in this figure creates a single role named invoice_entry. Note that
you can code the IF NOT EXISTS clause on this statement. When you do. a
warning will be generated instead of an error if the role already exists. That way,
if the statement is part of a script, the script will continue executing instead of
stopping at the error.
After you create a role, you grant privileges to it. To do that, you use the
GRANT statement. This statement works just like it does for granting privileges
to users, except that you name one or more roles. In this figure, the first GRANT
statement grants INSERT and UPDATE privileges on the Invoices table to the
mvoice_entry role, and the second statement grants INSERT and UPDATE
privileges on the Invoice_Line_Items table to the invoice_entry role.
To assign a user to a role, you use another format of the GRANT statement.
With this format, you list the roles you’re assigning the users to instead of listing
the privileges you’re granting. The example in this figure assigns the users
named john and jane to the invoice_entry role.
Notice that you can also code the WITH ADMIN OPTION when you assign
users to role. If you do. the users you assign to the role will be able to assign the
role to other users.
The last example in part I of this figure shows how to display the privileges
that have been granted to a role. To do that, you use the SHOW GRANTS state­
ment just like you do to display the privileges for a user, except that you name a
role. In this figure, the privileges for the invoice_entry role are displayed.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 539

How to create a role

The syntax of the CREATE ROLE statement
CREATE ROLE [IF NOT EXISTS] rol«l(, rol«2]___

A statement that creates a new role

CREATE ROLE invoice entry

How to grant privileges to roles

GRANT INSERT. UPDATE
ON invoicea
TO invoice entry

GRANT INSERT. UPDATE

ON invoice line.iteas
TO invoice entry

How to assign users to roles

The syntax of the GRANT statement for assigning users to roles
GRANT rolel(, role2]___
TO userl[. user2]...
[WITH ADMIN OPTION]

A statement that assigns two users to the new role

GRANT invoice.entry TO john, jane

How to display the privileges for a role

SHOW GRANTS FOR invoice entry
Grants for mvoice.entry 6%

» GRANT USAGE ON •■•TO vivo*ce_entry © %'

GRANT INSERT. UPDATE ON ap . morejnejtems TO rT.‘ore_entrv 0 ’ %
GRANT IN^T, UPDATE ON ap. mores TO more.entry C'%'

Description
• A role is a collection of privileges that you can assign to one or more users. Roles
were introduced with MySQL 8.0.
• You use the CREATE R< )LE statement to create one or more roles. For this to work,
you must have the CREATE USER or CREATE ROLE privilege.
• If you code the IF NOT EXISTS clause on the CREATE ROLE statement, a warning is
generated instead of an error if the role already exists.
• You use the GRANT statement to grant privileges to a role. The syntax of this statement
is the same as for granting privileges to users except that you name one or more roles.
• You also use the GRANT statement to assign users to roles. When you assign a user to
a role, the user is granted all the privileges of that role. If you code the W ITH ADMIN
OPTION clause, the user can also grant the roles to other users.
• You use the SHOW GRANTS statement to display the privileges associated with a
role. The syntax of this statement is the same as for displaying the privileges for a
user, except that you name a role.

Figure 18-11 How to create, manage, and drop roles (part 1 of 2)

54R Section 5 Database administration

Part 2 of figure 18-11 presents some additional statements for working with
roles. To start, it shows how to use the SET DEFAULT ROLE statement to set
the roles that are activated by default when a user connects to the server. If you
specify NONE on this statement, none of the roles that the user is assigned to
are activated. In that case, the user only has the privileges that they have been
assigned directly. If you specify ALL. the user is given all of the privileges of all
of the roles that they have been assigned. And if you specify one or more roles,
the user is given the privileges of all those roles. In the example in this figure,
the users named john and jane are assigned a default role of invoice_entry.
Note that you can also assign one or more default roles to a user when you
create the user. To do that, you use the DEFAULT ROLE clause of the CREATE
USER statement.
The SET ROLE statement allows a user to change the roles that are currently
active during a session This is particularly useful if you need to try different
roles during testing to be sure they provide the privileges a user needs. You
can code the NONE or ALL option or a list of user roles on this statement just
nke you can on the SET DEFAULT ROLE statement. You can also code the
DEFAULT option to change the active roles to the defaults specified by the
SET DEFAULT ROLE statement. And you can code the ALL EXCEPT option
followed by the names of one or more roles to activate all of the roles that a user
is assigned to except for die ones you name. In this figure, the SET ROLE state­
ment simply sets the active role to the invoice_entry role.
If you change the active roles during a session, you may at some point
want to display the roles that are currently active. To do that, you can use the
CURRENT_ROLE function as shown in this figure.
To revoke privileges from one or more roles, you use the REVOKE
statement just like you do to revoke privileges from users. In this figure, the
REVOKE statement revokes the UPDATE privilege on the Invoice_Line_Items
table from the mvoice_entry role.
You also use the REVOKE statement to remove users from roles. On this
statement, you name the roles that you're removing the users from, and you
name the users you're removing on the FROM clause. In the REVOKE state­
ment in this figure, the user named john is removed from the invoice_entry role.
Notice that, just as when you revoke privileges from users, you can include the
IF EXISTS and IGNORE UNKNOWN USER keywords when you remove a
user from a role. That way, the statement will still execute if a user doesn t exist
or if a user hasn't been assigned to a role.
To drop one or more roles, you list them on the DROP ROLE statement. In
this figure, the invoice_entry role is dropped. You can also code the IF EXISTS
clause on this statement. Then, if the role doesn't exist, a warning is generated
instead of an error.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 541

How to set the default roles

The syntax of the SET DEFAULT ROLE statement
SET DEFAULT ROLE (KONE|ALL|rolal[, rol«2]...)
TO U8ernaoel[, usemame2]...

A statement that sets the default role for two users

SET DEFAULT ROLE invoice entry TO John, jane

How to change the active roles

The syntax of tho SET ROLE statement
SET ROLE (DEFAULT | NONE ALL | ALL EXCEPT rolf>l[, role2] |rolel[, rol«2] }

A statement that changes the active role

SET ROLE invoice entry

How to display the roles that are currently active

SELECT CURRENT ROLE()

QjRRe^T.ROLEO I
» 0'%'
moicejerifry'

How to revoke privileges from roles

REVOKE UPDATE
ON invoiceline_iterns
FROM invoice entry

How to remove users from roles

The syntax of the REVOKE statement for removing users from roles
REVOKE [IF EXISTS] rol«l[, rola2]__
FROM username1 [, usemaae2] . ..
[IGNORE UNKNOWN USER]

A statement that removes a user from the new role

REVOKE IF EXISTS invoice antry FROM john
IGNORE UNKNOWN USER

How to drop roles

The syntax of the DROP ROLE statement
DROP ROLE [IF EXISTS] rolel [, rol«2]__

A statement that deletes tho new role

DROP ROLE invoiceentry

Description
• You use the SET DEFAULT ROLE statement to name the default roles for a user.
These roles are activated by default when the user connects to the server To set the
default role for another user, you must have the CREATE USER privilege.
• A user can use the SET ROLE statement to change the active role for a session.
• You use the REVOKE statement to revoke privileges from a role or to remove users
from a role.
• You use the DROP ROLE statement to delete one or more roles. To use this state­
ment, you must have the DROP ROLE or CREATE USER privilege.

Figure 18-11 How to create, manage, and drop roles (part 2 of 2)

542 Section 5 Database administration

A script that creates users and roles

Figure IS-12 presents a script that creates users and roles and grants privi­
leges to the roles for the AP database. Unlike the script you saw in figure 18-10,
this script doesn't start with statements that drop the users. Instead, it includes
the IF NOT EXISTS clause on each CREATE USER statement so a user is only
created if they don't already exist. Since this script works with roles, it’s written
to work with MySQL 8.0 or later.
The CREATE USER statements create users named john. jane. jim. and joel.
Then, the script uses a CREATE ROLE statement to create roles named devel­
oper. manager, and user. Like the CREATE USER statements, this statement
includes an If NOT EXISTS clause so the script will continue if any of the roles
already exist.
The statements that follow grant privileges to the new roles. The first state­
ment grants all privileges to all databases and tables to the developer role. In
addition, the role is given the GRANT OPTION privilege. As a result, any user
assigned to this role will be able to grant their privileges to other users.
The next statement grants SELECT. INSERT. UPDATE, and DELETE
privileges to all tables in the AP database to the manager role. I .ike the developer
role, this role is also given the GRANT OPTION privilege.
The next five statements grant privileges to the user role. The first three
statements grant SELECT. INSERT. UPDATE, and DELETE privileges on the
Vendors, Invoices, and lnvoice_Line__Items tables. Then, the fourth and fifth
statements grant the SELECT privilege on the General_Ledger_Accounts and
Terms tables.
The next three statements assign the users that were created at the begin­
ning of the script to the new roles Here, the user named joel is assigned to the
developer role, the user named jim is assigned to the manager role, and the users
named john and jane are assigned to the user role.
Finally, this script sets the default role for each user. As you can see. the
default role for each user is set to the role that the user is assigned to by the
GRAN! statement for that user. That way. the users won’t have to set the role
after connecr.ing to the server
Now that you've seen this script, you might want to compare it to the one
in figure 18-10. If you do. you'll see that it grants the same privileges to the
same users Because it uses roles, though, it's easier to modify. If you wanted
to change the privileges that are assigned to a group of users, for example, you
w'ould just need to change the privileges for the role that those users are assigned
to. Or, if you wanted to add users with the same privileges as existing users, you
would just need to assign that user to the same role.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 543

A script that sets up the users and roles for a database

-- create the users
CREATE USER IF NOT EXISTS John PASSWORD EXPIRE;
CREATE USER IF NOT EXISTS jane PASSWORD EXPIRE;
CREATE USER IF NOT EXISTS jim PASSWORD EXPIRE;
CREATE USER IF NOT EXISTS joel01ocalhost PASSWORD EXPIRE;

-- create the roles

CREATE ROLE IF NOT EXISTS developer, manager, user;

-- grant privileges to the developer role

GRANT ALL ON *.* TO developer WITH GRANT OPTION;

-- grant privileges to the manager role

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.* TO manager WITH GRANT OPTION;

- - grant privileges to user role

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.vendors TO user;
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.invoices TO user;
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ap.involce_llne.it ems TO user;
GRANT SELECT ON ap.general_1edger accounts TO user;
GRANT SELECT ON ap.terms TO user;

- - assign users to roles

GRANT developer TO joe10localhost;
GRANT manager TO jim;
GRANT user TO John, jane;

- - set default roles for users

SET DEFAULT ROLE developer TO joelGlocalhost;
SET DEFAULT ROLE manager TO jim;
SET DEFAULT ROLE user TO john, jane;

Figure 18-12 A script that creates users and roles

544 Section 5 Database administration

How to use MySQL Workbench

Since you often use SQL statements to set up the users for a database or to
view the privileges that have been granted to a user, it's important to understand
the SQL statements presented in this chapter. Once you understand them, you
can use MySQL Workbench to work with security. For example, you can use
MySQL Workbench to drop or alter an existing user or to grant or revoke the
privileges for a user.

How to work with users and privileges

Figure 18-13 shows how you can work with users using MySQL
Workbench 11 ere. you can see the Users and Privileges window that's displayed
when you select Users and Privileges from the Navigator window. To do that,
you may need to click the Administration tab to display this item as shown in
this figure.
To work w ith the login information for a user, display the Login tab within
the Users and Privileges window as show n in the first screen. Then, you can
select a user to display or change the login information tor that user. You can
click the Expire Passw ord button to cause the user's password to expire immedi­
ately. And you can click the Delete button to remove the user.
You can also add an account from the Login tab. To do that, just click the
Add Account button, enter the login information, and click the Apply button.
To view the database privileges for a user, display the Schema Privileges tab.
select the user, and select a schema as shown in the second screen. Then, you can
use tlie check boxes at the bottom of the tab to change the privileges. You can
revoke all privileges from the user by clicking the Revoke All Priv ileges button.
You can revoke all privileges from the selected schema by clicking the Delete
Entry button. And you can add a new schema by clicking the Add Entry button.
Note that only the privileges that are granted directly to the user are displayed on
this tab. not priv ileges that are granted through roles.
As you learned earlier in this chapter, you can also assign priv ileges to
specific tables and columns. However, MySQL Workbench doesn't currently
provide a way to view or change privileges at these levels.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 545

The Login tab

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Figure 18-13 How to work with users and privileges (part 1 of 2)

546 Section 5 Database administration

Workbench provides some predefined administrative roles that you can use
to quickly set up privileges for database administrators, managers, and designers.
Before you begin working with these roles, you should know that they are not
the same as the roles that you learned how to create with SQL statements earlier
in this chapter. In other words, they aren’t roles that are stored in the mysql
database, and they can't be manipulated using SQL statements. Instead, they are
a Workbench feature that allows you to quickly assign privileges to users.
To view the Workbench roles for a user, you select the user from the
Administrative Roles tab of the Users and Privileges window as show n in the
screen in part 2 of figure 18-13. Then, you can select the roles that you want to
assign the user to. and the privileges assigned by those roles will be selected at
the right side of the tab. Note that these are global privileges, so they apply to
all databases on the server. Because of that, you'll want to be careful who you
assign to these roles.
 Chapter 18 How to secune a database 547

The Administrative Roles tab

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Description
• To display the Users and Privileges window, select Users and Privileges from the
Navigator window. If necessary, click the Administration tab to display this item.
• To change a user's name, password, or host access options, use the Login tab. You
can also use this tab to add or remove a user account, to expire a user's password,
or to revoke all privileges for a user’.
• To view’ the database privileges for a user, use the Schema Privileges tab. You can
also use this tab to change privileges and to add and remove host/schema access
options.
• To view the administrative roles that a user is assigned to and the global privileges
granted to those roles, use the Administrative Roles tab. You can also use the check
boxes on tins tab to assign or revoke the privileges of the administrative roles.
These roles are defined by Workbench and are not stored as roles in the mysql
database.

Figure 18-13 How to work with users and privileges (part 2 of 2)

548 Section 5 Database administration

How to connect as a user for testing

To test the username, password, and privileges for a user, you can connect
as that user. To do that, you create a new connection for the user as described in
figure 18-14.
To start, you display the Home tab and click on the ® icon next to MySQL
Connections. Then, you enter the connection information in the resulting dialog
box, including a connection name and a username. In this figure, for example.
I’m creating a connection named jane for the user with the same name. Here,
no hostname is specified because the user can connect from any host. Also,
a default schema of AP is specified, so the AP database is used if no other
database is selected.
After you create a connection for a user, the connection is added to the list
of connections on the Home tab. Then, you can connect as that user by clicking
on the connection and entering the user's password if necessary.
When you connect as a user, you can only use that connection to view the
databases and tables that the user has privileges to view. In addition, you can
only modify the databases and tables that the user has privileges to modify. To
make sure that the user's privileges are working correctly, you can run SQL
statements. For example, if a user only has the SELECT privilege on a table, you
can try inserting, updating or deleting a row. In that case. MySQL Workbench
will display an error indicating that the statement was denied.
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 549

The Setup New Connection dialog box

Description
• To create a connection for testing a specific user’s privileges and roles, display
the Home tab, click the © icon to the right of MySQL Connections, and enter the
connection information in the resulting dialog box. This includes a name tor the
connection and a name for the user.
• To connect as a user, click on the connection for the user in the list of connections,
and enter the password for the user if necessary.
• When you connect as a user, you can only view the databases and tables that the
user has privileges to view, and you can only modify the databases and tables that
the user has privileges to modify.

Figure 18-14 How to connect as a user for testing

550 Section 5 Database administration

Perspective
Although managing security can be complex, MySQL provides tools to
simplify the job. In this chapter, you learned how to manage security by writing
SQL statements, and you learned how to use MySQL Workbench to work
with users and manage privileges. Once you're familiar with both of these
techniques, you can use the one that's easiest for the security task at hand.
In addition to the skills presented in this chapter, you may also need to
secure MySQL’s file system if the server is running on a computer that has
multiple users. That way, other users who log in on that computer can't access
any of the MySQL files that may contain sensitive data. That includes the data,
log. and configuration files you learned about in chapter 17. Because the proce­
dure for securing the file system varies depending on the operating system, this
information isn't presented in this book.
You may also need to use SSL to secure the usernames and passwords
of users who are allowed to connect remotely. In most cases, users connect
locally. For example, a web server often runs on the same machine as the
MySQL server. As a result, users of the website use a local connection to
connect to MySQL. If the MySQL server is on a different machine, though,
you can learn about providing secure connections by looking up “Using
Encrypted Connections” in the MySQL Reference Manual.

