SOLID STATE

Characteristics of Solids Shape Definite Volume Definite Molecular Arrangement Compact Molar Motion Slow Distance between Molecules Particles are very close Attractive Forces Very strong Types of solids 1. Amorphous a solid with randomly arranged particles. - characterized by the lack of a definite melting point -instead of changing from solid to liquid at a single temp., they gradually become softer and more fluid as the temp rises. - regarded as highly viscous liquids 2. Crystalline a solid with its constituent or component particles in an orderly arrangement. Properties of Solids 1. Elasticity the ability to recover their original shape after being deformed by an external force. Elasticity may be regarded in terms of a. rigidity the stress required to produce a unit increase in strain or one which responds with a much greater restorative force b. resilience the amount of strain required to bring a material to its elastic limit or one which may be stretched to several times its original length and still bounce back when released. Thus, there is no accepted criterion for ranking materials in terms of elasticity. 2. Plasticity ability of an object to accept radical reshaping whether by a great force or a little force and retain the new shape. 3. Malleability the property of a metal that allows it to be rolled or hammered into a sheet. 4. Ductility the property of a metal that allows it to be drawn. 5. Hardness may be defined in terms of its a. resistance to being marred or scratched on exposed surfaces. -usually measured using Mohs hardness number, which easily a material can be scratched. Drawn from a ten point scale called Mohs hardness scale (Table E page 94) 1 as soft and 10 as very hard. b. resistance from being dented - usually measured using Brinells hardness number, which shows hoe easily a material is dented. HOOKES LAW The amount of stretch, x, is directly proportional to the stretching force, Fs. or elongation x Fs Fs = kx Where k is the constant of proportionality. The downward stretching force on the end of the wire is exactly balanced by an upward cohesive force, a restorative force, Fr , that prevents further stretching. Fs = - Fr Fr = - kx The farther the separation between the particles of a solid, the stronger the force tending to draw them back together again. STRESS AND STRAIN STRESS a deformative force per unit cross-sectional area or Stress = Fs / A SI unit: N/m2 or Pascal (Pa) Other units: 1 psi= 1lb/in2,6.89 x 103 Pa, 6.89 K Pa STRAIN the fractional change in length or the relative amount of deformation Strain = l / l Stress Strain Stress = k*Strain K = stress / strain

What happens when stretching force is steadily increased? A. Proportional limit Hookes law is observed. Force in wire increases in direct proportion to the amount of stretch. If the wire is released at any value of strain within the linear portion of the curve, the wire snaps back to its original length. B. Elastic limit Beyond this limit, the wire is permanently deformed. Although it will contract when released, it will not contract all the way to its original length. The elastic limit is the maximum stress the material can sustain without being permanently deformed. C. Ultimate Tensile Strength (ultimate stress) The highest point on the graph. Once the wire is elongated to this extent, the force may be eased slightly to accomplish further stretching. The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum stress the material can sustain without breaking. D. Breaking Point (fracture) The last point on the graph. It represents the maximum strain that can be tolerated by the wire without breaking. Table A Material Aluminum Brass Copper Iron Steel Artery Bone Muscle Tendon Elastic limit X103 N/cm2 X103 lb/in2 13 19 7-15 10-22 1-10 1.5-15 15-18 21-26 17-21 25-30 Ultimate tensile strength X103 N/cm2 X103 lb/in2 15 22 35-60 51-56 23-47 32-67 30-37 42-55 34-41 50-60 .14 .20 9-12 13-17 .35-.40 .5-.6 6.2-6.4 9.0-9.2

Stress may be applied to a material in three different ways. 1. Tensile -stretched or elongated 2. Compression-causes material to be pressed together 3. Shear or torsion causes a material to be bent and twisted YOUNGS MODULUS: CHANGE IN LENGTH (Applied in tensile and compression) The constant K which is replaced by Y is called the stretch modulus, or Youngs modulus Y = stress / strain Y=Fl/A l

Table B Material Aluminum Brass Copper Iron Lead Nickel Steel Tin Artery Bone Muscle Tendon

Youngs modulus (Y) for various solids X106 N/cm2 X106 lb/in2 7 10.2 9.02 13.09 12.5 18.0 20.6 30.0 1.57 2.28 20.7 30.0 19.2 27.9 4.65 6.75 .0005 .0007 22 32 .009 .013 1.6 2.3

SHEAR MODULUS: CHANGE IN SHAPE (Applied in shear) Is a combination of two oppositely directed forces along different lines of action. Examples of objects subjected to shear include a bolt on a locked door when someone pushes the door, the nail from which a picture is hung, and the base of a telephone pole struck by a car. Quantities used in computing shearing stress & strain.

Stress Strain Stress = k*Strain K = stress / strain The constant K which is replaced by S and is called the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, d is deflection and l is length perpendicular to the stress applied S = stress / strain

S = Fsh l / A d
Table C Material Aluminum Brass Copper Iron Steel

or

S = Fsh / A

Shear Modulus (S) for various solids X106 N/cm2 X106 lb/in2 2.5 3.63 3.7 5.38 4.2 6.10 8.0 11.6 8.0 11.6

Sample Problems 1. A wire 2.5 m long has a cross-sectional area of 0.002 cm2. When stretched by a force of 8 N, the elongation is 0.05 cm. Determine (a) the stress, (b) the strain (c) the Youngs modulus of the wire. 2. Find the elongation of a tendon 5.00 cm long and .400 cm in diameter if it is subjected to a force of 1470 N. 3. A metal wire 1.0 mm in diameter and 2.0 m long hangs vertically with a 50 kg mass suspended from it. If the wire stretches 1.2 mm under tension, what is the value of the Y for the metal? 4. Calculate the compression of a bone supporting a load of 2200 N. Its length is 25 cm and its cross-sectional area is 2.30 cm2. 5. A steel wire has a diameter of .19 in. How much force is required to stretch the wire to (a) the elastic limit, (b) the breaking point? Use minimum values in the table A. 6. A brass stud 3 cm in diameter projects 5 cm out from the wall. If the end of the bolt is subjected to shearing force of 40,000 N, compute its downward deflection. 7. A long steel bolt with a cross-sectional area of .25 cm2 holds a sheet of metal to a fixed framework. A .80 cm spacer divides the framework into which the bolt is inserted from the metal sheet under the head of the bolt. A shearing force of 5.52 x 104 N is applied to the metal sheet. By how much is the bolt displaced to one side? 8. How much is the decrease in volume of 0.5 m3 of aluminum when subjected to a hydraulic press with a pressure of 1.6 x 108 N/m2? The bulk modulus of aluminum is 0.70 x 1011 N/m2.

BULK MODULUS: CHANGE IN VOLUME The property of a material which is a measure of its squeezability Volume Strain = V / V Volume Stress = Fsh / A Volume Stress Volume Strain Stress = k*Strain B = stress / strain

B = (F/A) / (- V/V) B = P / (- V/Vi) = - PV / V ---------------------------------------------------------------------------ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS:

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