COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Introduction
Computer systems include the computer along with any software and peripheral devices that
are necessary to make the computer function. A computer is made up of two mains
components Hardware and Software while a computer system has three namely: Hardware,
software and liveware (computer user). A system is a collection of different entities that
collectively work together to achieve a desired goal. Examples of systems are human body,
social system, school system etc.
A computer system is a collection of three components namely hardware, software and
liveware entities that work together to receive, process, manage and present information in a
meaningful format using computers.
Components of a Computer System
The computer system consists of three major parts namely
i). Hardware
These are the physical or tangible components of a computer system, which one can touch
and feel/see. They consist of the mechanical, electrical and electronic parts of the system e.g
monitor, system unit, keyboard and mouse, etc.
ii). Software
Is a set of instructions that direct a computer on what to do. They guide the computer in each
and every activity that happens inside the computer during data processing. The programs
are also written to help the computer users perform various tasks using the computer. The
software is intangible, flexible and changeable in nature. They are mainly classified into two
categories namely system software and application software.
iii). Liveware
Refers to users who have computer knowledge and hence can properly utilize the computer
hardware and software as well as in participation in hardware and software selection.
What is a computer?
It is a high speed programmable electronic (utilizes electrical signals to process information)
device which when given raw data from an input device, stores the data temporarily in its
memory waiting to be processed according to predefined instructions and then produces the
required output through output devices.
A computer is an electronic device that takes data (as input from the user) and processes the
data under the control of a set of instructions (called a program) to produce information (as
output) and saves it for future use. It can process both numerical (arithmetic) and non-

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numerical (logical) calculations. Examples of computers include desktop computers, laptops,
tablets, smartphones, smart watches, etc.
A computer is an electronic device that takes data (as input from the user) and processes the
data under the control of a set of instructions (called a program) to produce information (as
output) and saves it for future use. It can process both numerical (arithmetic) and non-
numerical (logical) calculations. Examples of computers include desktop computers, laptops,
tablets, smartphones, smart watches, etc.
Definition of terms
Program
A computer program refers to a collection of instructions for a computer to perform a specific
function and achieve a particular result. Programs are used to develop computer software.
Examples of computer programs are video games.
What is data?
Data is raw facts that do not have much meaning to the user. It includes numbers, letters and
symbols. Computers manipulate and process data to create information.
What is Information?
Information is data that is organized, has meaning, and is useful. Examples are reports,
newsletters, a receipt, a picture, an invoice, or a check. That is, data that has undergone
transformation in order to be meaningful to the user. Information is sufficient for decision-
making. For example, a single customer’s sale at a shop is data but it becomes information
when the business is able to identify the most popular or least popular product.
What can a computer do?
1. Accept input data
2. Process data
3. Output Information
4. Store data or information

Computing
This is the process of using computer technology to complete a given goal-oriented task. The
fundamental question that computing seeks to answer is ‘What can be successfully
automated?
One form of computing is cloud computing. Cloud computing is the delivery of on-demand

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computing services (such as applications, storage and processing power) over the internet and
on a pay-as-you-go basis.
Computerization
This is the process of starting to use a computer to do tasks or activities that were done by
people or other machines before.
Advantages of computerization
1. Response time is greatly reduced
2. Very large data are stored for information and decision-making
3. Accuracy of information is considerably improved, thereby improving the quality of the
decision
4. Problems are handled more easily by using various operation research models
5. The cost involved in the decision-making process is reduced
6. More secrecy is observed as compared to manual file system
Disadvantages of computerization
Unemployment
Since different tasks are performed automatically by using computers, the need of people is
reduced thus increasing unemployment in society.
Wastage of time and energy
Many people use computers without positive purpose. They play games and chat for a long
period of time. It causes wastage of time and energy. Young generation is now spending a lot
of time on the social media websites like Facebook, Twitter etc. or texting their friends all
night through smartphones which is bad for both studies and their health. And it also has
adverse effects on the social life.
Data security
The data stored on a computer can be accessed by unauthorized persons through networks. It
has created serious problems for the data security.