Terms
privilege
object privileges
administrative privileges
global privileges
database privileges
table privileges
column privileges
grant tables
role
 Chapter 18 How to secure a database 551

Exercise
In this exercise, you will create two users and a role. You will grant privileges
directly to the first user, and you will grant privileges to the second user through a
role. In addition, you will use MySQL Workbench to connect as the two users and
test their privileges.
1. Use MySQL Workbench to connect as the root user.
2. Write a script that creates a user named ray@localhost with a password that
expires immediately. This user should have SELECT, INSERT, and UPDATE
privileges for the Vendors table of the AP database: SELECT. INSERT, and
UPDATE privileges for the Invoices table: and SELECT and INSERT privi­
leges for the Invoice_Line_Items table. This user should also have the right to
grant privileges to other users. Run the script in MySQL Workbench.
3. Check the privileges for ray@localhost by using the Users and Privileges
window of MySQL Workbench.
4. Use MySQL Workbench to create a connection for the user named
ray @ localhost and connect as that user. To do that, you can leave the
old password blank and enter a new password. Use the Navigator
window to see which databases and tables this user can view.
5. Run a SELECT statement that selects the vendor_id column for all rows in the
Vendors table. This statement should succeed.
6. Write a DELETE statement that attempts to delete one of the rows in the
Vendors table. This statement should fail due to insufficient privileges.
7. Switch back to the tab for the connection for the root user.
8. Grant the UPDATE privilege for the Invoice_Line_Items table to ray@local-
host, and give the user the right to grant the same privilege to other users.
9. Write a script that creates a user named dorothy wilh a password of “sesame”.
Then, create a role named ap_user. and grant this role privileges to select, insert,
and update data from any table in the AP database. However, don't grant this role
privileges to delete any data from the database. Assign the user named dorothy to
this role.
10. Check the privileges for dorothy by using the SHOW GRANTS statement.
11. Use MySQL Workbench to create another connection for the user named
dorothy and then connect as that user.
12. Run a SELECT statement that displays the active roles for the current user. This
should display NONE.
13. Close the tab for the connection for the user named dorothy. and switch back to
the tab for the connection for the root user.
14. Set the default role for the user named dorothy to ap_user.
15. Connect as dorothy again and then display the active roles using the same
statement as in exercise 12. This time, the ap_user role should be displayed.
 19
How to back up
and restore a database
When you work with a database that stores important data, you should have
a plan for backing up that database regularly. Then, you need to execute that
plan. That way, if something bad happens to the database, you can restore it
and minimize the amount of data that's lost.
In this chapter, you'll learn how to back up and restore a database. You'll
also learn some skills that are related to backing up and restoring a database.
Specifically, you'll learn how to export data to a file and how to import data
from a file.

How to back up and restore a database........ ..................... 554

Strategies for backing up and restoring databases........................................ 554
How to use Workbench to create a full backup.............................................. 556
How to use Workbench to restore a full backup.............. ..............................558
How to execute statements in the binary log.................................................. 56(1
How to use Workbench to export and import data......... 562
How to export data to a tile............................................................................... 562
How to import data from a file................................................................... 564
Perspective............................................. ............ ..................... 566
554 Section 5 Database administration

How to back up and restore a database

One important task of a database administrator is to regularly back up the
database. Then, if the database ever becomes corrupted, the database adminis­
trator can use the backup files to restore the database.

Strategies for backing up

and restoring databases
Figure 19-1 starts by presenting strategies for backing up and restoring
databases. MySQL provides for two types of backups. A full backup includes the
structure and data of a database. This creates one or more SQL script tiles that
can be used to recreate the database. You should create a full backup at regular
intervals. For a medium-size database for a website, for example, you might
want to create a full backup once a week.
When you create a full backup, it locks all tables so other users can't update
the database while it’s being backed up As a result, it’s a good practice to
schedule this backup at a time of low traffic for the database.
An incremental backup contains changes that have been made to a database
since the last full backup To implement incremental backups, the binary log
must be enabled as described in chapter 17. That’s because the binary log files
store the changes to the database.
When you use this backup strategy, you shouldn’t store your backup files
( SQL scripts or log files) on the same hard drive where the MySQL server is
running. If you do. those files will be lost if that hard drive fails. As a result,
it’s a good practice to configure the binary log so it writes to a directory on a
different hard drive. This has the added benefit of balancing the load between
two hard drives.
When you create a backup strategy, don’t forget that the database named
mysql stores information about the users and privileges for all databases on the
server. As a result, you typically want to include this database in your backups.
The goal of backing up your databases is to allow you to restore them to
their exact state at any specified point in time. This is known as a point-in-time
recovery (P1TR). To restore a database to a point in time, you can use the last full
backup to restore the database Then, you can use the binary log to restore the
database from the time of the last full backup to the specified point in time.
 Chapter 19 How to hack up and restore a database 555

A strategy for backing up databases

I. Use Workbench to create full backups of each database. These backups should be
stored in one or more SQL script Hies.
2. Enable the binary log as described in chapter 17 to create incremental backups.

A strategy for restoring databases

1 Use Workbench to restore the database from the last full backup.
2 . Use the mysqlbinlog program to execute all statements in the binary log that
occurred after the last full backup

Description
• It’s important for the database administrator to regularly back up the database.
Then, if the database becomes corrupted, the database administrator can use the
backup to restore the database.
• A full backup includes the structure and content of a database. You should perform
full backups according to a regular schedule.
• An incremental backup only contains changes that have been made to the structure
and content of a database since the last full backup.
• You often want to include the database named mysql in your backups, since this
database stores information about the users and privileges for all databases on the
server.
• You shouldn't store your backup files (SQL scripts or log files) on the same hard
drive where the MySQL server is running. If you do. those backup files will be lost
along with the databases if that hard drive fails.
• A point-in-time recovery i PITR) allows you to restore the data up to any specified
point in time.

Figure 19-1 Strategies for backing up and restoring databases

556 Section 5 Database administration

How to use Workbench to create a full backup

Figure 19-2 shows how to use MySQL Workbench to create a full backup, or
dump, of a database. By default. Workbench backs up the structure and data for
the database into multiple SQL scripts with one script per database object. This
gives you the flexibility to restore all or part of a database, and it works well for
most scenarios.
To create a full backup, you display the Data Export window. Then, you can
click on any database to display the tables and view s it contains, and you can
select a database to select all of its tables and views. In the example shown here,
ail of the tables for the AP. EX. and OM databases for this book are selected.
(These databases don't contain views.)
In most cases, you’ll leave all other settings at their default values. Then.
Workbench backs up die stiucture and the data for all of the selected tables, and
it stores the SQL scripts in a folder with a name of ‘’Dump” followed by eight
digits that represent the date ot the backup in the YYYYMMDD format.
You can also use the Data Export window to modify the basic options. For
example, you can back up the objects for stored procedures, functions, events,
and triggers by selecting the appropriate options in the Objects to Export section.
Similarly, you can back up all selected objects into a single SQL script file by
selecting Export to Self-Contained File in the Export Options section. Because
this doesn’t give you as much flexibility when restoring the database, however,
it’s not the approach we recommend.
If you think you might need to restore a database that doesn't exist, you can
select Include Create Schema. This option adds a CREATE DATABASE state­
ment at the beginning of each script that creates the database if it doesn't exist.
You may need to do that if the database has been accidentally deleted or if the
hard drive has failed and you need to restore the database to a new hard drive.
If the basic options in the Data Export window don’t give you enough control
over the backup operation, you can click the Advanced Options button to display
additional options. For example, by default, the Data Export window doesn't
include internal databases like the mysql database. As a result, if you w ant to use
Workbench to back up this database, you need to select Show Internal Schemas
so the mysql database is listed in the Data Export window.
In addition, you may want to select “flush-logs" so the server starts a new
binary log file when you back up the databases. This makes it easier to find the
binary log file or files that you will need to restore the database later.
After you set the options for your backup, you can click the Start Export
button to back up your database objects. If you don't see this button in the lower-
right corner of the Data Export window, you may need to enlarge the window.
L'nder the hood. Workbench uses the mysqldump command-line program to
back up a database. In general. Workbench is easier to use than the mysqldump
program, which is why it’s presented in this chapter. However, the mysqldump
program makes it possible to automate your backups. Although the details for
doing this vary depending on the operating system, the same principles apply to
all operating systems. To start, you create a script file that uses the mysqldump
 Chapter 19 Hon to hack up and restore a database 557

Workbench after selecting the data to back up

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How to back up one or more databases

I. Use Workbench to connect to the local server.
2. Display the Administration tab in the Navigator window, and then select Data
Export from the Management category.
3. Click on any database name to display its objects, and select the databases and
objects you want to back up.
4. Click the Start Export button.

Description
• You can use Workbench to back up, or dump, one or more databases into one or
more SQL script tiles.
• By default Workbench backs up the structure and data for the database into
multiple scripts with one script per database object.
• By default. Workbench doesn’t show internal databases like the mysql database in
the list of databases. To change that, click the Advanced Options button and select
Show Internal Schemas.
• By default. Workbench doesn’t start a new binary log file when you create a full backup.
To change that, click the Advanced Options button and select ‘’flush-logs”.

Figure 19-2 How to use Workbench to create a full backup

558 Section 5 Database administration

program to back up one or more databases. Then, you use the operating system's
task scheduler to execute that script file at a specified interval.

How to use Workbench to restore a full backup

Figure 19-3 shows how to use Workbench to restore a hill backup of one or
more databases. To start, you display the Data Import window. Then, you select
the folder that contains the full backup you want to restore. Here, the folder is
the one that contains the full backup that was created in the previous figure.
After you select the backup folder. Workbench lists and selects all of the
databases and database objects that were included in the backup. At this point,
you can click the Start Import button to restore everything that was included in
the backup. Or. you can deselect any databases or objects that you don't want to
restore.
To be able to restore a database, the database must exist on the My SQL
server. If it doesn't and you didn't select Include Create Schema when you
backed up the database, you can create the database before you start the import.
One way to do that is to click the New button in the Data Import w indow and
then enter the database's name.
Before you restore a database it's often a good idea to back up the existing
database. That way. if the restore operation doesn't work correctly, you have a
backup of the database that existed before the restore operation.
 Chapter 19 How to back up and restore a database 559

Workbench after selecting the data to restore

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How to restore one or more databases from a full backup

1. Use Workbench to connect to the local server.
2. Display the Administration tab in the Navigator window, and then select Data
Iinport/Restore frum the Management category.
3. Select the folder that contains die backup scripts.
4. Deselect any databases and objects that you don't want to restore.
5. Click the Start Import button.

Description
• You can use Workbench to restore one or more databases by running the appro­
priate SQL script tiles generated by a previous backup.

Figure 19-3 How to use Workbench to restore a full backup

560 Section 5 Database administration

How to execute statements in the binary log

The first example in figure 19-4 shows the file names for a binary log named
bin-log located in the muracli/mysql directory. MySQL created these after the
binary log was enabled as described in chapter 17. The bin-log.index file is a text
file. It contains a list of all of the numbered files that store the binary log The
numbered log files (bin-log.(XMMM)L bin-log.00(KX)2. etc.) are binary files. If you
open them in a text editor, most of the contents w ill be unreadable. However,
they contain a record of each statement made to the database while binary
logging was enabled for your server.
To execute statements in the binary log file, you begin by displaying the
command line tor your operating system. For Windows, you can start the
Command Prompt program. For macOS. you can start the Terminal program.
Once you ve started a command line, you use the cd command to change
to MySQL's bin directory as shown in the second example. This is the direc­
tory that stores the various MySQL command-line programs, including the
mysqlbinlog and mysql programs described in this figure. In this figure, front
slashes are used to separate the directory and file names because they work on
all operating systems. However, it's common to use backslashes on Windows.
The third example shows how to use the mysqlbinlog program to execute
statements recorded in the binary log. This allows you to recreate the state of
your database from the time when the log was started.
The first command shows how to execute all statements stored in a single
binary log file. To start, this command uses the mysqlbinlog program to identify
the binary log file you want to use. Then, it uses a pipe character ( I ) followed by
mysql to indicate that the mysqlbinlog program should use the mysql program
to execute the statements in the binary log. Finally, the -u option identifies the
user (root), and the -p option specifies that the program should prompt for a
password.
When you restore data using a binary' log as shown by the first command,
every statement in the log file is executed by default. But what if you only
need to restore one database from the binary log? In that case, you can use the
database option to specify the name of that database. This is shown in the second
command. Or. if you want to only execute statements that fall within a specified
date/time range, you can use one or both of the date/time options to specify a
start and end point as shown by the third command.
It your binary log has been split across multiple files, you can specify a
list of binary log files as shown in the fourth and fifth commands. In the fourth
command, the names of the log files are separated by a space. This works for
Windows. macOS, and L’nix/Linux. For macOS and Unix/Linux, you can
also use a regular expression to select all binary log files as shown in the fitth
command.
 Chapter 19 How to back up and restore a database 561

The files for a binary log named bin-log

bin-log. index
bin-log.000001
bin-log.000002
bin-log.000003

How to change to MySQL’s bin directory

Using Windows
cd /program flies/mysql/mysql server 8.0/bin

Using macOS or Unix/Linux

cd /usr/local/mysql/bin

How to use the mysqlbinlog program to execute statements

For all databases
mysqlbinlog /murach/mysql/bin-log .000001 | mysql -u root -p

For a specific database

mysqlbinlog --database«ap /murach/mysql/bin-log .000001 | mysql -u root -p

For a specific time range

mysqlbinlog --start-datetline- "2023-01-10 00:00:00"
--end-datetime="2023-01-10 04:30:00" /murach/mysql/bin-log.000001 |
mysql -u root -p

For all databases using multiple binary log files

mysqlbinlog /murach/mysql/bin-log .000001 /murach/mysql/bin-log.000002 |
mysql -u root -p

For all databases using multiple binary log files (macOS and Unix/Linux only)
mysqlbinlog /murach/mysql/bln-log. [0-9]* | mysql -u root -p

Description
• You can use the mysqlbinlog program to execute statements in the log file.
• If the statements you want to execute are stored in multiple binary logs, you should
specify all of them on the command line in sequence from the lowest numbered log
file to the highest numbered log file.
• On macOS. you typically need to begin by coding the sudo command, code a dot
and slash before the name of the mysqlbinlog program and the mysql program, and
specify a path to the data directory. For example, you can execute the first example
shown above like this:
sudo ./mysqlbinlog ../data/binlog.000001 | ./mysql -u root -p

Figure 19-4 How to execute statements in the binary log

562 Section 5 Database administration

How to use Workbench to export

and import data
In addition to backing up and restoring an entire database, you may
sometimes need to export selected data from a database to a file. For example,
you might need to export data for someone who needs to use a spreadsheet
program to work with that data or for someone who wants to use other software
to analyze the data. Conversely, you may need to import data from a file into a
database. For example, you may need to import updated shipping rates that are
stored in a file into a table. Fortunately. MySQL Workbench makes it easy to
export and import data.

How to export data to a file

Figure 19-5 shows how to export data to a file. To do that, you begin by
using Workbench to run a SELECT statement that retrieves the data you want
to export. This SELECT statement can retrieve data from a single table or from
multiple tables that have been joined. In this figure, the SELECT statement joins
the Vendors and Invoices tables and retrieves four columns.
After selecting the data, you click the Export button that's displayed above
the result set. Then, you use the resulting Export dialog box to specify a name
and type for the file. This dialog box allows you to select many different types
of data formats, but this chapter focuses on two of the most common. CSV and
JSON. Those formats are also the ones that you can most easily import.
Since it's easy to export data to a CSV file, and since this format can be
read by most other programs including spreadsheet programs, this is the type of
tile that you usually want to use. A CSV (coinma-separuted values) tile uses a
comma to separate each column and stores each row on its own line.
In addition, a CSV tile encloses some strings in double quotes. In this figure,
the CSV file encloses the vendor names in double quotes because these names
include spaces. However, a string would also be enclosed in double quotes if it
stored a comma.
Typically, a CSV file includes the column names on its first line as shown in
this figure. This makes it easier to import the data that's stored in a CSV file.
Although you typically export data from a database into a CSV file, you
can also export data into other formats, such as a JSON file. JSON (.JavaScript
Object Notation) is a data interchange format that was originally used by the
JavaScript language but is now used by many modem programming languages.
It's typically used to export data that has multiple levels, not the tabular data
that’s typically exported by a database. However, it’s easy enough to export
tabular data to JSON if you ever need to do that.
 Chapter 19 How to back up and restore a database 563

Workbench after selecting the data to export

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How to export selected data to a file

l. Use Workbench to run the statement that selects the data.
2. Click the Export button that’s displayed above the result set.
3. Use the Export dialog box to specify a name and type for the file.

A CSV (comma-separated values) file

vendor name,invoice number,invoice data,invoice total
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"Federal ExpraGLi Corporation",263253241,2022-04-10,40.20
"Federal Express Corporation",963253234,2022-04-13,138.75

Description
• You can use Workbench to export data to different types of files including CSV and
ISON files.
• A CSV (comma-separated values) file uses commas to separate each column, stores
each row on its own line, and typically includes the column names on its first line.
• JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) is a data interchange format that was originally
used by the JavaScript language but is now used by many modern programming
languages.

Figure 19-5 How to export data to a file

564 Section 5 Database administration

How to import data from a file

Figure 19-6 shows one way to use Workbench to import data from a file into
a table. Specifically, it shows how to import the data stored in the CSV file at
the top of this figure into the Vendor_Contacts table dial’s in the AP database.
However, if the same data was stored in a J SON file, you could use a similar
procedure to import it.
To start, you use Workbench to run a statement that selects all rows and
columns from the Vendor_Contacts table. When you do that. Workbench
displays an Import button above the result set. Then, you can click that button to
start a series of dialog boxes that let you control how the import works.
The dialog boxes that are displayed vary depending on the type of file that
you're importing. For example, the first dialog box lets you select a CSV or
JSON file. Then, you can click on the Next button and use the resulting dialog
boxes to set other options.
Thu first screen in this figure shows the options you can set for the destina­
tion table. Here. tliese options import the data by adding it to the data in the
Vendor_Contacts table that already exists in the AP database. However, if
you want to delete the existing data before importing the data, you can select
"Truncate table before import". Similarly, if you want to create a new' table to
store the data, you can select “Create new table".
You can use the second screen to map the columns of the source file to the
columns of the destination table In this figure, Workbench has detected that
the source file is a CSV file and has used its first line to get the names of its
columns. In this case, the columns have the same names in both the source file
and the destination table. As a result, it’s easy to map them. However, this would
work even if the columns had different names.
When you import data into an existing table, the columns in the source file
must match the columns in the table for the import to work successfully. For
example, the Vendor_Contacts table has three required columns: an INT column
followed by two VARCIIAR(50) columns. As a result, MySQL must be able to
convert the data that's stored in the source file to the data types specified by the
Vendor_Contacts table.
In addition, the data in the source tile must not conflict with the values of
any unique keys that are already stored in the rows of the table. If that happens,
you’ll get an error that indicates that you were attempting to make a duplicate
entry. Usually, that’s what you want. If it isn’t, you can delete any duplicate
entries that you don't want from the source file or the destination table.
If you import data into a new table, the columns in that table are given the
same names as the columns in the source file In addition. Workbench deter­
mines the data type of each column in the new table based on the data in the
columns of the source file. However. Workbench displays the data type for each
column in a drop-down list so you can change the type if you need to.
 Chapter 19 How to back up and restore a database 565

A CSV file that contains vendor contacts

vendor... id, last name, flrtt name
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77,Jones,Mick
85,Simonon,Paul

A procedure for importing data from a CSV or JSON file

I. Use Workbench to run a statement that selects all rows and columns from the
destination table.
2. Click the Import button that's displayed above the result set.
3. Use the Import dialog box to select the file that contains the data and click the Next
button.
4. Continue clicking the Next button and setting the options until the import finishes.

The destination table options

Select destination taMn and additional options

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Description
• You can use Workbench to import CSV files or JSON files.
• If you import data into an existing table. Workbench adds the data to the table by
default. However, if you w ant to delete the existing data before the import, you can
select ‘Truncate table before import"

Figure 19-6 How to import data from a file

566 Section 5 Database administration

Perspective
In this chapter, you teamed how to back up your databases and how to
restore them if necessary. If you combine these skills with the skills you
learned in the previous chapter for securing a database and working with user
accounts, you are on your way to becoming a successful database administrator.

Terms
back up a database
restore a database
full backup
incremental backup
point-in-time recovery <PITR)
dump a database
CSV (comma-separated values)
JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)

Excercisc
In this exercise, you will back up a database. Then, you'll make some changes
to the database. Finally, you'll restore the database.

Back up a database
I. Make sure binary logging is enabled as described in chapter 17.
2. Use Workbench to connect to the local server, and then create a full backup
of the AP database. This backup should include the structure and data for the
database, as well as any stored routines, functions, events, and triggers for the
database.
3. Execute an INSERT statement that inserts one row into the Vendors table of
the AP database, and note the time on your computer that this statement is
executed.
4. Wait until the time on your computer changes to at least the next minute.
5. Execute a DELETE statement that deletes the row you just added.

Restore a database
6. Use Workbench to restore the entire AP database.
7. Identify the highest numbered file for the binary log.
8. Open a command line and use the mysqlbinlog program to add the row to the
Vendors table that you inserted in step 3. To do that, you'll need to include
start and end times that include the INSERT statement but omit the DELETE
statement you executed in step 5.
 20
How to host a database
with AWS
For years now. the tech industry has been moving away from using local
servers to host databases and websites, preferring instead to use servers in
the cloud. In other words, instead of using physical servers located on the
same premises, many organizations are now using virtual servers hosted at
server farms running at one or more remote locations. This is know n as cloud
computing. There are many reasons for tins trend including increased afford­
ability. flexibility, and scalability.
In this chapter, you'll leam how to use Amazon’s cloud computing
platform. Amazon Web Services (AWS), to host a database in the cloud. In
particular, you'll leam how to use Amazon's Relational Database Service
I RDS) to host MySQL databases.

How to create and configure a MySQL RDS instance....568

The AWS Management Console..................................................................... 568
The Amazon RDS Databases page............................................................... 568
How to create a MySQL RDS instance......................................................... 570
How to modify an RDS instance so it's publicly accessible........................ 572
How to add a tirewall rule for your IP address.............................................. 574
H ow to use MySQL Workbench with an RDS instance ..576
How to connect to an RDS instance................. .............................................. 576
How to run scripts and SQL statements against an RDS database............. 578
How to backup and restore a database instance............. 580
Howto work with the built-in backup............................................................. 580
Howto create a backup plan.............................. .......... 580
Howto work with snapshots.... ........................................................................582
Howto restore a database instance.................................................................. 582
More skills for working with RDS____ ___ _____________ 584
How to check the AWS Billing Dashboard...................................................584
How to delete an RDS database..................................................................... 586
Perspective________________ .....____ ____ _________ .....588
568 Section 5 Database administration

How to create and configure a

MySQL RDS instance
In this topic, you'll learn how to use Amazon Web Services (AWS) to create
and configure a Relational Database Service iRDS) instance for hosting MySQL
databases in the cloud. But first, you'll learn how to access these services.

The AWS Management Console

Before you can use any of Amazon's web services, you must first create
an AWS account. To do that, you go to the URL for the AWS portal shown in
figure 20-1. This account is separate from any other Amazon accounts you might
already have.
When you create a newr account, you w ill need to provide a credit card.
However, many introductory services are available for free, at a very low cost,
or as free trials. This means that you can learn and experiment with AWS before
committing to any services.
Once you’ve created your account and logged in. you'll see the AWS
Management Console shown in the first screen. From this page, you can click
the Sen ices icon or use the search bar to navigate to any of the services that
AWS provides.

The Amazon RDS Databases page

This chapter shows you how to use Amazon RDS. RDS is a managed
database sen ice. which means that it handles most aspects of server and
database maintenance, including creating backups and allocating compute and
storage. It allows you to create and work with cloud-hosted relational database
tDB) instances. In RDS. an instance is an isolated database environment that can
contain one or more databases.
To create and interact with an RDS database, you navigate to the RDS
Databases page from the AWS portal as described in figure 20-1. This page is
shown in the second screen. You can use it to create new database instances and
work with existing instances.
As you work with RDS. you'll notice that it often refers to a database
instance as simply a database. For example, as you'll learn in the next figure,
you use the “Create database" button on the Databases page to create a database
instance, not a database. This can be confusing at first, so you'll want to keep it
in mind as you work w'ith RDS,
Because RDS is a managed database service. I recommend using it for your
first cloud-hosted databases. However, if you want more control over the server
that hosts your databases, you may want to use Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud
(EC2) instead. Keep in mind that w'hen you use EC2. you must set up everything
your database requires, including installing an operating system. So. you should
be sure that having more control over the server warrants this extra work.
 Chapter 20 How to host a database with AWS 569

The AWS portal

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The Amazon RDS Databases page

Description
• The Amazon Web Services (AB'S) portal provides a way to manage all types of
Amazon services, including database services.
• Amazon Relational Database Service (RDS) is a managed database service. That
means that Amazon handles most of the server and database maintenance for you.
• To work with MySQL database (DB) instances in the Amazon cloud, you use the
Amazon RDS Databases page To display this page from the AWS portal, use the search
bar to search for and select RDS, or click the Services icon and select Database->RDS
from the lists that are displayed. Then, click Databases in the left sidebar.

Figure 20-1 The AWS Management Console and the RDS Databases page
570 Section 5 Database administration

How to create a MySQL RDS instance

Before you can create a database that's hosted by RDS. you need to create
an RDS instance. An RDS instance provides the compute and storage that are
used to physically host your database. Compute and storage is the common way
to refer to the physical aspects of the server memory, processing power, and disk
storage. With RDS. Amazon handles allocating compute and storage for you, but
you can modify the instance configuration to change compute and storage if you
need to.
Figure 20-2 presents a procedure for creating a free MySQL RDS instance
from the RDS Databases page. As you follow these steps, you'll see additional
options that you may want to explore later. For example, you can create an
RDS instance with a different RDBMS. That includes Aurora for MySQL
or PostgreSQL. which are optimized for the cloud environment, as well as
MariaDB. PostgreSQL. Oracle, and MS SQL Server.
In step 5 of this procedure, you’re asked to select an instance size. The
option you choose determines the number of CPUs that are available to you.
the RAM and storage that are available, as well as what you will be charged if
you exceed these limits. For the purposes of this book, the free tier should be
adequate, and it will cost only 20 cents an hour if you exceed the limits.
 Chapter 20 Ho\> to host a database with AWS 571

The page for creating a MySQL RDS instance

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How to create a free MySQL RDS instance

1. Log in to the AWS Management Console, and navigate to the RDS Databases page.
2. Click the “Create database" button to display the page shown above.
3. Select “Easy create" for the database creation method.
4. Select My SQL for the engine type.
5. Select “Free tier” for the DB instance size.
6. Enter a name such as “database-test-1” for the DB instance identifier.
7. Enter a master password you can easily remember.
8. Click the “Create database" button to create the DB instance and return to the RDS
Databases page.

Description
• As you follow the procedure above, you can skip any additional options that
Amazon presents for now. Thon, you can change these options later when you have
a better idea of how you want to use AWS.

Figure 20-2 How to create a MySQL RDS instance

572 Section 5 Database administration

How to modify an RDS instance

so it’s publicly accessible
When you create your AWS account. Amazon creates a default VPC (virtual
private cloud) for you. A VPC is just what its name implies: a private environ­
ment hosted m a cloud, It is “virtual” because although the network mimics
physical connections, it is entirely contained in Amazon’s cloud. Unless you
specify otherwise, all databases you create will be associated with your default
VPC.
Before you can connect to your RDS instance from outside of the VPC. you
need to modify tile instance so it's publicly accessible. To do that, you can use
the procedure shown in figure 20-3. Then. Amazon assigns a public identifier,
called an IP (Internet Protocol) address, to the instance so it can be found by
outside networks. That way, you'll be able to use client tools such as MjSQL
Workbench to connect to and work with the instance as show n later in this
chapter.
Although it’s okay for an RDS instance for a test database to be publicly
accessible for a short period of time, Amazon recommends against making your
RDS instances publicly accessible for production databases. That's because
public accessibility can lead to security issues. Although you can use firewall
rules as shown in the next figure to control access to RDS instance, there's a
lot more to securing networked resources than that. However, those details are
beyond the scope of this book.
 Chapter 20 How to host a database with AWS 573

The page for configuring an RDS instance

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How to modify an RDS instance so it's publicly accessible

1. Navigate to the RDS Databases page and make sure that the status of your instance
is “Available".
2. Click the name of the instance to display detailed information about that instance.
3. Click the Modify button to display the modifiable settings.
4. Expand the “Additional configuration" heading in the Connectivity section.
5. Select “Publicly Accessible" for the “Public access” option.
6. Scroll to the bottom of the page and click the Continue button.
7. Confirm the changes on the screen that’s displayed, select “Apply immediately”,
and click the “Modify DB instance" button.

Description
• By default, an RDS instance you create isn’t publicly accessible. To work with
the instance from outside of the VPC (virtual private cloud) associated with the
instance, you need to change the instance so it is publicly accessible.
• In the real world, your instance shouldn't be publicly accessible unless you
properly configure the inbound firewall rules.

Figure 20-3 How to modify an RDS instance so it's publicly accessible

574 Section 5 Database administration

How to add a firewall rule for your IP address

In addition to making an RDS instance publicly accessible, to access it from
outside the VPC, you must be sure that the instance includes a firewall tule
for your IP address. Firewall rules are used to implement access control for a
networked resource. The two main types of rules are inbound rules and outbound
rules. Inbound rules control the traffic that can go into a resource, and outbound
rules control the traffic that can go out from a resource. In this topic, you'll learn
how to configure inbound rules so you have access to your resources, and you
can configure outbound rules similarly.
Figure 20-4 starts by showing the inbound rule that's created by default
when you create an RDS instance. This rule is part of a security group, in
this case, the default group. A security group is used to combine the rules for
different types of traffic. An instance can be assigned to one or more security
groups that control the types of traffic that the instance can create or receive. By
default, security groups deny all inbound traffic and allow all outbound traffic.
In this figure, you can see that the default rule applies to all traffic. This rule
allows all inbound traffic within the VPC. In addition, a second inbound rule that
applies to MySQL/Aurora may also be created. This rule provides access to the
database instance from the IP address you used to create your AWS account. If
this rule isn't created automatically, however, you will need to add a firewall rule
for your IP address as shown in this figure.
Although it's not shown here, you should know that you can also edit and
delete existing firewall rules. To do that, you follow the first four steps of the
procedure in this figure to display the "Edit inbound rules" page. Then, to edit
a rule, you make the appropriate changes and click the "Save rules” button.
And to delete a rule, you just click the Delete button for the rule. In most cases,
however, you won't need to edit or delete rules.
Cloud security groups make network security easier to manage than the
security for traditional local servers. In a traditional architecture, for example, a
company might host their application and database servers on a single machine.
Then, the machine would, at a minimum, need to keep ports 80 and 443 (http
and https respectively) and port 3306 (MySQL) open. You would also need to
do additional server configuration to ensure that only the web apps that should
have access to a database can access it. To implement this with a security group,
however, you just need to add a rule to the appropriate security group to allow
connections.
 Chapter 20 How to host a database with AWS 575

The controls for adding a new rule

Inbound rule 2
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How to add a firewall rule for your IP address

I Navigate to the RDS Databases page and click the name of your instance.
2. Scroll down to the “Security group rules" section, and click the security group with
“Inbound" in the Type column to display information about that group.
3. Click the “Inbound rules" tab for the security group to display the default inbound
rule.
4. Click the “Edit inbound rules” button, and click the “Add rule” button in the “Edit
inbound rules” page that's displayed.
5. Click the “Add rule” button to display controls for adding a new rule.
6. Select MYSQL/Aurora from the Type dropdown.
7. Select “My IP” from the “Source type” dropdown.
8. Click the “Save rules” button.

Description
• AWS uses firewall rules to control access to RDS instances. Security groups are
used to combine rules for different types of traffic.
• Before you can connect to you RDS instance from outside of the VPC. you need to
add a firewall rule for your IP address if it isn't automatically added.
Figure 20-4 How to add a firewall rule for your IP address
576 Section 5 Database administration

How to use MySQL Workbench

with an RDS instance
Once you’ve created your RDS instance, made it publicly accessible, and
made sure that it includes a firewall rule for your IP address, you’re ready to
connect to it from MySQL Workbench. After that, interacting with your RDS
database is similar to interacting with a locally hosted database.

How to connect to an RDS instance

Figure 20-5 shows the steps for connecting to your RDS instance from
MySQL Workbench. Here, the most important Thing to note is that you must use
the endpoint string for your RDS instance as the hostname for the connection.
In addition, you must assign a name to the connection, and you should store the
password for the admin user in the vault. If you don’t store the password, you
will have to enter it each time you connect to the instance.
Once you enter the appropriate information, you can click the Test
Connection button to verify that you’re able to connect to the instance. If it is,
a confirmation message is displayed. If an error message is displayed, however,
you should start by checking that you completed the steps in figure 20-3
correctly so the instance is publicly accessible.
If the instance is publicly accessible but you’re unable to connect, it
usually means that the firewall for your instance is blocking your connection.
In that case, you can follow the procedure in figure 20-4 to add a firewall rule
for your IP address. Note that if the firewall blocks your connection, an error
won’t be displayed when you click the Test Connection button. However, an
error message will be displayed if you try to connect to the instance from the
Connections tab of MySQL Workbench.
 Chapter 20 How to host a database with AWS 577

The settings for an RDS connection

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How to connect to an RDS instance

1 Navigate to the RDS Databases page, and click the name of the instance you want
to connect to.
2. Copy the complete endpoint string in the Connectivity & Security section.
3. Open MySQL Workbench, display the I lome tab. and click the ® button to the
right of MySQL Connections to display the Setup New Connection dialog box
shown above.
4. Enter a descriptive connection name such as “RDS”.
5. Replace the hostname with the endpoint string you copied m step 2.
6. Change the username to “admin”.
7. Click the “Store in Vault...” button and enter your AWS password when prompted.
8. Click the Test Connection button to be sure the connection works.

Description
• If the connection is successful, a confirmation message is displayed. If the connec­
tion isn't successful, an error message is displayed unless the error is due to the
lack of a tirewall rule for your IP address.
• An unsuccessful connection may indicate that the RDS instance isn t publicly
accessible. It may also indicate that you're using an IP address that’s different from
the one you used when you created your AWS account.