Computer crimes
People use the computer for negative activities. They hack the credit card numbers of the
people and misuse them or they can steal important data from big organizations.
Privacy violation
The computers are used to store personal data of the people. The privacy of a person can be
violated if the personal and confidential records are not protected properly.
Health risks

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The improper and prolonged use of computer can result into injuries or disorders of hands,
wrists, elbows, eyes, necks and back. The users can avoid health risks by using the computer
in proper position. They must also take regular breaks while using the computer for longer
period of time. It is recommended to take a couple of minutes break after 30 minutes of
computer usage.
Impact on environment
The computer manufacturing processes and computer waste are polluting the environment.
The wasted parts of computer can release dangerous toxic materials. Green computing is a
concept aimed at reducing the amount of electricity consumed and environmental waste
generated when using a computer. It includes recycling and regulating manufacturing
processes. The used computers must be donated or disposed of properly.
Information and communications technology (ICT)
This refers to the integration of computer technologies and telecommunication technologies
for the purpose of accessing, storing, manipulating and transmitting information. The
telecommunication technologies include telephone lines and wireless signals.
An ICT system is a set-up consisting of hardware, software, data and the people who use
them. The following diagram illustrates an ICT system. ICT systems can be made of some or
all of the parts shown. Other components of an ICT system include:
• Communication Technology – audio, audio-visual, fax, internet.
• Reprographic, Micrographic and Printing Technologies. Reprography entails
reproducing text or graphics through mechanical or electrical means e.g.,
photocopying, scanning, etc.
The importance of ICT systems cannot be underrated. When we use ICT systems, we:
➢ Become more productive - we can complete a greater number of tasks in the same
time at
➢ Reduced cost by using computers than we could, prior to their invention.
➢ Are able to deal with vast amounts of information and process it quickly.
➢ Are able to transmit and receive information rapidly.
Impact of ICT
ICT has become a vital and integral part of every business plan. From multi- national
corporations who maintain high end computer systems to small businesses that own a single
computer, ICT plays a role. The reasons for the omnipresent use of computer technology in

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business can best be determined by looking at how it is being used across the business world.
However, ICT has its flipside of negative effects.
Positive impact of ICT
Improved communication
With the use of email, communication has been made faster and less costly than sending a
paper letter in the mail. This has transformed a number of businesses on how they handle
correspondence with clients or customers e.g., on communications such as orders or billing.

Improved access to information

The Internet, which is part of ICT contains a wealth of information to keep you current with
trends, techniques, software and human resources. You can draw on a wealth of information
found on the internet to locate potential employees, compare insurance proposals, tackle
employee issues or check out the competition.
Managing your business with information obtained from the Internet keeps you
knowledgeable and on the cutting edge.
Improved storage
Much of the physical storage has been eliminated by using ICT to scan and store records such
as payroll files, tax files or client files in computers. This enables businesses to run even on a
limited physical space.
Better inventory management
Computerized inventory management systems track the quantity of each item a company
maintains, triggering an order of additional stock when the quantities fall below a pre-
determined amount.
Improved data and information management
Today, most companies store digital versions of documents on servers and storage devices.
These documents become instantly available to everyone in the company, regardless of their
geographical location. Companies are able to store and maintain a tremendous amount of
historical data economically, and employees benefit from immediate access to the documents
they need.
Improved decision making
Management Information Systems (MIS) enable companies to track sales data, expenses and
productivity levels. The information can be used to track profitability over time, maximize
return on investment and identify areas of improvement. Managers can track sales on a daily

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basis, allowing them to immediately react to lower-than- expected numbers by boosting
employee productivity or reducing the cost of an item.
Proper customer relations management
Companies are using ICT to improve the way they design and manage customer
relationships. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems capture every interaction
a company has with a customer, so that a more enriching experience is possible. This way,
the customer has a better, more focused experience and the company benefits from improved
productivity.
Improved marketing
With ICT, large and small businesses are on a level playing field on the Internet. You can
have a Web presence, take orders, buy merchandise, sell excess or even operate some
businesses entirely online.
Increased opportunities for education
The use of ICT in education has provided opportunities that might have not otherwise
existed, such as:
i. Distance learning, where students can access teaching materials from all over the world,
ii. The ability to perform ‘impossible’ experiments’ by using simulations,
iii. The possibility for students to have individual learning programs within a topic, rather
than everybody having to do the same thing at the same time at the same pace. More able
students can be given more challenging work, less able students can access remedial lessons.
Improved security
Although the use of ICT can bring its own security issues, it can also solve or reduce some
security problems, e.g., Encryption methods can keep data safe from unauthorized people,
both while it is being stored or while it is being sent electronically. ICT enables physical
security systems such as fingerprint, iris or facial recognition.
Negative impact of ICT
Job loss: One of the largest negative effects of ICT can be the loss of a person’s job. Job
losses may occur for several reasons, including: Manual operations being replaced by
automation. e.g., robots replacing people on an assembly line
Reduced personal interaction: Being able to work from home is usually regarded as being a
positive effect of using ICT, but there can be negative aspects as well. Most people need
some form of social interaction in their daily lives and if they do not get the chance to meet
and talk with other people, they may feel isolated and unhappy.