Figure 20-5 How to connect to an RDS instance

578 Section 5 Database administration

How to run scripts and SQL statements

against an RDS database
Once you've established a connection to your RDS instance, you can work
w till the instance from MySQL Workbench using the same techniques you use
to work with a local instance. To start, you can create databases on the RDS
instance. In figure 20-6. for example, you can see that the create_databases script
that’s used to create the databases for this book is open m a SQL Editor tab.
The Output tab also shows that the last three statements in this script executed
successfully, and the Schemas tab shows that three databases have been created.
This figure also shows a SQL Editor tab with a SELECT statement. The
results of that statement are shown in the Result grids, and the Output tab shows
that the statement executed successfully and that it returned 114 rows. Although
1 chose to show a SELECT statement in this figure, most SQL statements will
work with AWS as well.
You should know, however, that you shouldn't execute statements from
Workbench that attempt to change configurations that are managed by RDS.
This includes privileges and permissions, backups, software patching, compute
and storage scaling, and monitoring. You should change these configurations
from the AWS portal.
You should also know that MySQL extensions and plugins may not work
because of discrepancies between the supported versions of MySQL. This is
particularly true if you're using Aurora MySQL rather than regulai MySQL.
 Chapter 20 How to host a database with AWS 579

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Description
• Once you've created a connection to an RDS instance from MySQL Workbench,
you can use that connection to interact with the instance just like you would a local
instance.
• Most of the SQL statements that work on a local database will work on a database
hosted by RDS. However, some statements used to configure a database may
conflict with the RDS instance. Because of that, you should use the RDS Databases
page for database configuration.
• Some MySQL extensions and plugins may not work with RDS. particularly if they
are specific to certain versions of MySQL.

Figure 20-6 How to run scripts and SQL statements against an RDS instance
580 Section 5 Database administration

How to backup and restore a database

instance
When you use AVVS, you can use three techniques to hack up your database
instance. You'll leant about all three of these techniques in this topic. In addition,
you'll learn how to restore your database instance from a backup.

How to work with the built-in backup

By default. AWS creates a backup of each RDS instance every day. To
display the settings for this built-in backup, you can follow the first procedure in
figure 20-7. These settings are shown at the top of this figure. They indicate that
backups will take place between 06:23 and 06:53 UTC (Coordinated Universal
Tune) and will be retained for seven days.
It you want to modify the default backup settings, you can do that as
described in the second procedure. You can modify the default backup by
changing w hen the backups will start and how long they will be retained. If you
change the backup retention period to 0 days, the backups will be disabled.

How to create a backup plan

In many cases, the daily built-in backups are all you'll need. However,
you can also define your own backups by creating one or more backup plans.
A backup plan runs on a schedule like the built-in backup, but it provides
additional options. For example, backup plans are often used to back up groups
of related resources, such as an RDS instance and the EC2 instance that runs an
associated w eb server.
The third procedure in figure 20-7 shows how to create a backup plan for
an RDS instance. Note in step 2 that I recommend starting a backup plan from a
template. Although you can also create a backup plan from scratch, the backup
templates usually provide all the options you'll need. They determine how often
the backups will be created and how long they w ill be retained.
In steps 5 through 8, you assign the resources that you want to include in the
backup In this example, only the RDS instance used in this chapter is included.
However, if you’re working with multiple resources, you can select each type of
resource and then select to include all or selected resources of each type.
If you ever need to delete a backup plan, you should know that you first have
to delete any resource assignments for the plan. To do that, you navigate to the
AVVS Backup page, click "Backup plans” in the sidebar, and click the plan you
wrant to delete. Then, you scroll down to the “Resource assignments" section and
delete each resource by selecting its option and clicking the Delete button. When
you're done, you can scroll back to the top of the page and click the Delete
button for the plan.
 Chapter 20 How to host a database with AWS 5ri1

The built-in backup settings for an instance

Backup

Automated backups Latest restore time Replicate to Region

Enabled (7 Days) July 19, 2023. 10 50 (UK-07 00)

Copy tags to snapshots Backup window Replicated automated backup

Enabled 06 23-06:53 UK (GMT) •

Backup target

AWS Cloud (US East (N. Virginia))

How to display the built-in backup settings for an instance

I. Navigate to the RDS Databases page, and click the name of the instance.
2. Click the “Maintenance & backups” tab. and scroll down to the Backup section.

How to modify the built-in backup settings

1. Navigate to the RDS Databases page, and click the name of the instance.
2. Click the Modify button on the page that’s displayed.
3. Scroll down to the “Additional configuration” section, and change the backup
settings as necessary.
4. Click the Continue button, confirm the changes on the page that’s displayed, and
click the “Modify DB instance" button.

How to create a backup plan

I. Use the search bar to navigate to the AWS Backup page, and click the “Create
Backup plan” button.
2. In the Start options section, select the “Start with a template” backup plan option,
select a template plan, and enter a unique, descriptive name for the backup plan.
3. Click the “Create plan” button at the bottom of the page.
4. Click “Backup plans” in the sidebar, and click the plan you just created.
5. Scroll down to the “Resource assignments” section of the page that’s displayed, and
click the “Assign resources” button.
6. In the General section, enter a unique, descriptive name for the resource assignment.
7. In the “Resource selection” section, select the “Include specific resource types”
radio button, select RDS as the resource type, and select your RDS instance.
8. Click the “Assign resources” button.

Description
• You can use the built-in backup settings for your automatic backups, you can
modify those settings, and you can create one or more custom backup plans.

Figure 20-7 How to configure automatic backups

582 Section 5 Database administration

How to work with snapshots

In addition to the scheduled backups that are created using the built-in
backup and backup plans, you can manually create a backup of a database
instance at any time. To do that, you take a snapshot of the instance. A snapshot
is just like any other backup, except it's retained until you delete it.
Snapshots are useful when you want to create a backup without disrupting
your regular scheduled backups. For example, before you do a mass update to
a database instance, you may want to take a snapshot of the instance in case
something goes wrong.
To create a snapshot of a database instance, you can use the first procedure
in figure 20-8. When you display the Snapshots section in step 3, a list of all the
existing snapshots and backups is displayed as shown at the top of this figure.
Then, you can click the “Take snapshot" button to take another snapshot.
When the snapshot completes, it's displayed in the Manual tab of the RDS
Snapshots page. Although this page isn't shown here, you can display it at any
time by navigating to RDS and clicking Snapshots in the sidebar. In addition to
the snapshots, the built-in backups are listed on the System tab of the Snapshots
page, and the backups created from any backup plans are listed on the “Backup
service” tab.
Because snapshots are retained indefinitely, you typically delete them when
they’re no longer needed. To do that, you can use the second procedure in this
figure. Note that because the built-in backups and backups created by backup
plans are deleted on a predetermined schedule, they can't be deleted manually.

How to restore a database instance

If a problem occurs with one of your databases, you can use a backup to
restore the instance that contains that database. For example, human error can
cause rows in a database to be updated incorrectly or deleted inadvertently.
Hardware failures and natural disasters can also cause data to be destroyed.
To restore a database instance from a backup, you can use the third proce­
dure in figure 20-8. When you use this procedure, you should realize that you
are creating a new database instance with a new name rather than overwriting
an existing database instance. Then, when you're sure that the new instance
corrects the problem that was encountered, you can rename or delete the original
instance. At that point, you can rename the new instance so it's the same as the
original instance. That way, you'll be able to access the instance from outside the
VPC without changing the connection you’re using.
 Chapter 20 How to host a database with AWS 583

The backups and snapshots for an instance

Snapshots 6) Restore Remove Take snapshot

Q FUtrr by snapshots 1 < 1 > ©

□ Snapshot name a Snapshot creation time v Status V Snapshot type

August 10. 2023. 01 19

□ awibaritp job 98a67f9d <H8 bdd9 KM 5 7194f9356b2c © Available Backup serves
(inC-07 00)

August 09. 2023. 01 11

□ rdrdatabas* test 2 2025 06 09 08-11 © Available Automated
(1/TC-0700J

August 10. 2023. 01 10

□ rds.database test-2-202 3-06-10-08-10 © Available Automated
(LJTC-0700)

August 10. 2023. 06 33

□ snapshot-8-10-23 © Available Manual
(UTC-07.O0)
•

How to take a snapshot of a database instance

1 Navigate to the RDS Databases page and click the name of the database instance
you want to take a snapshot of.
2. Click the “Maintenance & backups" tab below the Summary section.
3. Scroll to the Snapshots section of the page and click the "Take snapshot" button.
4. Enter a unique, descriptive name for the snapshot and click the Take Snapshot button.

How to delete one or more snapshots

1. Navigate to the “Maintenance & backups" tab on the page for the database instance
that has snapshots you want to delete.
2. Scroll to the Snapshots section, select the check boxes for the snapshots you want
to delete, and click the Remove button.
3. Click the Delete button in the dialog box that's displayed.

How to restore a database instance from a backup or snapshot

1. Navigate to the “Maintenance & backups" tab on the page for the database instance
you want to restore.
2. Scroll to the Snapshots section, and select the checkbox for the snapshot or backup
you want to restore.
3. Click the Restore button to display the Restore Snapshot page.
4. Enter the name of the database instance in the Settings section, select Yes for tha
“Public access” option in the Connectivity section, and click the “Restore DB
instance" button.

Description
• You can manually back up a database at any time by taking a snapshot of it.
• You can manually restore a database from any backup or snapshot.
Figure 20-8 How to work with snapshots and restore a database instance
584 Section 5 Database administration

More skills for working with RDS

The rest of this chapter presents two additional skills for working uith RDS.
Here, you'll learn how to use the AWS Billing Dashboard and how to delete an
RDS instance.

How to check the AWS Billing Dashboard

Figure 20-9 shows the AWS Billing Dashboard. This dashboard shows your
forecasted charges for the month, as well as the current month-to-date charges
for the month. It also includes information about the costs for each service
you're using. And it provides options for making payments and generating cost
and usage reports. These reports can help you make decisions about whether you
are purchasing too much or too little compute and storage.
 Chapter 20 How to host a database with AWS 585

The AWS Billing Dashboard

□ X

-* c us-«*rt-1xonsol«JMrtjnnaxonxom tailling/hcm»?r»gion-uj-«Mt-2*/

aws ::: Q □ © aotMi

Billing X AWS Billing Dashboard

Homa AWS Billing Dashboard ».«.

Page refresh time: Friday. July 21. 202] X 205:53 PM
v Billing POT

84b

Payments AWS summary mto

Credits

Purchase orders Current month s total forecast Current MTD balance

Cott & uug« raporti
USD 0.05 USD 0.04
Cost categories

Cost allocation tjqt Prior month for the same period Total manber of active services
with trend
Free ber
5
B4l<ig Conductor M No data to display 4* O.O^fa

v Cost Management Total number off active AWS

Regions
Cost explorer E

Budgets

Budgets reports

Sa.tqs Plans E
Highest cost info
▼ Prefa rancrs
Viewing highest tervxe spend

Description
• To display the AWS Billing Dashboard, enter ‘'Billing” in the AWS search bar and
select Billing from the list that's displayed.
• The Billing Dashboard shows your current and projected charges for the month, as
well as analytics on which services are costing you the most.
• You can also use this dashboard to make payments and generate cost and usage
reports.

Figure 20-9 How to check the AWS Billing Dashboard

586 Section 5 Database administration

How to delete an RDS database

If you’ve been following along with this chapter, you’ll probably want to
delete the resources that you've created when you're done expeiimenting with
them. This will ensure that you aren't charged for a resource that you aren't
using. Figure 20-10 shows how to delete an RDS database.
 Chapter 20 How to host a database with AWS 587

The menu for deleting a database

Bl taeabtsei - *505 Max +

<- -> C jwsjmA2Ofi.cotn/fd&/home?fe9t0fl«us<«*5l*1 •database?

M uwisl-l.coft&ote t£? & W □ Q ;

How to delete an RDS database

I. Navigate to the RDS Databases page, and select the instance you want to delete by
clicking the circle to the left of its name.
2. Click the Actions button and select Delete from the drop-down menu that's
displayed to display a Delete dialog box.
3. Uncheck the “Create final snapshot" and ’ Retain automated backups” options if
you are certain you won’t need the data m the database again.
4. Check the “1 acknowledge...” option, type “delete me” into the text box at the
bottom of the dialog box. and click the Delete button.

Description
• When you are finished experimenting with the database, you should delete it so you
won’t incur any charges.
• It is usually a good idea to keep backups of a database prior to deleting it.

Figure 20-10 How to delete an RDS database

588 Section 5 Database administration

Perspective
The world is moving away from locally hosted databases and towards
cloud-hosted databases. Although this chapter showed you the steps for hosting
a database using Amazon Web Services, most cloud providers offer similar
services.

Terms
AWS (Amazon Web Service) Outbound rule
RDS (relational database service) Security group
Database (DB) instance Back up a database
EC2 (elastic compute cloud) Restore a database
Compute and storage Built-in backup
VPC (virtual private cloud) Backup plan
Firewall rule Snapshot
Inbound rule

Exercises
l. Create an AWS account and sign m.
2. Navigate to the RDS Databases page and create a MySQL RDS instance.
3. Configure the instance to be publicly accessible.
4. Check if the instance includes an inbound firewall rule for your IP address,
and create one if it doesn’t.
5. Create a connection to the RDS instance in MySQL Workbench, and open
that connection.
6. Open and run the create_databases.sql script to create the three databases used
by this book.
7. Enter and run a SELECT statement against one of the databases.
8. Create a backup plan that creates a w eekly backup of the database instance.
9. Take a snapshot of the database instance.
10. Use MySQL Workbench to make a change to a database in that instance.
11. Restore the snapshot and confirm that the change to the database was
reversed.
12. Delete the RDS instance.
 Appendix A
How to set up Windows
for this book
Before you begin reading this book, we recommend that you install MySQL
Community Server and MySQL Workbench. Both of these software products
are available for free from the MySQL website, and you can install them on
your computer as described in this appendix.
After you install these products, we recommend that you download
the files for this book that are available from the Murach website
t w ww.inui.tch.comi. Then, we recommend that you run the SQL script that
creates the databases that are used throughout this book.
Once you create these databases, you're ready to gain valuable hands-on
experience by running the SQL scripts for the examples presented in this
book. In addition, you can get more practice by doing the exercises that are at
the end of each chapter, starting with chapter 2.

How to install MySQL Community Server................................. 592

How to start and stop the MySQL sever......................................................... 592
How to install MySQL Workbench................................................................. 594
How to download the tiles for this book......................................................... 596
How to create the databases tot this book...................................................... 598.
How to restore the databases............................................................................ 598
592 Appendix >1 How to set up Windows for this book

How to install MySQL Community Server

MySQL Community Server is a database server that's free and easy to use.
Since it’s designed to run on most modem computers, it’s ideal for developers
who want to install it on their computer so they can learn how to work with a
MySQL database. That's why this book assumes that you have installed the
Community Server on your computer.
In July 2023, Oracle announced a new versioning model for MySQL that
provides two different release tracks. The releases that contain new features and
improvements wiM be known as Innovation versions, and the releases that w ill
only be updated with bug fixes after the initial release will be know n as Long
Term Support (LTSj versions. Oracle also released the first Innovation version,
MySQL 8.1 Innovation. In addition. Oracle announced that MySQL 8.0.34 and
later will only be updated with bug fixes, not with new features or improve­
ments. As a result. MySQL 8.0 is now essentially an LTS version.
So, which version should you install? If you want to make sure the MySQL
server works exactly as described in this book, we recommend installing
MySQL 8.0. That's because all of the SQL statements presented in this book
have been tested against MySQL 8.0.
On ‘die other hand, if you want the latest features and improvements as they
become available, you should install the newest Innovation version of MySQL.
Or. if you only want access to the features included in an LTS version, you
should install the newest LTS version. Oracle plans to release the first LI'S
version in 2024. Since MySQL is backwards compatible, the SQL statements
presented in this book should also work with these releases ot My SQL. For
example, we tested all of the SQL statements in this book against MySQL 8.1.
and they all worked correctly.
Once you decide on a version of the MySQL server, you can install it as
described in figure A-1. This procedure varies depending on whether you're
installing MySQL 8.0 or a later version, but regardless of the version, it installs
only the MySQl. server using the typical configuration options. As part of this
procedure, you need to specify a password for the root user. When you do, make
sutr to remember the password that you enter.

How to start and stop the MySQL sever

To make sure the MySQL server has been installed correctly, you can start
the Sen ices app and check w hether the senice for the MySQL server is running.
By default, this service has a name that begins w ith MySQL and ends w ith the
first two digits of the version number. For instance, the service for MySQL 8.0 is
named MySQL80.
By default, the MySQL senice starts automatically when you start your
computer However, there are times when you may want to stop this senice. For
example, you can stop this sen ice if you aren't going to be using it and you want
to free the resources on your computer. To do that, you can use the procedure
 Appendix A How to set up Windows for this hook 593

The MySQL Community Server downloads page

http://dav.nyaql.ccn/downloads/nysql/

How to install MySQL Community Server

1. Go to the My SQL Community Server downloads page. If necessary, you can find
this page by searching the internet for “MySQL community server download"
2. Select the version of MySQL that you want to install and select Windows as the
operating system If you select version 8.0, click the MySQL Installer link to go to
that page.
3. Download the installer (MSI) file by clicking its Download button. For MySQL 8.0.
you download the MSI file foi the MySQL Installer for all MySQL products. For
MySQL 8.1 and later, you download a MSI file that’s only for the MySQL server.
4. Find the downloaded MSI file and double-click it. This should start the installer.
5. Respond to the resulting dialogs to install MySQL and configure it. You can accept
most of the default options.
• For the setup type, if you’re installing MySQL 8.0. leave the setup type at its
default setting of Server Only. If you’re installing 8.1 or later, select Typical.
• Make sure to enter a password for the root user, and make sure to remember the
password that you enter.

How to start and stop the MySQL server

1. Click the Windows Start button, type ‘‘services”, and select the Services app.
2. Scroll down to view the MySQL service. By default, the service for MySQL 8.0 is
named MySQL80. the service for MySQL 8.1 is named MySQL# 1. and so on.
3. Right-click the MySQL service and select Start or Stop. Or. if you want to control
w hether MySQL starts automatically when you start your computer, select
Properties.

Description
• In July 2023. Oracle announced a new versioning model for MySQL that provides
two different release tracks. The releases that contain new features and improvements
will be known as Innovation versions, and the releases that will only be updated with
bug fixes after the initial release w ill be known as Long Term Support (LTS) versions.
• Since July 2023, Oracle is only updating MySQL 8.0 with bug fixes, not new
features or improvements. As a result, MySQL 8.0 is now essentially an LTS version.
• If you want to make sure that the MySQL server works exactly as described in this
book, you should use the 8.0 version.
• If you want access to the latest features as they become available, you should use
an Innovation version. The first Innovation version is 8.1.
• If you only want access to the features included in an LTS version, you can use that
version. The first LTS version will become available in 2024.
• You can use the Services app to start and stop the MySQL service and to control
whether the MySQL server starts automatically when you start your computer.
Figure A-1 How to install MySQL Community Server
594 Appendix A How to set up Windows for this book

shown in figure A-l. Then, when you’re ready to start the service again, you can
use this procedure to do that too.

How to install MySQL Workbench

MySQL Workbench is a free program that makes it easy to work with
MySQL databases. To install MySQL Workbench, you can use the procedure
shown in figure A-2. W hen you download the installer file, make sure it is the
installer file for MySQL Workbench only, not the installer file for all MySQL
products.
If you install a newer version of My SQL server such as 8.1 innovation, you
may need to install an older version of Workbench such as 8.0. That's because
a version of Workbench that corresponds to your version of the MySQL server
may not yet be available. In that case, you can install the older version of
Workbench and use it until a new version becomes available.
All of the skills for working with MySQL Workbench presented m this
book were tested against version 8.0. As a result, if you’re using this version of
MySQL Workbench, these skills should wrork exactly as described. If you're
using a later version of MySQL Workbench, these skills may not work exactly as
described, but they should work similarly.
 Appendix A How to set up Windows for this hook 595

The MySQL Workbench downloads page

http: I /dev.mysql. com/downloads/workbench/

How to install MySQL Workbench

1. Go to the MySQL Workbench downloads page. If necessary, you can find this page
by searching the internet for “MySQL Workbench community download”.
2. Select Windows as the operating system.
3. Click the Download button to dow nload the installer (MSI) file for the latest
version of MySQL Workbench. This file should be named something like mysql-
workbench-community-8.x.xx-winx64.msi. Make sure you download this installer
file, not the MySQL Installer for all MySQL products.
4. Lind the installer file and double-click it to start the installer
5. Respond to the resulting dialog boxes. You can accept all defaults.

Notes
• If you install a newer version of MySQL server such as 8.1 Innovation, you may
need to install an older version of Workbench such as 8.0. That's because there may
not yet be a newer version of Workbench available.
• To make it easy to start MySQL Workbench, you can pin jr to the taskbar.

Figure A-2 How to install MySGL Workbench

596 Appendix >1 How to set up Windows for this book

How to download the files for this book

Figure A-3 shows how to download the files for this book. This download
includes a SQL script that you can use to create the databases that are used
throughout this book. It includes SQL scripts for all of the examples in this
book. And it includes SQL scripts for the solutions to the exercises that are at the
end of each chapter.
The files for this book are in a zip file that you can download from
www.murach.com. When you download this file, it contains a directory named
mysql that stores the SQL script files for this book. Within this directory, you
can find the subdirectories that contain the files shown in this figure.
After double-clicking on the zip file to view the mysql directory, we recom­
mend moving this directory into a directory named murach that you can create
directly on your hard disk. That way. the directories and files on your system
will match the directories and files shown in this book.
 Appendix A How to set up Windows for this hook 597

The recommended directory for the files

C:\murach\mysql

The files for this book

Directory Contains
db getup The SQL script that creates the three databases for this book.
book script g The SQL scripts for all of the examples presented in this book.
ex solutions The SQL scripts for the solutions to the exercises at the end of each chapter.
diagrams The MySQL Workbench file for the diagram that’s presented in chapter 10.

The databases for this book

Database Description
ap The AP (Accounts Payable) database. This database is used by most
examples in this book.
on The OM (Order Management) database. This database is used by a few
examples in this book.
ox The EX (Examples) database. This database contains several tables that are
used for short examples.

How to download the files

1. Go to wmai .murach.com.
2. Find the page for Murach's MySQL (4:“ Edition).
3. Scroll down to the “FREE downloads" tab and click it.
4. Click the Download Now button for the zip file to download a setup file named
msq4_allfiles.zip.
5. Find the downloaded zip file and double-click it. This should display a directory
named mysql.
6. Use File Explorer to create a director} named murach in the root directory of your
hard disk.
7. Use File Explorer to move the mysql directory into the murach directory.

Description
• All of the files described in this book are contained in a zip file that can be
downloaded from u ww.muiach.com.

Figure A-3 How to download the files for this book

593 Appendix >1 How to set up Windows for this book

How to create the databases for this book

Before you can run the SQL statements presented in this book, you need to
create the three databases used by this book. To do that, you can use MySQL
Workbench to run the SQL script that's stored in the create_databases.sql file as
described in figure A-4.
To determine if the SQL script ran successfully, you can review the results
in the Output window. In this figure, for example, the Output window shows a
series of statements that have executed successfully In addition, the Schemas tab
of the Navigator window shows that the three databases have been created. The
other database, named sys, is a database that comes with MySQL.
It the script encounters problems, MySQL Workbench displays one or more
errors in the Output window. Then, you can read these errors to figure out why
the script isn't executing correctly.
Before you can run the create_databases.sql script, the database server must
be running. By default, the database server starts automatically when you start
your computer, so this usually isn't a problem. However, if it isn't running on
your system, you can start it as described in figure A-1.

How to restore the databases

As you work with the code that’s presented in this book, you may make
changes to the databases that you don't .ntend to make In that case, you may
want to restore the databases to their original state so your results match the
results shown in this book. To do that, you can run the create_databases.sql file
again. 'I his deletes the three databases described in this appendix and recreates
them.
 Appendix A How to set up Windows for this book 599

The directory that contains the create databases.sql file

C:\amrach\myaql\db setup

MySQL Workbench after executing the create_databases.sql file

■ MjJCL WartWtth

How to create the databases

1. Start MySQL Workbench.
2. Click on the stored connection named “Local instance MySQL” and enter the
password for the root user if prompted. This is the password that you created when
installing the MySQL server in figure A-l. This connects you as the root user to the
local instance of MySQL.
3. If you get a warning that MySQL Workbench is incompatible with the server
version and that some features may not work properly, don't be alarmed. You can
click Continue Anyway and the features described in this book should still work.
4. Open the create_databases.sql file by clicking the Open SQL Script File button.
Then, use the resulting dialog box to locate and open the file. When you do,
MySQL Workbench displays this script in a SQL Editor tab.
5. Execute the script by clicking the Execute Script button. When you do. the Output
window displays messages that indicate whether the script executed successfully.

How to restore the databases

• Run the create_databases.sql script again to delete the databases and recreate them.

Figure A-4 How to create and restore the databases for this book
 Appendix B
How to set up macOS
for this book
Before you begin reading this book, we recommend that you install MySQL
Community Server and MySQL Workbench. Both of these software products
are available for free from the MySQL website, and you can install them on
your computer as described in this appendix.
After you install these products, we recommend that you download
the files for this book that are available from the Murach website
1 wuw.inuiach.comi. Then, we recommend that you run the SQL script that
creates the databases that are used throughout this book.
Once you create these databases, you're ready to gain valuable hands-on
experience by running the SQL scripts for the examples presented in this
book. In addition, you can get more practice by doing the exercises that are at
the end of each chapter, starting with chapter 2.

How to install MySQL Community Server................................. 602

How to start and stop the MySQL sever......................................................... 602
How to install MySQL Workbench.................................................................604
How to download the tiles for this book......................................................... 606
How to create the databases for this book...................................................... 60S
How to restore the databases............................................................................60S
602 Appendix B How to set up macOS for this book

How to install MySQL Community Server

MySQL Community Server is a database server that's free and easy to use.
Since it’s designed to run on most modem computers, it’s ideal for developers
who want to install it on their computer so they can learn how to work with a
MySQL database. That's why this book assumes that you have installed the
Community Server on your computer.
In July 2023, Oracle announced a new versioning model for MySQL that
provides two different release tracks. The releases that contain new features and
improvements wiM be known as Innovation versions, and the releases that w ill
only be updated with bug fixes after the initial release w ill be known as Lont>
Term Support (UTS) versions. Oracle also released the first Innovation version.
MySQL 8.1 Innovation. In addition. Oracle announced that MySQL 8.0.34 and
later will only be updated with bug fixes, not with new features or improve­
ments. As a result. MySQL 8.0 is now essentially an LTS version.
So. which version should you install? If you want to make sure the MySQL
server works exactly as described in this book, we recommend installing
MySQL 8.0. That's because all of the SQL statements presented in this book
have been tested against MySQL 8.0.
On ‘die other hand, if you want the latest features and improvements as
the} become available, you should install the newest Innovation version of
MySQL. Or. if you only want access to the features included m an LTS version,
you should install the newest LTS version. Oracle plans to release the first I ,TS
version in 2024. Since MySQL is backwards compatible, the SQL statements
presented in this book should also work with these releases ot MySQL. For
example, we tested all of the SQL statements in this book against MvSQL 8.1.
and they all worked correctly.
Once you decide on a version of the MySQL sen er, you can install it
as described in figure B-l. As part of this procedure, you need to specify a
password for the root user. When you do, make sure to remember the password
that you enter.

How to start and stop the MySQL sever

To make sure the MySQL server has been installed correctly, you can
start the MySQL preference pane and check whether the MySQL server is
running. By default, the MySQL server starts automatically when you start your
computer. However, there are times when you may want to stop this server. For
example, you can stop this server if you aren’t going to be using it and you want
to free the resources on your computer. To do that, you can use the procedure
shown in figure B-1. Then, when you're ready to start the server again, you can
use this procedure to do that too.
 Appendix B How to set up macOS for this hook 603

The MySQL Community Server downloads page

http: I /dev.mysql. cam/ downloads/myaql/

How to install MySQL Community Server

1. Go to the MySQL Community Server downloads page. It necessary, you can find
this page by searching the internet for “MySQL community server download".
2. Select the version of the MySQL server, select macOS as the operating system, and
select the operating system version for your processor (x86 or ARM).
3. Download the disk image (DMG) file by clicking on its Download button.
4. Lind the downloaded DMG file and double-click it. This opens a window with a
package (PKG) file.
5. Double-click the PKG file for MySQL, and respond to the resulting dialog boxes to
install it. You can accept most of the default options and specify a password for the
root user. Make sure to remember the passw ord that you enter.

How to start and stop the MySQL server

1. Use the Apple menu to select System Preferences.
2. Click the MySQL icon.
3. Use the buttons on the MySQL preference pane to start or stop the MySQL server.
Or. use the check box on that page to control whether the MySQL server starts
automatically when you start your computer.

Description
• In July 2023, Oracle announced a new versioning model for MySQL that provides
two different release tracks. The releases that contain new features and improve­
ments will be known as Innovation versions, and the releases that will only be
updated with bug fixes after the initial release will be known as Long Term Support
(LTS) versions.
• Since July 2023, Oracle is only updating MySQL 8.0 with bug fixes, not new
features or improvements. As a result, MySQL 8.0 is now essentially an LTS
version.
• If you want to make sure that tlie MySQL server works exactly as described in this
book, you should use the 8.0 version.
• If you want access to the latest features as they become available, you should use
an Innovation version. The first Innovation version is 8.1.
• If you only want access to the features included in an LTS version, you can use that
version. The first LTS version will become available in 2024.
• You can use the MySQL preference pane to start and stop the MySQL server and
to control whether the MySQL server starts automatically when you start your
computer.

Figure B-1 How to install MySGL Community Server

604 Appendix B How to set up macOS for this book

How to install MySQL Workbench

MySQL Workbench is a free program that makes it easy to work with
MySQL databases. To install MySQL Workbench, you can use the procedure
shown in figure B-2.
If you install a newer version of MySQL server such as 8.1 Innovation,
you may still need to install an older version of Workbench such as 8.0. That's
because there may not yet be a newer version of Workbench that corresponds to
your version of the MySQL server. In that case, you can install the older version
of Workbench and use it until a new version becomes available.
All of the skills for working with MySQL Workbench presented in this
book were tested against version 8.0. As a result, if you're using this version of
MySQL Workbench, these skills should work exactly as described. If you’re
using a later version of MySQL Workbench, these skills may not work exactly as
described, but they should work similarly.
 Appendix B How to set up tnacOS for this hook 605

The MySQL Workbench downloads page

http: I /dev.mysql. com/downloads/workbench/

How to install MySQL Workbench

1. Go to the MySQL Workbench downloads page. If necessary, you can find this page
by searching the internet for “MySQL Workbench community download”.
2. Select macOS as the operating system.
3. Click the Download button to dow nload the disk image (DMG) file for the latest
version of MySQL Workbench that matches your processor (x86 or ARM).
4. Lind the DMG file on your hard disk and double-click on it.
5. Respond to the resulting dialog boxes.

Notes
• If you install a newer version of MySQL server such as 8.1 Innovation, you may
need to install an older version of Workbench such as 8.0 That’s because there may
not yet be a newer version of Workbench available.
• To make it easy to start MySQL Workbench, you may want to keep this application
in your dock.

Figure B-2 How to install MySQL Workbench

606 Appendix B How to set up macOS for this book

How to download the files for this book

Figure B-3 shows how to download the files for this book. This download
includes a SQL script that you can use to create the databases that are used
throughout this book. It includes SQL scripts for all of the examples in this
book. And it includes SQL scripts for the solutions to the exercises that are at the
end of each chapter.
The files for this book are in a zip file that you can download from
www.murach.com. When you download this file, it contains a directory named
mysql that stores the SQL script files for this book. Within this directory, you
can find the subdirectories that contain the files shown in this figure.
After double-clicking on the zip file to unzip the mysql directory, we recom­
mend moving this directory into a directory named murach that you can create
in your Documents directory. That way, your system will store die files for this
book in the directory show n at the top of this figure.
In this book, there are two figures (17-10 and 19-4) that show how to use the
command line to work with files. To keep the path to the files short, these figures
use a path of
/murach/mysql

However, to get these figures to work correctly on macOS, you need to substitute
the following path:
I Us er s / yo urnaaa / Document s/murac h I ray sq 1

Here, you need to substitute your macOS username for voumame. For example,
for a usemame of johndoe. you could use this path:
/Users/j ohndoe/Document s/murach/mysql
 Appendix B How to set up macOS for this hook 607

The recommended directory for the files

Do cume nt a / imir ac h / my a ql

The files for this book

Directory Contains
db getup The SQL script that creates the three databases for this book.
book script g The SQL scripts for all of the examples presented in this book.
ax solutions The SQL scripts for the solutions to the exercises at the end of each chapter.
diagrams The MySQL Workbench file for the diagram that's presented in chapter 10.

The databases for this book

Database Description
ap The AP (Accounts Payable) database. This database is used by most
examples in this book.
cm The OM (Order Management) database. This database is used by a few
examples in this book.
ox The EX (Examples) database. This database contains several tables that are
used for short examples.

How to download the files

I. Go to wm'w .murdch.com.
2. Find the page for Murach's MySQL (4:“ Edition).
3. Scroll down to the “FREE downloads" tab and click it.
4. Click the Download Now button for the zip file to download a setup file named
m sq4_allfiles.zip.
5. Find the downloaded zip file and double-click on it to unzip it. This creates the
mysql directory and its subdirectories.
6. If necessary, use the Finder to create the murach directory in the Documents
directory.
7. Use the Finder to move the mysql directory into the murach directory.

Description
• All of the source files described in this book are in a zip file that can be
downloaded from u ww.muruch.com.

A note about right-clicking

• This book often instructs you to right-click, because that's common in Windows.
On macOS. right-clicking is not enabled by default. Instead, you can use Ctrl-click
instead of right-click. Or. if you prefer, you can enable right-clicking by editing the
system preferences for your mouse.

Figure B-3 How to download the files for this book

608 Appendix B How to set up macOS for this book

How to create the databases for this book

Before you can run the SQL statements presented in this book, you need to
create the three databases used by this book. To do that, you can use MySQL
Workbench to run the SQL script that's stored in the create_databases.sql file as
described in figure B-4.
To determine if the SQL script ran successfully, you can review the results
in the Output window. In this figure, for example, the Output window shows a
series of statements that have executed successfully In addition, the Schemas tab
of the Navigator window shows that the three databases have been created. The
other database, named sys, is a database that comes with MySQL.
It the script encounters problems, MySQL Workbench displays one or more
errors in the Output window. Then, you can read these errors to figure out why
the script isn't executing correctly.
Before you can run the create_databases.sql script, the database server must
be running. By default, the database server starts automatically when you start
your computer, so this usually isn't a problem. However, if it isn't running on
your system, you can start it as described in figure B-l.