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Reduced physical activity: A third negative effect of ICT is that users may adopt a more
sedentary lifestyle. This can lead to health problems such as obesity, heart disease, and
diabetes. Many countries have workplace regulations to prevent problems such as repetitive
strain injury or eyestrain, but lack of physical exercise is rarely addressed as a specific health
hazard.

Cost: A lot of ICT hardware and software is expensive, both to purchase and to maintain. An
ICT system usually requires specialist staff to run it and there is also the challenge of keeping
up with ever-changing technology. These extra costs should be offset by the positive effects
of using ICT, but if an organization gets its cost-benefit analysis wrong it may lose money.
Security: Data must be kept secure, Internet connections must be protected from attack, new
viruses and other forms of malware are released nearly every day. Organizations will usually
have legal obligations to protect data such as customer information. Even if the organization
does not have to comply with a specific data protection law, it will usually be in the
organization’s interest to protect data from rivals.
Education: The negative effects of ICT on education include:
i. The large costs involved in setting up ICT systems can lead to poorer students / educational
establishments to being disadvantaged. This is often referred to as being a factor in the digital
divide.
ii. Students, and sometimes teachers, can get hooked on the technology aspect, rather than the
subject content. Just because a topic can be taught via ICT, does not mean that it is taught
most effectively via ICT

HISTORY OF COMPUTING
The first computer machine was known as ABACUS. It was used for small volume
computing in China and Japan for thousands of years before Christ. It was a manual device
that used no electricity.
START OF COMPUTER AGE
In 1832, Charles Babbage of England (1792 – 1871) developed a device called the Difference
Engine, and Analytical Engine which was able to combine arithmetic process with decision
based on its own computer. The Analytical Engine was recognized as the milestone
signifying the start of the computer age – and Charles Babbage the “father of the modern
computer”.
Generations of computers

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A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in computer technology with
time. In 1946, electronic pathways called circuits were developed to perform the counting. It
replaced the gears and other mechanical parts used for counting in previous computing
machines. In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the
previous generation circuits. The miniaturization helped increase the speed, memory and
power of computers. There are five generations of computers which are described below;
First generation computers
The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and expensive. In these
computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and memory. These
computers were mainly depended on batch operating system and punch cards. Magnetic
tape and paper tape were used as output and input devices in this generation;
Some of the popular first generation computers are;
• Eniac ( electronic numerical integrator and computer)
• Edvac ( electronic discrete variable automatic computer)
• Univaci( universal automatic computer)
Limitations of first generation computer
Followings are the major drawbacks of first generation computers.
1. They used valves or vacuum tubes as their main electronic component.
2. They were large in size, slow in processing and had less storage capacity.
3. They consumed lots of electricity and produced lots of heat.
4. Their computing capabilities were limited.
5. They were not so accurate and reliable.
6. They used machine level language for programming.
7. They were very expensive.
Second generation computers
The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor computers. These
computers used transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming less power; it made
transistor computers faster than the first-generation computers.
In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic disc and
tapes were used as the secondary storage. Assembly language and programming languages
like cobol and fortran, and batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems were
used in these computers.
Some of the popular second-generation computers are;
• Ibm 1620