How to restore the databases

As you work with the code that’s presented in this book, you may make
changes to the databases that you don't .ntend to make In that case, you may
want to restore the databases to their original state so your results match the
results shown in this book. To do that, you can run the create_databases.sql file
again. 'I his deletes the three databases described in this appendix and recreates
them.
 Appendix B How to set up macOS for this hook 609

The directory that contains the create.databases.sql file

Document8/murach/mysql/db setup

MySQL Workbench after executing the create_databases.sql file

How to create the databases

1. Start MySQL Workbench.
2. Click on the stored connection named “Local instance MySQL” and enter the
password for the root user if prompted. This is the password that you created when
installing the MySQL server in figure B-l. This connects you as the root user to the
local instance of MySQL.
3. if Workbench doesn’t display a connection, you can create one. To do that, click the
® icon to the right of MySQL Connections, enter “Local instance MySQL” for the
connection name, and click the OK button.
4. If you get a warning that MySQL Workbench is incompatible with the server
version and that some features may not work properly, don’t be alarmed. You can
click Continue Anyway and the features described in this book should still work.
5. Open the create_databases.sql hie by clicking the Open SQL Script File button.
Then, use the resulting dialog box to locate and open the hie. When you do,
MySQL Workbench displays this script in a SQL Editor tab.
6. Execute the script by clicking the Execute Script button. When you do. the Output
window displays messages that indicate whether the script executed successfully.

How to restore the databases

• Run the create_databases.sql script again to drop the databases and recreate them.

Figure B-4 How to create and restore the databases for this book
 AWS (Amazon Web Services} G11

ALTER EVENT statement. 480-481

Index ALTER INDEX statement. 23
ALTER privilege. 518-519
ALTER ROUTINE privilege. 519
ALTER TABLE statement. 23
- operator (subtraction). 75 for altering columns. 342-343
— characters (comment). 32-33 for altering constraints, 344-345
!s operator. 85 ALTER USER statement. 534-535
% operator (modulo). 74-75 ALTER VIEW statement. 388
♦ (SELECT clause). 68-69. 70-71 Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2), 568
* operator (multiplication). 75 Amazon Web Services, see AWS
/ operator (division). 75 American National Standards Institute, 18-19
/*.♦.*/ characters (block comment). 32-33 Analytic functions. 288-291
+ operator (addition), 75 AND operator. 86-87
< operator. 84-85 join. 112-113
<= operator. 84-85 ANSI. 18-19
o operator. 84-85 ANSI/ISO SQL. 19
= operator. 84-85 ANSI-standard SQL, 18-19
> operator. 84-85 ANY keyword, with subquery. 198-199, 202-203
>= operator. 84-85 API (application programming interface). 6-7
Application
server. 8-9
software. 6-7
ABS function. 258-259 web. 8-9
Accent-insensitive collation. 361 Application programming interface (API), 6-7
Accent-sensitive collation. 361-362
Approximate numeric type. 230-231
Account name. 526-527 Argument. 76-77
Active role. 540-541 Arithmetic expression. 74-75
Ad hoc relationship. 106-107 Arithmetic operator. 74-75
ADD clause (ALTER TABLE). 342-343 AS clause
ADD FOREIGN KEY clause (ALTER TABLE). CREATE VIEW. 378-379
344-345 SELECT clause. 71
ADD PRIMARY KEY clause (ALTER TABLE). AS keyword
344-345 column specification. 72-73
Addition operator. 75 CTE. 216-217
Administrative privileges. 520-52) A SC keyword
AFTER keyword (CREATE TRIGGER). 470-471 GROUP BY clause. 174-175
AFTER trigger. 474-475 index. 348-349
Age-based expiration (logs). 511 ORDER BY clause. 96-97
Aggregate function. 162-165 ASCII control character. 244-245
examples. 164-165 Associate table. 306-308
Aggregate window function. 180-187 AT keyword (CREATE EVENT). 478-479
Alias Attribute. 298-299
column. 72-73 column, 336-337
in ORDER BY clause. 98-99 Auto increment column. 14-15. 146-147, 306-307
in self-join. 114-115 AUTOJNCREMENT attribute (column). 336-337
table. 108-109 Autocommit mode. 422-423
ALL keyword AVG function. 162-165
aggregate function. 162-163 AWS (Amazon Web Services). 568-587
REVOKE. 532-533 backup plan. 580-581
SELECT clause. 71.83 Billing Dashboard. 584-585
subquery. 198-199, 200-201 built-in backup. 580-581
union. 132-133 Management Console. 568-569
ALL privilege. 520-521 portal. 568-569
612 Back end Collation

Back end. 7 Calculated value. 26-27. 71

Back up a database, 554-558 alias. 72-73
Back-end processing. 7 Call a stored procedure, 438-439
Backup CALL statement. 395, 396
AWS built-in. 580-581 default value, 442-443
full. 554-558 stored procedure. 438-439
incremental. 554-555 Cartesian product. 130-131
Backup plan (AWS), 580-581 CASCADE option (foreign key). 340-341
Base table. 26-27, 66-67. 374-375 Cascading delete. 340-341
BEFORE keyword (CREATE TRIGGER). 470­ CASE (computer-aided software engineering).
471 304-305
BEFORE trigger. 470-471 CASE function. 276-277
BEGIN keyword. 394-395 CASE statement, 397. 404-405
event. 478-479 Case-insensitive collation. 360-361
function. 456-457 Case-sensitive collation. 361-362
stored procedure. 438-439 Cast an expression. 242-243
trigger. 470-471 CAST function. 242-243
BETWEEN clause (frame). 182-185 string to integer, 254-255
BETWEEN operator (WHERE clause). 90-91 CEILING function. 258-259
BIGINTdata type. 229 Cell. 10-11
binary collation 361-362 CHANGE clause (ALTER TABLE). 342
BINARY data type. 238-239 CHAR data type, 15, 226-228. 360
Binary data types. 224-225. 238-239 CHAR function. 244-245
Binary log. 458-459. 488-489 Character comparison. 84-85
for backup, 554-555 Character data types, 224-227
to restore a database. 560-561 Character set. 360-365
Binary logging (CREATE FUNCTION). 458-459 specify. 364-365
Binary number (SET column). 236-237 view. 362-363
Bit. 237 CHARACTER SET keywords. 365
BLOB (binary large object) data types. 238-239 Characteristics (function). 456-457
Block comment. 32-33 CHARSET clause, 364-365
Block of code. 394-395 Client. 4-5
event. 478-479 Client software. 6-7
stored procedure. 394-395. 438-439 Client/server architectures. 8-9
trigger. 470-472 Client/server system. 4-5
Body CLOB (character large object) data types. 238-239
function. 456 CLOSE statement (cursor). 408-409
stored procedure. 438 Cloud. 4-5
trigger. 470. 472 Cloud computing platform, 4-5
Book files Cloud-hosted database. 486, 568
install on macOS. 606-607 COALESCE function. 278-279
install on Windows, 596-597 Codd. E.F.. 10, 18-19
BOOL data type. 228-229 Code
BOOLEAN data type. 228-229 block. 394-395
Boolean expression. 402-403 procedural. 398-417
WHERE clause, 66-67 Coding guidelines (SQL). 32-33
Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF). 314-315 COLLATE clause. 364-365
Browser (web). 8-9 Collation. 360-365
Byte, 226-227 specify. 364-365
view. 362-363
Column CURRENT_ROLE function 613

Column. 10-11 Configure logging. 506-507

alias. 72-73 Connecting table. 306-308
alter. 342-343 Connection
attribute. 336-337 create. 548-549
auto increment. 146-147. 306-307 MySQL. 36-37. 38-39
definition. 46-47. 354-355 user. 548-549
function. 162-163 Constraint
index. 312-313 alter. 344-345
list (INSERT). 144-145 primary key. 338-339
position (ORDER BY). 98-99 foreign key. 308-309
privileges. 522-523 CONSTRAINT keyword
properties. 14-15 ALTER TABLE. 344-345
qualified name. 106-107 foreign key constraint. 340-341
specification. 70-71 primary key constraint. 338-339
table design. 304-305 CONTAINS SQL characteristic (CREATE
Column-level constraint. 338-339 FUNCTION). 458-460
foreign key. 340-341 CONTINUE handler. 412-415
primary key. 338-339 CONTINUE keyword (DECLARE...
Comma-separated values (CSV) file. 562-565 HANDLER). 410-413
Command Line Client (MySQL). 58-61 Conversion
Comment. 32-33 explicit. 240. 242-243
in complex subquery. 212-213 implicit. 84
Commit changes. 422-423 Convert data types. 240-241
COMMIT statement. 422-423 CONVERT function. 242-243
Common table expression (CTE). 216-219 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). 262-263
Comparison operator (WHERE clause). 84-85 Correlated subquery. 204-205
with subquery. 198-203 COUNT function. 162-165
Compile a stored procedure. 438 Counter variable. 406-407
Complex query. 212-215 CREATE DATABASE statement. 23. 334-335
Composite CREATE EVENT statement. 478-480
index. 312-313 CREATE FUNCTION statement. 456-457
primary key, 10-11. 306-307 characteristics. 456-457
Compound condition. 86-87 CREATE INDEX statement. 23. 348-349
join. 112-113 CREATE privilege. 518-519
search (HAVING clause). 172-173 CREATE PROCEDURE statement, 394-395. 438­
Compute and storage. 570 439
CONCAT function. 70-71. 76-77, 250-253 CREATE ROLE statement. 538-539
CONCAT.WS function. 250-253 CREATE ROUTINE privilege. 518-519
Concatenate. 76-77 CREATE TABLE statement. 23. 142-143. 336-337
Concurrency. 426-435 CREATE TABLE AS statement. 142-143
problems. 428-429 CREATE TRIGGER statement. 470-472
Condition CREATE USER statement. 516-517, 524-526
compound. 86-87 CREATE VIEW statement. 374-375. 378-389
compound join. 112-113 to alter view, 388-389
join. 106-107 Cross join. 130-131
Condition handler CROSS JOIN keywords. 130-131
declare. 410-411 CSV (Comma-separated values) file. 562-565
multiple. 416-417 CTE (common table expression), 216-219
use. 412-415 CUME-D1ST function. 289-291
Configuration file. 488-489. 500-501 Cumulative distribution, 290
change in MySQL Workbench. 498-499 CURDATE function. 262-263
change using a text editor. 500-501 CURRENT-DATE function. 80-81. 262-263
Configure a server. 498-503 CURRENT_ROLE function. 540-541
614 CURRENTTIMEfunction DEFAULT keyword

CURRENT.TIME function. 262-263 Database server. 4-5. 40-41

CURRENT-! IMESTAMP function. 262-263 start and stop. 40-41. 592-594. 602-603
Cursor. 408-409 view status, 40-41
CURSOR variable type. 408-409 Database service. 40-41
CL'RTIME function. 262 263 Database system, 298-299
Date and time data types, see Date/time data types
DATE data type. 15, 233
D Date formats. 78-79, 234-235
Data Date literal, in a comparison, 84-85
display, 398-399 Date values
export to a file. 562-563 ignore, 274-275
import from a file. 564-565 search for. 272-273
Data access API. 6-7 Date/time data types, 224-225, 232-233. 262-275
Data consistency, enforce with a trigger. 472-473 parse. 264-267
Data definition language (DDL). 22-23 perform calculations. 270-271
Data directory (MySQL), 488-489 Date/time formal strings, 268-269
Data elements (data structure). 300-303 Date/time functions, 262-275
Data file. 488-489 Date/time units, 266-267
Data manipulation language (DML), 22-23 Date/time values
Data redundancy. 310-311. 315 checking. 234-235
Data structure. 298-299 formal. 234-235, 268-269
denormalize. 322-323 literal, 234-235
design. 298-313 DATE.ADD function. 270-271
normalize. 314-322 DATE_FORMAT function, 78-79, 268-269
normalized. 310-311 DATE_SUB function. 270-271
unnormalized, 310-311 DATEDIFF function. 270-271
Data type. 14. 224- 239 DATETIME data type. 232-233
convert, 240-245 DAYNAME function, 264-265
MySQL. 14-15. DAYOFMONTH function, 265
Data validation (parameter). 444-445 DAYOFWEEK function. 264-265
Database DAYOFYEAR function. 265
back up. 554-558 DB (database) instance. 569
cloud-hosted. 486. 568 DB2 database system. 18-19
create. 334-335 compared to other databases. 20-21
create for book on macOS. 608-609 DBA (database administrator), 22-23, 486-487
create for book on Windows. 598-599 DBaaS (database as a service). 20-21
drop. 334-335 DBMS (database management system), 6-7
relational. 10-11 DDL (data definition language). 22-23
restore. 554-555. 558-559 DDL statements. 24-25
restore for book on macOS, 608-609 Deadlock. 434-435
restore for bock on Windows. 598-599 DEALLOCATE PREPARE statement. 452-453
select (MySQL Workbench). 48-49 DEC data type. 231
select (USE statement). 334-335 DECIMAL data type. 15. 230-231
Database administrator (DBA), 22-23. 486-487 Declarative referential integrity (DR1), 308-309
Database as a service (DBaaS), 20-21 DECLARE CURSOR FOR statement. 397
Database diagram, 16, 324-325 DECLARE statement. 394-395. 400-401
Database engine. 40-41 DECLARE...CONDITION statement. 410
Database files, 488-489 DECLARE CURSOR statement. 408-409
Database (DB) instance. 569 DECL ARE...HANDLER statement, 397, 408-411
restore, 582-583 DEFAULT attribute (column). 336-337
Database management system (DBMS). 6-7 DEFAULT keyword
Database objects, 24. 42-43 DECLARE statement. 400-401
Database privileges. 522-523 INSERT statement, 145-147
Database replication. 486-487 system variable. 502-503
UPDATE statement. 150-151
Default role Event 615

Default role. set. 540-541 DROP TABLE statement. 23. 142-143. 346 347
DEFAULT ROLE clause (CREATE USER) 540 DROP TRIGGER statement. 476-477
Default value DROP USER statement. 525-526
column.14-15 DROP VIEW statement, 374-375, 388-389
parameter. 442-443 Dump. 556-557
DELETE clause (DELETE). 154-155 Duplicate rows. eliminate. 82-83
DELETE keyword (CREATE TRIGGER). 471 Dy namic SQL. 452, 454
DELETE privilege, 518-519
DELETE statement. 23. 30-31. 154=155
through view. 386-387
E
w ith a subquery. 154-155 EC2 (Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud), 568
DELIMITER statement. 394-396 EER diagram, 16-17, 324-325, 328-329
Denormalization. 322-323 for the AP database, 328-329
Denormalize a data structure. 322-323 EER model. 324-327
DENSE.RANK function. 285-287 for the AP database. 326-327
Derived data. 321-322 MySQL Workbench. 36-37
DESC keyword ELSE clause
ORDER BY clause. 96-97 CASE function. 276-277
GROUP BY clause. 174-175 CASE statement. 404-405
index. 348-349 IF statement. 395-396. 402-403
Design (data structure), 298 299 ELSEIF clause (IF). 402-403
DETERMINISTIC characteristic (CREATE ENABLE keyword (ALTER EVENT). 480-481
FUN(’TION). 456-459 END key word. 394-395
Deterministic function. 458 event. 478-479
Diagram (database). 324-325 function. 456-457
Dialect (SQL). IS 19 stored procedure. 438-439
Dirtv read. 429 trigger. 470-471
DISABLE keyword (ALLER EVENT). 480-481 Endpoint string. 576-577
Display data. 398-399 ENGINE clause. 368-369
DISTINCT key word Enhanced entity-relationship diagram, see EER
aggregate function. 162-165 diagram
SELECT clause. 70-71. 82-83 Enhanced entity-relationship model, see EER
self-joins. 114-115 model
subquery. 196-197 Enterprise system. 4-5
WITH ROLLUP, 175 Entity, 298-299
DISTINCT ROW keyword, 83 Entity-relationship (ER) model. 324-327
DIV operator. 74-75 Entity-relationship (ER) modeling. 298-299
Div ision operator, 75 ENUM data type. 236-237
DML (data manipulation language). 22-23 Equal operator. 84-85
DO clause (( REATE EVENT). 478-479 Equijoin. 126-127
Domain. 315 ER (entity-relationship) model. 324-325
Domain-kev normal form(DKNF). 314-315 ER (entity-relationship) modeling. 298-299
DOUBLE data type. 230-231 Error
DOUBLE PRECISION data type. 231 common causes, 50-51
Double precision number. 230-231 raise in stored procedure. 444-445
DR1 (declarative referential integrity). 308 309 Error codes (MySQL). 410-411
DROP COLUMN clause. 342-343 " Error handler. 408-410
DROP DATABASE statement. 23. 334-335 Error log. 488-489
DROP EVENT statement. 480-481 Event, 394-395, 478-481
DROP FOREIGN KEY clause. 344-345 alter, 480-481
DROP FUNCTION statement. 462-463 create. 478-480
DROP INDEX statement. 23. 348 349 drop. 480-481
DROP PRIMARY KEY clause. 344-345 fire, 478-479
DROP privilege. 518-519 rotate general log. 510-511
DROP PROCEDURE statement. 394-395. 454-455 show. 480-481
DROP ROLE statement. 540-541
616 EVENT privilege Greater than operator