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 • Ibm 7094
• Cdc 1604
• Cdc 3600
• Univac 1108 Features:
1. Transistors were used instead of vacuum tube.
2. Processing speed is faster than first generation computers (micro second)
3. Smaller in size (51 square feet)
4. The input and output devices were faster.
Third generation computers
The third-generation computers used integrated circuits (ics) instead of transistors. A single ic
can pack huge number of transistors which increased the power of a computer and reduced
the cost. The computers also became more reliable, efficient and smaller in size. These
generation computers used remote processing, time-sharing, multi programming as operating
system. Also, the high-level programming languages like fortron-ii to iv, cobol, pascal pl/1,
algol-68 were used in this generation.
Some of the popular third generation computers are;
• Ibm-360 series
• Honeywell-6000 series
• Pdp(personal data processor)
• Ibm-370/168 and Tdc-316
Features:
1. They used integrated circuit (IC) chips in place of the transistors.
2. Semi-conductor memory devices were used.
3. The size was greatly reduced, the speed of processing was high, and they were
more accurate and reliable.
4. Large scale integration (LSI) and very large-scale integration (VLSI) were also
developed.
5. The mini computers were introduced in this generation.
6. They used high level language for programming.
Fourth generation computers
The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated (VLSI)
circuits; a chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These chips made
this generation computers more compact, powerful, fast and affordable. These generation

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computers used real time, time sharing and distributed operating system. The programming
languages like c, c++, dbase was also used in this generation.
Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;
• Dec 10
• Star 1000
• Pdp 11
• Cray-1(super computer) Cray-x-mp(super computer) Features:
1. They used microprocessor (vlsi) as their main switching element.
2. They are also called as micro computers or personal computers.
3. Their size varies from desktop to laptop or palmtop.
4. They have very high speed of processing; they are 100% accurate, reliable, diligent
and versatile.
5. They have very large storage capacity.
Fifth generation computers
In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the vlsi technology was replaced with ulsi
(ultra large scale integration). It made possible the production of microprocessor chips with
ten million electronic components. This generation computers used parallel processing
hardware and ai (artificial intelligence) software. The programming languages used in this
generation were c, c++, java, .net, etc.
Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;
• Desktop
• Laptop
• Notebook
• Ultrabook
• Chromebook

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computer systems can be classified in various ways:
a. Size and capability
b. Functionality (how they process data)
c. Purpose

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 ➢ According to physical size and capability in which case we talk about Super
computers, Mainframes, Minicomputers, Microcomputers and Portable computers
(Laptops, Notebooks and Palmtops).
Supercomputers
- Large supercomputers with faster processing using multiple processors and superior
technology are used for complex tasks requiring a lot of computational power e.g. complex
scientific applications like weather forecasting which require a large amount of data to be
manipulated within a very short time.
- The traditional design of a single controller handling data and instructions in a single stream
is called “Von Neumann design”. Supercomputers use “non-Von Neumann design”
multiprocessor systems with simultaneous or ‘parallel’ processing. With multiple processors,
a single task is split among the processors for faster execution. All the processors are
controlled by a single central processor. Examples of supercomputers are CRAY T3D and
NEC-500.
Mainframe Computers
- They are very large computers with a very high capacity of main storage.
- Can process large amounts of data very quickly, and are therefore used by big companies,
banks and government departments.
- They are usually kept in an air-conditioned environment in a special room.
- Can be part of a network with smaller or similar computers.
- They act as nodes of large national and international communication networks (such as the
Internet).
- Can handle hundreds of concurrent users and have enormous backing storage capacity.
Some examples of mainframes are the IBM 4381, ICL 39 series and the CDC Cyber series.
Minicomputers
- They are physically smaller than mainframes.
- Minicomputers also support a number of concurrent users but are usually slower than
mainframe computers.
- Have the same basic structures as the larger mainframe computers, and support the same
peripheral devices supported by mainframes.
- They are easier to manufacture and maintain hence cheaper.
- Today, minicomputers are heavily used as network servers in the business industry.
Microcomputers

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- A microcomputer is smaller than the minicomputer. The ‘heart’ of a microcomputer system
is the microprocessor (a single chip containing the arithmetic and control units).
- Since the introduction of the microprocessor in the early 1970’s, hardware prices have
fallen drastically. The new microprocessor is not only cheaper, it is also faster, smaller, more
energy efficient, more reliable and more modular. Computing power has come onto the
desktop and the low cost of microcomputers has led to the proliferation of computers into
practically every area of business. Individuals are increasingly using computers in their own
offices and homes.
- The first home computer was the ZX-80 Sinclair, designed by the British electronics
entrepreneur Sir Clive Sinclair. It was launched in 1980 at a cost of less than 150 pounds. Its
successors, the ZX-81 and the ZX-Spectrum have proved equally popular.
- Currently the IBM-PC (Personal Computer) in various configurations and the IBM-PC
‘Compatibles’ are the most popular small business computers.
Portable Computers (Laptops, Palm tops and Notebooks)
- With computers assuming increasing importance in everyday life, the need for portability
became apparent, hence, the coming of laptops, notebooks and palmtop computers.
- The main difference between the microcomputers and the laptops/notebooks is the size. The
expandability and the number of peripheral devices supported by laptops and notebooks are
also limited. However, as technology advances, more and more features are being
incorporated into these systems.
- Palm tops are even smaller than laptops/notebooks.

➢ According to functionality
The way they process data or types of data they process.
Analogue Computer.
Process data that is analog in nature which is continuous. They solve mathematical
operations and logical comparison by measuring the amount of change in physical
magnitude e.g. speed, temperature, etc. are dedicated to a single task.
A computer in which numerical data are represented by measurable physical variables, such
as electrical voltage. The electrical voltage is also called an analogue signal.
Are used in manufacturing process control like monitoring and regulating furnace
temperatures, speed, pressures, weather, etc, stations to record and process physical quantities
e.g. wind, cloud
speed, temperature, etc. in addition to PCs, most modern home appliances such as digitals

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TVs, microwaves, wall clocks are digital in nature. Continuous data is represented using a
continuous waveform.
Digital Computer.
They process digital data only which is discrete in nature and their operations are based on
two states namely “on” and “off” or “1” and “0”.
A computer that accepts and processes data that has been converted into binary numbers.
Most computers are digital.
Hybrid Computer
They are computers build with the characteristics of both analog and digital, thus process
both analog and digital data.
A digital computer that accepts analog signals converts them to digital and processes them
in digital form. Hybrid computers are used in process control and robotics.

➢ According to purpose in which case we talk about special purpose, general

purpose and dedicated computers.

Special purpose Computer.

A computer designed from scratch to perform a specific function.
General purpose Computer.
Refers to computers that follow instructions, thus virtually all computers from micro to
mainframe are general purpose. Even computers in toys, games and single-function devices
follow instructions in their built-in program.
Dedicated Computer
Computer built into another device for the purpose of controlling or supplying information to
it. Its use has increased dramatically since the advent of the microprocessor: washing
machines, cars, and MP3 players all have their own dedicated computers known as
processors.

Areas Where Computers Are Used

Supermarkets
- Provides quick way of checking out customers purchases through EPOSS
- Provides opportunity to customers to purchase goods without hard cash through EFT.
- to help in management of daily stock control, for production of receipts and can be
used as a barcode reader

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 Banks
- Manage financial transactions through the use of special cash dispensing machines
called ATMs used for cash deposit and withdrawal services
- Processing of cheques
- For preparation of payrolls
- Better record keeping and processing of documents
- Provide electronic money transfer facilities
Homes
- Entertainment e.g. watching movies, playing music, playing computer games
- For storing personal information / documents
- For calculating and keeping home budgets
Industries
- To monitor and control industrial processes through the use of robots
- For management control i.e. to keep track of orders, bills and transactions
- For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more customers
- CAD {Computer Aided Design} allows accurate, quick and easy designs of products
on computer screen.
Law enforcement agencies
- For matching, analyzing and keeping database of fingerprints
- For taking photographs and other identification details
- For record keeping
- For face recognition, scene monitoring and analysis, which help the police carry out
criminal investigations speedily.

Transport industry
- Airports; to control the movement of aircrafts, their take-off and landing using radar
equipment
- For making reservations (Booking purposes)
- Storing flight information
- Automobile traffic control i.e. monitoring vehicle traffic in busy towns
- In Railway corporations to coordinate the movement of goods and wagons
- In shipping control for efficient management of fleets, cargo handling and
communication
Offices