EVENT privilege. 519 Format strings (date/time). 268-269

Event scheduler. 478-479 Fourth normal form (4NF). 314-315. 322-323
EVERY key word (CREATE EVENT). 479-480 Frame
Exact numeric type. 230-231 aggregate window function. 182-185
Exception handler. 410 ranking function. 286
EXECUTE privilege. 518-519 FROM clause
EXECUTE statement. 452-453 DELETE statement. 154-155
EXISTS operator (subquery) 206-207 join. 106-107
EXIT handler. 414-415 REVOKE statement. 533, 540-541
EXIT keyword (DECLARE.. HANDLER). 410­ SELECT statement. 26-27, 66-67
411.414-415 subquery, 210-211
Explicit conversion. 240. 242-243 Front end. 7
Explicit syntax (join). 106-107 Front-end processing. 6-7
Export data to a file. 562-563 Full backup. 554-558
Expression restore. 558-559
arithmetic. 74-75 Full outer join. 136-137
comparing. 84-85 Full-text search. 366-367
ORDER BY clause. 98-99 Function. 76-83. 250-291. 456-457
SELECT clause. 70-71 aggregate. 162-165
string. 76-77 aggregate window. 180-187
testing. 80-81 call. 456-457
Extension (SQL). 18-19 column. 162-163
EXTRACT function. 266-267 create. 456-457
deterministic. 458
drop. 462-463
non-dcterministic. 458-459
FALSE keyword. 228-229 SELECT clause. 70-71
FETCH statement (cursor). 408-409 that calculates balance due. 460-461
Field. 10-11 Function body. 456
Fifth normal form. 314-315. 322-323 Function characteristics. 456-457
Filter (WHERE clause). 66-67 Functionally dependent column. 166-167
Fire a trigger. 470-471
Fire an event 478-479
Firewall rule. 574-575
G
First normal form (INF), 315-317 General log. 488-4X9
F1RSTVALUE function. 288-289 Geometry data types, 224-225
FIXED data type, 231 GLOBAL keyword
Fixed-length string. 226-227 SET. 502-503
Fixed-point data type, 230-231 SET TRANSACTION LEVEL. 430-431
Fixed-point number. 230-231 Global positioning system (GPS) data. 224-225
FLOAT data type. 15. 230-231 Global privileges. 522-523
Floating-point data type. 230-231 GMT (Greenwich Mean Time). 262-263
Floating-point number. 230-231 GPS data. 224-225
search for. 260-261 GRANT OPTION keywords (REVOKE). 532-533
FLOOR function. 258-259 GRANT OPTION privilege. 520-521
Flow of execution (statements). 396-397 Grant privileges
FOR EACH ROW clause (CREATE TRIGGER). role. 538-539
470-471 user. 528-530
FOR SHARE clause (SELECT). 432-433 GRANT statement. 516-517
FOR UPDATE clause (SELECT), 432-433 assign a user to a role. 538-539
Foreign key. 12-13, 306-307 grant privileges to a role. 538-539
MySQL Workbench, 358-359 grant privileges to a user. 528-530
Foreign key constraint. 308-309. 340-341 Grant tables (mysql database). 522-523
FOREIGN KEY keywords. 340-341 Greater than operator. 84-85
FORMAT function. 244-245
Greater than or equal to operator ITERATE statement (loop) 617

Greater than or equal to operator. 84-85 IN operator

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). 262-263 subquery. 196-197
GROUP BY clause WHERE clause, 88-89
SELECT statement. 166-169, 174-175 Inbound rule (firewall i, 574-575
WITH ROLLUP operator. 174-175 Incremental backup. 554-555
GROUPING function. 176-179 Index. 10-11. 348-349
column. 312-313
composite. 312-313
H create. 348-349
HAVING clause drop. 348-349
compared to W HERE clause. 170-171 MvSQL Workbench. 356-357
GROUPING function. 178-179 INDEX privilege. 518-519
SELECT statement. 166-173 Index values (ENUM column), 236-237
subquery. 208-209 Injection attack. 452
Home page (MySQL Workbench). 36-37 Inline view. 210-211
Hostname. 526-527 Inner join. 28-29, 106 109
HOUR function. 264-265 combined with outer join. 122, 125
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), 8-9 explicit syntax. 106-107
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). 8-9 implicit syntax, 118-119
SQL92 syntax, 106-107
INNER keyword (join). 107
I InnoDB storage engine. 366-367
IBM(DB2). 18-19 Innovation version (MySQL). 592-593. 602 603
IDENTIFIED BY clause LNOL'T keyword (parameter). 440-441
ALTER USER statement. 534-535 Input parameter. 440-441
CREATE USER statement. 524-525 Input/oulput parameter. 440-441
IF clause. 402-403 INSERT clause (INSERT). 30-31, 144-145
IF EXISTS clause INSERT function. 250-253
ALTER USER statement. 534-535 INSERT keyword (CREATE TRIGGER). 471
DROP DATABASE statement. 334-335 INSERT privilege. 518-519
DROP EVENT statement. 481 INSERT statement. 23, 30-31. 144-145
DROP FUNCTION statement. 462 463 default value. 146 147
DROP PROCEDURE statement. 454-455 null value. 146-147
DROP ROLE statement. 540-541 through view. 386-387
DROP TABLE statement. 346-347 with subquery, 148-149
DROP TRIGGER statement. 476-477 Instance
DROP USER statement, 525. 526 entity, 298-299
DROP VIEW statement. 374-375 RDS. see RDS instance
REVOKE statement. 532-533 I NT data type. 15. 228-229
IF function. 176 179. 278-279 Integer. 224 225
IF NOT EXISTS keywords INTEGER data type. 228-229
CREATE DATABASE statement. 334-335 Integer data types. 228-229
CREATE ROLE statement. 538-539 Integer division. 74-75
CREATE USER statement. 524-525 Internet Protocol (IP) address, sec IT address
IF statement. 397. 402-403 INTO clause (SELECT). 395-396. 400-401
nesting. 403 INTO keyword (INSERT). 144-145
stored procedure. 395. 396 Introduce a sul’query 192-193
IFNULL function. 278 279 IP (Internet Protocol) address. 572
IGNORE UNKNOWN USER keywords add firewall rule. 574-575
(REVOKE), 532-533 IS NULL clause (U HERE). 94-95
Implicit conversion. 84. 240 241 Isolation level (transaction). 430-431
Implicit inner join syntax. 118-119 ITERATE statement (loop). 406-407
Import data, from a file. 564-565
IN keyword (parameter). 440-441
618 Java Database Connectivity (JDBC} MODIFIES SQL DATA characteristic

J Linux operating system. 20-21

Literal value, 74
Java Database Connectivity (JDBC), 6-7 date. 84-85
JavaScript Object Notation. 224-225. 562-565 date/time, 234-235
JDBC. 6,7 numeric. 84-85
Join. 28-29. 106-131 siring. 76-77, 84-85, 228
between databases. 110-111 LOB (large object) data types. 238-239
compound condition. 112-113 Local area network (LAN). 4-5
condition, 106-107 Local instance MySQL (MySQL Workbench),
cross, 130-131 38-39
implicit syntax, 118-119 LOCAL keyword (SET). 503
inner. 28-29. 106-109 LOCATE function. 250-253. 256-257
multi-table, 116-117 Lock, 426-427
natural, 128-129 selected rows, 432-433
outer. 28-29. 120-125 Locking. 426-435
self. 114-115 change, 430-431
JOIN keyword. 106-131 Log. 504-505
Join vs. subquery, 194-195 manage. 510-511
JSON (JavaScript Object Notation). 224-225. 562­ text-based. 508-509
563,564-565 Log file. 488-489
JSON data type. 224-225 types. 488-489
write to tables. 508-509
Log rotation. 510-511
K Logging, 504-511
Key configure. 506-507
column. 13 disable. 504-505
composite primary. 10-11.306-307 enable. 504-505
foreign. 12-13, 306-307 Logical operator (WHERE clause). 86-87
non-prnnary. 10-11 LONGBLOB data type. 239
primary. 10-11,306-307 LONGTEXT data type. 239
unique. 10-11 Loop, 406-407
Keyword. 66 LOOP statement. 397, 406-407
KILL statement. 492-493 Lost update. 428-429
LOWER function. 250-253
LPAD function. 250-251. 254-255
L LTRIM function. 250-253
Label (loop), 406-407 LTS (Long Term Support) version (MySQL). 592­
LAG function, 289-291 593. 602-603
LAN. 4-5
Large object (LOB) data types. 224-225. 238-239 M
LAST_DAY function. 265
LAST_VALUE function. 288-289 macOS operating system. 20-21
latinl character set. 226-227, 360-361 Management Console (AWS). 568-569
LEAD function. 289. 290 Many-lo-many relationship. 12-13. 306-308
LEAVE statement (loop). 406-407 MariaDB. 19-20
LEFT function, 78-79, 250-253 Mask. 92-93
LEFT keyword (outer join), 120-121 MAX function. 162-165
Left outer join. 120-125 MEDIUMBLOB data tvpe. 239
LENGTH function. 250-253 MLD1UM1NT data tvpe. 229
Less than operator. 84-85 MEDIUMTEXT data type. 239
Less than or equal to operator. 84-85 MIN function. 162-165
LIKE clause (SHOW), 362-363 MINUTE function. 265
LIKE operator (WHERE clause). 92-93 MOD operator. 74-75
LIMIT clause (SELECT), 66-67, 100-101 MODIFIES SQL DATA characteristic (CREATE
Linking table. 306-308 FUNCTION). 458-459
MODIFY clause {ALTER TABLE) NOT NULL attribute (column) 619

MODIFY clause (ALTER TABLE), 342-343 select database. 48-49

Modulo operator. 75 SQL editor. 48-49
MONTH function. 184-185, 264-265 SQL script. 52-55
MONTHNAME function. 264-265 SQL statement. 48-49
Moving average. 184-185 stored routine. 464-465
Multi-table join. 116-117 syntax error. 50-51
Multiple-byte character set. 226-227 users. 544-545
Multiplication operator. 75 mysqlbinlog program, to restore a database. 555.
Multivalued dependencies. 314-315 560-561
my.cnf Tile. 488-489, 498. 500 mysqld program. 492
my.ini file. 488-489 mysqldump program. 556. 558
MylSAM storage engine. 366-367
MySQL
Command Line Client. 58-61
N
compared to other databases. 20-21 Named condition
daemon. 492 built-in. 411
data directory. 488-489 handling. 414-415
data types, 14-15 Named w indow. 186-187
database system. 20-21 Natural join, 128-129
error codes. 410-411 NATURAL keyword. 128-129
Innovation version. 592-593, 602-603 Navigator window (MySQL Workbench). 40-47
Long Term Support version. 592-593, 602-603 Nested
start and stop, 58-61 if statement. 403
MySQL Community Server sort. 96-97
install on macOS. 602-603 subqueries. 192-193
install on Windows. 592-593 view. 380-381
MySQL connection (Workbench). 36-37 Network. 4-5
MySQL Reference Manual, 56-57 Network operating system. 6
MySQL Server NEW key word (trigger). 470-471
install on macOS. 602-603 NO SQL characteristic (CREATE FUNCTION),
install on Windows. 592-593 458-459
start and slop. 592-594. 602-603 NO WAIT option (FOR SHARE/FOR UPDATE).
MySQL Workbench. 36-55 432-434
add connection. 38-39 Non-determinislic function. 458-459
administrative roles. 546-547 Non-primary key, 10-11
back up a database. 555-557 Nonrepeatablc read. 429
connections. 36-37 Normal forms. 310-311, 314-315
EER model. 36-37 Boyce-Codd. 314-315
export a file. 562-563 Domain-key, 314-315
for database design. 324-329 fifth. 314-315. 322-323
for working with a database. 354-359 first, 315-317
Home page. 36-37 fourth. 314-315, 322-323
import a file. 564-565 second. 315. 318-319
install on macOS. 604-605 sixth. 314-315
install on Windows. 594-595 third. 315, 320-322
local instance MySQL. 38-39 Normalization. 310-311
migrate MySQL databases. 37 data structure. 314-322
Navigator window. 40-47 Normalized data structure. 310-311
open database connection. 38-39 NOT DETERMINISTIC characteristic (CREATE
Output lab. 51 FUNCTION). 458-459
privileges. 544-547 Not equal operator. 84-85
RDS instance. 576-579 NOT EXISTS operator (subquery). 206-207
NOT FOUND condition. 410-41 i
restore a database. 555. 558-559
Result grid. 44-45. 48-49 NOT IN operator (subquery). 196-197, 200-201
safe update mode. 150-152. 154-155 NOT NULL attribute (column). 336-339
620 Not null constraint Password

Not null constraint, 338-339 ORDER BY clause

NOT operator, 86-87 aggregate window function. 180-181. 183-185
BETWEEN, 90-91 alias, 98-99
IN, 88-89 column position. 98-99
IS NULL, 94-95 expression. 98-99
LIKE, 93 GROUP BY clause, 174-175
REGEXP. 93 GROUPING function. 179
NOW function. 262-263 named window. 186-187
NTH_VALUE function, 288-289 ranking function. 284-285
NTILE function. 285-287 SELECT statement, 26-27, 66-67, 96-99
NULL key word union. 132-133
INSERT statement. 144-147 Order of precedence
UPDATE statement, 150-151 arithmetic operators. 74-75
Null value, 14-15. 94-95 logical operators. 86-87
aggregate function. 162-163 Orphaned row. 308-309
GROUPING function. 176-179 OS/390 operating system, 21
sort. 96-97 OUT keyword (parameter), 440-441
Numbers, sort in string column. 254-255 Outbound rule (firewall). 574-575
Numeric data, 258-261 Outer join. 28-29. 120-125
NUMERIC data type. 231 combined with inner join. 122. 125
Numeric data types, 224-225 examples. 122-125
Numeric functions. 258-261 OUTER keyword (join). 120-121
Numeric literal, in a comparison. 84-85 Output parameter. 440-441
Output tab (MySQL Workbench). 51

o OVER clause
aggregate window function. 180-181
Object privileges, 518-521 analytic function. 288-291
OFF key word (SET), 479 ranking function. 284-285
offset (Limit clause), 100-101
OLD key word (trigger). 470-471
ON clause
p
CREATE TRIGGER statement. 470-471 Parameter. 76-77
GRANT statement. 528-529 default value. 442-443
ON DELETE clause (foreign key). 340-341 function, 456-457
ON key word (SET). 478-479 input. 440-441
ON phrase (join). 106-107. 126-129 inpul/outpul. 440-441
ON SCHEDULE clause (CREATE EVENT). 479 output. 440-441
One-time event. 478-479 pass by position. 438-439
One-to-many relationship. 12-13, 306-307 stored procedure. 438-439
One-to-one relationship. 12-13, 306-308 Parse
OPEN statement (cursor). 408-409 dates and times. 264-267
Open-source database. 20-21 strings. 256-257
Operators Partition. 180-181
arithmetic. 74-75 ranking function. 284-285
comparison, 84-85 PARTION BY clause
logical. 86-87 aggregate window function. 180-181
OR operator. 86-87 analytic function. 288-289
join, 112-113 named window. 186-187
OR REPLACE keywords (CREATE VIEW). 378­ OVER clause. 284-286
379, 388-389 Password, 524-525
Oracle relational DBMS, 18-19 change. 534-535
compared to other databases. 20-21 MySQL Workbench. 38-39
PASS WORD EXPIRE clause Relational Database Service (RDS) instance 621

PASSWORD EXPIRE clause R

ALTER USER statement, 534-535
CREATE USER statement. 524-525 Raise an error (stored procedure). 444-445
PASSWORD HISTORY clause RAND function. 258-259
ALTER USER statement. 534-535 RANGE clause (analytic function). 288-289
CREATE USER statcmcnl. 524 525 RANGE key word (frame). 182-185
PASSWORD REUSE INTERVAL clause RANK function, 285-287
ALTER USER statement. 534-535 Ranking functions. 284-287
CREATE USER statement. 524-525 RDS instance. 568-587
Peer. 184-185 assign to security group. 574-575
PERCENT-RANK function. 289-291 connect from MySQL Workbench, 576-577
PERSIST keyword (SET). 502 create. 570-571
Phantom read. 428-429 delete. 586-587
Point-in-time recovery (P1TR). 554-555 make publicly accessible. 572-573
Portal (AWS). 568-569 MySQL Workbench. 576-579
POWER function. 258-259 restore, 582-583
Precision. 230-231 run script against. 578-579
PREPARE statement. 452-453 run SQL statement against. 578-579
Prepared statement. 452-453 snapshot. 582-583
Primary key. 10-13. 306-307 READ COMMITTED isolation level. 430-431
composite, 10-11 READ UNCOMMITTED isolation level. 430-431
constraint. 338-339 Read-only view, 383
PRIMARY KEY keywords. 338-339 READS SQL DATA characteristic (CREATE
Privilege. 516-533 FUNCTION), 456-460
administrative. 520-521 REAL data type, 231
grant to role. 538-539 Real number. 224-225. 230-231
grant to user. 528-530 Real-world system. 298-299
Record. 10-fl
MySQL Workbench. 544-547
object. 518-521 Recurring event. 478-479
revoke from role. 540-541 Recursive CTE. 218-219
revoke from user. 532-533 RECURSIVE keyword (CTE). 217
view for role. 538-539 Recursive query, 218-219
view for user. 530-531 Redundant data. 310-311
Privilege levels, 522-523 Redundant rows, 318-319
Procedural code. 398-417 Reference constraint. 340-341
Procedure, see Stored procedure Reference Manual (MySQL). 56-57
Process. 492-493 REFERENCES clause (ALTER TABLE), 344-345
Properties (column), 14-15 REFERENCES keyword (foreign key), 340-341
PROXY privilege, 530-531 Referential integrity, 308-309
Pseudocode (complex query). 214-215 declarative. 308-309
REGEXP operator (WHERE clause), 92-93
REGEXPJNSTR function. 280-283
Q REGEXP_LIKE function. 280-283
Qualified column name. 106-107 REGEXP_REPLACE function. 280-283
in self-join. 114-115
REGEXP_SUBSTR function. 280-283
Regular expression, 92
QUARTER function. 265
Regular expression functions. 280-283
Query, 26-27
recursive. 218-219 Relational database. 10-11
Relational database management system
results. 7
(RDBMS). 18-19
SQL. 6-7
Relational Database Service (RDS) instance, see
summary. 162-165
RDS instance
622 Relationship Server