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 - For receiving and sending of information through e-mails, fax,etc.
- Production of documents
- Keeping records
Hospitals
- For keeping patient records
- Keeping records of purchases and stock of medicine
- Analysis data obtained from X-rays
- Maintaining the booking system of scarce resources such as operation theaters.
- Control of life support machines in intensive care unit
- Used by physicians to get proper diagnosis of the affected part of body through cross
sectional view
Education
- Access internet through email to link different schools and to exchange knowledge
- Communication through email to link different schools and exchange knowledge
- For teaching and learning purposes e.g. computer practical
- Administration –storing information about students, processing grades and teachers’
salaries.
Library services
- Enables library personnel to easily access and keep updated records of books and other
library materials i.e. to keep electronic catalogues and track book circulation.
- Library users can also use computers to search for titles instead of using the manual
card catalogue
Entertainment industry– to generate and edit computer graphics in movies and games.
Military to design weapons and control flight.
Research institutions to process and analyze data.
Impaired persons
- converts speech to text for the deaf
- Converts spoken language to sign language for the deaf.
Converts text to speech for the blind using speech synthesizers.

Practical Hands on Skills

Computer booting (starting – up)
Definition of booting

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Process by which a computer loads system files into the main memory. I.e. the operating
system is read from hard disk and loaded to the maim memory.

Computer booting (starting-up) process

- Make sure that all components are properly connected. Turn on the switch at the
source of the power supply. If the computer is connected to the UPS turn on this after
switching the Main supply. Switch on the monitor and the system unit.
- The computer once switched on, you hear the sound of a cooler fan running. After a
view seconds, lines of text start to scroll on the screen as the computer goes through a
process of Power-On Self-Test (POST), before it starts in preparation for use. POST is
directed by a special firmware called Basic Input Output System (BIOS) which is held
in ROM chip mounted on the motherboard. The POST checks whether existing
storage, all basic Input/output devices and system components are working properly. If
any of the devices has a faulty or is missing, the process may stop or halt then an
appropriate error message is displayed on the screen.
- After POST, the computer reads some instructions such as the current time and date
from special memory known as the complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
(CMOS). CMOS is a special memory where instructions for current date and time are
contained. CMOS is powered by a dry cell that resembles that of a digital watch. If the
cell is down, the computer would always require the user to enter the current time and
date. Lastly, after the checks the operating system is read from the hard disk and
loaded to the memory (RAM) in a process called booting. Once the operating system
is successfully loaded, a user-interface called desktop is displayed.
- The entire process that makes the computer ready for use is called Booting up.

Types of booting
i) Cold booting {boot up}
Process of switching on a computer that has been off completely by pressing the power
button.
ii) Warm booting
This happens when the computer, originally on, is forced to restart by pressing the restart
button on the system unit or using the restart command on Start menu
Shutting down a computer

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Turning a PC on and off several times a day is harmful. If the correct procedure is not
followed then loss of data, damage of programs and computer components may occur. It is
therefore advisable to shut down the computer only after the sessions for the day.

Procedure for shutting down a computer

1. Save the work done on the computer before you turn it off
2. Close all programs that may be currently running.
3. Remove the floppy disks if you have inserted any.
4. If your computer is running on Microsoft Windows XP or Windows 7
a). click the Start button
b). on the Start menu, click Turn off Computer or Shut Down
c). on the message box that appears (see figure below), click Turn Off. The computer will
undergo the shutdown process.

NB: Pressing the Power key on the keyboard shuts down the computer.
d) Switch off your printer / or any other output devices.

Keyboarding and mouse skills

Keyboard layout

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Activity: Identify keys on the keyboard that could be used for entering
- Alphabetic characters
- Numbers and arithmetic operators
Keys on the keyboard can be categorized into five groups as follows:
1. Alphanumeric (typing) keys
2. Function keys
3. Cursor movement and editing keys
4. Special PC operation keys
5. Numeric keypad keys

1) Alphanumeric keys (typing keys)

Are keys labelled A-Z, numbers arranged in a line 1, 2, …0 respectively and symbols like!
@, %, ^, >, [,} etc as well as keys like Enter, Caps Lock, Tab, space bar, back space.
 Caps Lock
Let’s then user switch between uppercase (CAPITAL Letters) and lowercase (small letters)
by pressing it. When its ON Caps Lock diode lights which is above Numeric keypad keys.
Just press it again to switch to lower case.
 Enter key (return key)
If pressed it forces the text cursor to move to the beginning of the next line.
Definition of cursor: Is a blinking underscore (_) or a vertical beam (I) that shows where the
next character to be typed will appear.