Relationship ROW_NUMBER function, 284-285

ad hoc. 107 Row-level trigger, 470-471
between tables. 12-13, 306-308 ROWS clause (analytic function), 288-289
enforcing. 308-309 ROWS keyword (frame). 182-183
Relay log. 488-489 RPAD function. 250-251
RENAME COLL’MN clause. 342-343 RTRIM function. 250-253
RENAME TABLE statement. 346-347 Rule (firewall), 574-575
RENAME TO keywords (ALTER EVENT). 480­
481
RENAME USER statement. 525, 526 s
REPEAT function. 250-251 Safe update mode (MySQL Workbench). 150-152.
REPEAT loop. 406-407 154-155.383
REPEAT statement. 397, 406-407 Save point. 425, 426
REPEATABLE READ isolation level. 430-431 SAVEPOINT statement. 425. 426
Repeating columns. 310-311 Scalar f unction 162. 456-457
Repeating values. 316-317 Scale. 230-231
REPLACE function. 250-253 Scheduled event, 478-479
Replica servers, 486-487 Schema, 42-43, 110-1II
Restore Scientific notation. 230-231
database. 554-555. 558-559 Script, see SQL script
database instance. 582-583 Search
Result grid (MySQL Workbench). 44-45. 48-49 for a date, 272-273
Result set. 26-27 for a floating-point number, 260-261
sorting. 96-97 for a time. 274-275
Result table. 26-27 full-text. 366-367
Results (query). 7 Search condition (WHERE clause). 66-67
RETURN statement. 456-457 compound. 172-173
RETURNS keyword. 456-457 Searched CASE function. 276-277
REVERSE function. 250-251 Searched CASE statement. 404-405
REVOKE statement SECOND function. 265
remove user from a role, 540-541 Second normal form (2NF). 315. 318-319
revoke privileges from a role, 540-541 Security group (cloud). 574-575
revoke privileges from a user. 532-533 SELECT clause (SELECT). 26-27, 66-67, 70-83
RIGHT function. 250-253 expanded syntax. 70-71
RIGHT keyword (outer join), 120-121 GROUPING function, 176-179
Right outer join. 120-124 subquery. 208-209
Role. 538-543 SELECT privilege. 518-519
active. 540-541 SELECT statement, 23, 26-27, 66-101, 396-397
assign user. 538-539 basic syntax. 66-67
create, 538-539 GTE. 216-217
default. 540-541 display data. 398-399
grant privileges, 538-539 examples. 68-69
MySQL Workbench. 546-547 five clauses. 66-67
remove user, 540-541 GROUP BY clause. 166-167
revoke privileges. 540-541 HAVING clause. 166-167
set for session. 540-541 join. 28-29, 106-131
Rollback changes. 422-423 subquery. 192-215
ROLLBACK statement. 422-423 view. 374-375, 378-379
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT statement. 425-426 Self-join. 114-115
Root user, 38-39 SERIALIZABLE isolation level. 430-431
ROUND function. 78-79, 258-261 Server. 4-5
Row. 10-11 application. 8-9
delete. 154-155 configuration options. 498-499
duplicate. 82-83 configure. 498-503
insert. 144-145 monitor, 490-497
update. 150-151 software. 6-7
web. 8-9
Server configuration Stored program 623

Server configuration Source server. 486-487

change in MySQL Workbench. 498-499 SPACE function. 250-251
change using a text editor. 500-501 Spatial data types. 224-225
Server configuration options (log files). 505 Specialized window functions, 284-291
Server status (view), 490-491 Sproc. 438-439
SESSION keyword SQL. 6-7
SET. 502-503 ANSl-standards. 18-19
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL. coding guidelines. 32-33
430-431 dialect. 18-19
SET clause (UPDATE statement). 31. 150-151 extensions. 18
SET data type. 236-238 history, 18-20
SET DEFAULT ROLE statement. 540-541 standards. 18-19
SET NULL option (foreign key). 340-341 variant. 18-19
SET ROLE statement. 540-541 SQL editor (MySQL Workbench). 48-49
SET SESSION statement (storage engine). 368-369 SQL injection attack. 452
SET statement. 400-401 SQL query. 6-7
event scheduler. 478-479 SQL script. 52-55
system variable. 502-503 MySQL Workbench. 52-55
user variable. 450-451 run against RDS instance. 578-579
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL to create a stored procedure. 394-396
statement. 430-431 to create the AP database, 350-353
SHOW CHARSET statement. 362-363 to create users and grant privileges. 536-537
SHOW COLLATION statement. 362-363 to create users and roles. 542-543
SHOW ENGINES statement. 366-367 SQL Server. 18-19
SHOW EVENTS statement. 480-481 compared to other databases. 20-21
SHOW FUNCTION STATUS statement. 465 SQL statements. 22-23
SHOW GRANTS statement. 516-517 DDL. 24-25
user, 530-53) few controlling the flow of execution. 396-397
role. 538-539 prepared. 452-453
SHOW PRIVILEGES statement. 520-521 run against RDS instance. 578-579
SHOW PROCEDURE STATUS statement. 465 run in MySQL Workbench. 48-49
SHOW PROCESSLIST statement. 492-493 SQL-92 syntax (join), 106-107
SHOW STATUS statement. 495 SQLEXCEPTION condition. 410-411. 414-415
SHOW TRIGGERS statement. 476-477 SQLSTATE code. 410-411. 444-445
SHOW VARIABLES statement SQLSTATE keyword (SIGNAL). 444-445
character sets and collations. 362-363 SQLWARNING condition. 410-411
event scheduler. 478-479 SQRT function. 258-259
storage engine. 366-367 Standard SQL. 19
system variables. 497 START TRANSACTION statement. 422-423
SIGN function. 258-259 STARTS keyword (CREATE EVENT). 479-480
SIGNAL statement. 444-445 Status variables. 494-495
Significant digits. 230-231 Storage engine. 366-369
Simple CASE function. 276-277 specify, 366-367
Simple CASE statement. 404-405 view, 366-367
Simple loop. 406-407 Stored function. 394-395. 456-463. see also
Single-byte character set. 226-227 function
Single-line comment. 32-33 Stored procedure. 394-395. 438-455
Single-precision number. 230-231 body. 438
Sixth normal form (6NF). 314-315 calk 438-439
SKIP LOCKED option (FOR SHARE/FOR compile. 438
UPDATE). 432-434 default parameter. 442-443
Slow query log. 488-489 drop. 454-455
SMALLlNTdata type. 229 parameter validation. 444-445
Snapshot (RDS instance). 582-583 parameters. 440-441
SOME keyword (subquery). 198-199. 202-203 to insert a row. 446-449
Sort order. 96-97. see also ORDER BY clause Stored program. 394-417
624 Stored routine

Stored routine. 394 drop. 142-143, 346-347

MySQL Workbench. 464-465 rename. 346-347
String. 250-257 test. 142-143
concatenation. 76-77 truncate. 346-347
data. 224-225 viewed. 375
parse. 256-257 Table column, alter. 342-343
String expression. 76-77 Table constraint, alter. 344-345
String functions. 250-257 Table data, view and edit. 44-45
examples. 252-253 Table name, qualify. 110-111
String literal. 76-77. 228 Table privileges. 522-523
in a comparison. 84-85 Table scan, 312
String pattern. 92-93. 280-281 Table-level constraint. 338-339
Structured Query Language, see SQL foreign key. 340-341
Subquery. 88-89. 192-215 primary key, 338-339
ALL keyword. 200-201 Temporal data types, see Date/time data types
ANY keyword. 202-203 Test tables, create. 142“ 143
comparison operator. 198-199 Text data. 224-225
correlated. 204-205 TEXT data types. 238-239
DELETE statement, 154-155 Text-based logs. 508-509
EXISTS operator. 206-207 THEN clause
FROM clause. 210-211 CASE function. 276-277
HAVING clause. 208-209 IF statement. 395. 396
IN operator. 196-197 Third normal form (3NF), 315. 320-322
INSERT statement. 148-149 TIME data type. 232-233
introduce. 192-193 Time formats. 234-235
NOT EXISTS operator. 206-207 Time values
NOT IN operator. 196-197 ignore. 272-273
SELECT clause. 208-209 search for. 274-275
SOME keyword. 202-203 TIME_FORMAT function. 268-269
uncorrelated. 204-205 TIME_TO_SEC function. 270-271
UPDATE statement. 152-153 TIMESTAMP data type. 232-233
vs. join. 194-195 TLNYBLOB data type. 239
SUBSTRING function. 250-253. 256-257 TIN Y1NT data type. 228-229
SUBSTR1NGJNDEX function. 250-253. 256-257 TLNYTEXT data type. 239
Subtraction operator. 75 TO clause (GRANT). 529
SUM function. 162-165 TO_DAYS function. 270-271
Summary query. 162-165 Transaction. 422-425
Syntax conventions. 66-67 when to use. 423
Syntax errors (MySQL Workbench). 50-51 Transaction isolation level. 430-431
SYSDATE function. 262-263 Transitive dependencies. 314-315
System variable. 496-497 Trigger. 394-395. 470-477
enable logging. 505 AFTER. 474-475
log files. 506-507 create. 470-472
set using a text editor. 500-501 drop, 476-477
set using MySQL Workbench. 498-499 enforce data consistency. 472-473
set using SET statement. 502-503 row-level, 470-471
view. 476-477
Trigger body. 470
TRIGGER privilege. 519
Table. 10-11 Trim characters. 250
alias. 108-109. 114-115 TRIM function. 250-253
base. 26-27, 374-375 TRUE keyword, 228-229
copy. 142-143 TRUNCATE function. 258-259
create. 336-337 TRUNCATE TABLE statement. 346-347
data structure. 304-305 Type, see Data type
Uncorrelated subquery Window 625

U V
Uncorrelated subquery, 204-205 Value. 10-11
Unicode character set, 360 literal. 74. 76-77
Unicode standard, 226-227 null. 94-95
Union, 132-137 VALUES clause (INSERT), 30-31. 144-145
syntax, 132-133 VARBINARY data type. 238-239
that simulates full outer join. 136-137 VARCHAR data type. 15. 226-228. 360
UNION ALL operator (recursive CTE), 218-219 Variable. 400-401
UNION keyword. 132-137 counter. 406-407
UNION operator (recursive CTE), 219 declare. 400-401
UNIQUE attribute (column), 336-339 set. 400-401
Unique constraint, 338-339 status. 494-495
Unique key. 10-11 system. 496-501
UNIQUE keyword (index). 348-349 user, 440-441,450-451
Unix Millennium bug. 232-233 Variable-length string. 226-227
Unix operating system. 20-21 Variant (SQL). 19
Unnormalized data structure. 310-311 View, 374-389
UNSIGNED attribute benefits, 376-377
integer. 228-229 create. 378-381
real number. 230-231 delete through. 386-387
Updatable view. 382-383 insert through. 386-387
with WITH CHECK OPTION clause. 384-385 nested. 380-381
UPDATE clause. 150-151 read-only, 383
UPDATE keyword (CREATE TRIGGER). 470­ replace. 378-379
471 ‘ updatable. 382-383
UPDATE privilege, 518-519 update through. 374-375, 382-385
UPDATE statement. 23. 30-31. 150-151 Viewed table. 375
through view. 374-375. 384-385 VPC (virtual private cloud). 572-573
with subquery. 152-153
UPPER function. 250-253
USAGE privilege. 520-521 w
USE statement, 334-335 WAN. 4-5
User account. 516-517 Web application, 8-9
assign to role. 538-539 Web browser. 8-9
connection. 548-549 Web server. 8-9
create. 524-526 Web-based system. 8-9
MySQL Workbench. 544-545 WEEK function. 265
remove from role. 540-541 WHEN clause
specify name. 526-527 CASE function, 276-277
USER function (ALTER USER). 534-535 CASE statement. 404-405
User variable. 440-441, 450-451 WHERE clause
Username. 526-527 compared to HAVING clause, 170-171
USING clause (EXECUTE). 452-453 DELETE statement, 154-155
USING keyword (join). 126-127, 128-129 SELECT statement. 26-27. 66-67. 84-95
UTC (Coordinated Universal Time), 262-263 subquery, 196-207
UTC.DATE function. 262-263 UPDATE statement, 150-153
UTC.TIME function, 262-263 WHILE loop. 406-407
utf8 character set. 360 WHILE statement. 397. 406-407
utf8mb3 character set. 226-227, 360-361 Wide-area network (WAN). 4-5
utf8mb4 character set. 226-228. 360-361 Wildcard (LIKE). 92-93
Window
aggregate function. 180-181
named. 186-187
626 WINDOW clause (named windowl

WINDOW clause (named window). 186-187

Window functions (specialized). 284-291
\\ indows operating system. 20-21
WITH ADMIN option (GRANT). 538-539
WITH CHECK OPTION clause (CREATE
VIEW), 384-385
WITH GRANT OPTION clause (GRANT). 528-
529
WITH keyword (CTE). 216-217
WITH ROLLUP operator
GROUP BY clause. 174-175
GROUPING function. 176-179

XYZ
Y2K38 problem. 232-233
Year 2038 problem. 232-233
YEAR data type. 233
YEAR function. 265
z/OS operating system. 20-21
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the best pn»graniming books. The short answer is that no other publisher w'orks the way we do.
Instead of using freelance writers who get no training, we use a small staff of programmers who arc trained
in our proven writing and teaching methods. Instead ot publishing 40* looks each year, we focus on just a few.
Instead of show ing pieces of code, we provide complete applications that hast been checked and re-checked
for accuracy*. And instead of rushing books to market, we refuse to let schedule or budget interfere with quality.
As I see it, that’s the only* way to make sure that every book we publish is the best one on its subject.
That’s why people often tell me that our lxx>ks arc the ones that they kxikfixyirrr whenever they need to
ham a new subject. Why not try this bcxik and see for yourself! Mike Munich
Publi.'fjer

MySQL contents
What developers have said
Get started fast about the previous editions
• The concepts and terms you need for working with relational
databases and SQL 'If you ever wanted to learn to use MySQL, write SQL
• L’sc MySQL Workbench to work more efficiently' with a MySQL queries, create database elements, then this is the book
database to pick up. Rating: 10 Horseshoes.”
Review by Mohamed Sanaulla, JavaRancfi .com
Master the SQL that you'll use every day
• Write SQL statements that retrieve data from a database "A great first book into SQL: From all the SQL books I
• Write SQL statements that insert, update, and delete the data in a looked over, this has by far the best division of chapters
database and the best order for learning.”
Posted at an on me booicseller
■ Work with joins, summary queries, subquerics, data types, and
functions
"As a developer with almost 10 years of MySQL
Learn how to design and create a database experience, I still picked up a lot of new detail on things
• Design a database from start to finish, the first step toward
I thought I knew. Every development shop that works
becoming a database administrator (DBA) with MySQL should have a copy of this book.”
Dav.d Bolton, OC++/C# Guide, About.com
• L’sc an EER (enhanced entity-relationship i model and its related
diagrams to create or modify the design for a database “This book was the text in my Database Concepts class,
• Maintain referential integrity with foreign keys and I am so thankful that it was! It provided excellent
• Speed data access with indexes explanations and examples of database syntax, queries,
• Simplify’ data access with views subqueries, design, etc. I aced the class and decided to
take more database classes because of this book.”
Master stored programs Posted at an on me bookseller

• Improve developer productivity with stored procedures and

“This book is not just up-to-date with the latest
user-defined functions
information on MySQL, but it is extremely easy to read
• Maintain data integrity w ith transactions and learn from. It only took me a couple weeks to rip
• Automate data maintenance with triggers and events through it!"
Postea at an online bookseller
Get started as a database administrator
• Monitor a database “I was amazed at how much information was packed
■ Configure a database into this book. I learned a lot of new MySQL ideas, and I
will be using it frequently as a reference.”
• Secure a database
Paul Turpin, Soutlieastern Inter-Relat or.al Database Users Group
• Back up and restore a database
• Host a database in the cloud with AWS (.Amazon Web Services)

Download the examples and exercise solutions

(see the last page of this book for details)

www.murach.com $59.50 USA

Shelving: Diubaie/MySQL