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Apart from cursor movement, the other function of enter key is to execute a selected
command and in spreadsheets when pressed it moves the cell pointer from one cell to another
downwards.
 Space bar
It is the longest key on the keyboard and creates a space between words during typing.
 The backspace keys
This key is like an eraser. It has backward arrow marked on it. When pressed it erases
characters to the left of the cursor position (insertion pointer) i.e. from right to left.
 Tab key
Moves the text cursor at set intervals on the same line. It’s also used in setting Tab stops
during typing and moving from one cell to another or option to option.
2) Function keys
These keys are located on top of the keyboard. They are labelled F1, F2 …. F12. Each of
these keys is used for a special function or job. Example pressing F1 invokes the on-line help,
Pressing F7 starts Spelling and Grammar Checker
3) Cursor movement(navigation) and editing keys
Cursor movement (navigation) keys: are used to move the cursor on the screen. They
include: Home, End, Page up / Page down and Arrow keys.
▪ Arrow keys
They are four in number and have arrow marked on them showing the four directions. They
are used to;
- Move the cursor where we want it to be e.g. pressing the right or left arrow key moves the
cursor one character to right or left respectively. Pressing the Upward or Downward arrow
key move the cursor one line up or down respectively. - Move the selected text or object to
the desired place on the screen
▪ Page Up and Page Down
- Page Up moves the cursor up one page in case the document has many pages. Page Down
moves the cursor down one page in case the document has many pages.
 Home and End keys
Home key moves the cursor to the beginning of the current line while End key moves the
cursor to the end of the current line.
Editing keys
Editing keys are used to erase (delete) or insert characters in a document. These are:
 Insert key

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Helps the user to insert or replace a character at the cursor position i.e. switch between Insert
and Typeover (Overwrite) mode.
 Delete (Del) key
Is used to delete the text or any part therefore from the right of the cursor position
4) Special PC Operation keys
These keys are rarely used singly but in combination with other keys. They give special
instructions to the computer. They include SHIFT, CTRL, ALT, and ESC keys.
Ctrl key:
- used for shortcuts in combination with other keys e.g. holding down Ctrl + S
activates Save command,

Shift Key
Used for typing alternative characters for keys that represent more than one character
e.g. Shift + 5 types operator %.
Changing cases i.e. if the Caps Lock light is not illuminated and you hold down the
shift key and press a letter key, the upper-case version of the character will be
generated. The opposite will happen if the Caps Lock light is illuminated.
If you hold down Shift key as you delete folders/files from hard disk they will bypass
recycle bin folder and get deleted (discarded) completed.
5) Numeric keypad keys
They are located on the rightmost part on the keyboard. They have digits marked on the in
rows from bottom upwards. They have numbers in compact form and helps in rapid entry of
numeric data. Apart from the digits the numeric keypad has some mathematical symbols also
marked on its key e.g /, +, \, -, *.
Note: that the numbers on the numeric keypad can only be used when the Num Lock key is
turned on. The key is situated on the numeric pad.
They can also be used as cursor movement keys and editing keys when Num Lock key is
turned off. Some portable computers lack numeric keypad due to size limitations.
The Num Lock used to switch between numbers, editing and navigation keys on the numeric
keypad.
NB: Caps Lock, Num Lock and Scroll Lock act in ON and OFF states.
Practical Keyboard Skills
The following typing rules should be observed when using keyboard:
I. Sit upright with both feet firmly on the ground maintaining an alert posture

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 II. Place the material to be typed on your right in a position you can read without
strain if possible using copy holder as shown in diagram below:
III. Rest both hands on the keyboard with fingers resting on the home keys. Home
keys are keys on which fingers rest during typing in readiness to press other keys.
Home keys for the hand are: A, S, D, and F with the thumb on the Spacebar. For the
right hand are: semicolon (;), L, K, and J with the thumb on spacebar. NB: Some
authors state Home keys for right hand starting with apostrophe i.e. ‘, (;), L, K and
Space bar.
IV. Start typing text slowly, making sure you are using all the 10 fingers and you
press the key nearest to the home keys with the closest finger e.g. to press Q, use the
small finger on the left hand while to J, use the index finger on the right hand.
Mouse skills
The mouse got its name from shape and long interface cable which makes it look like the
biological mouse, although this is vanishing because of wireless technology.
The mouse is an input device with sensor buttons and a ball that slides it on a flat surface.
When it is made to slide, it controls a pointer on the screen, which is called a mouse pointer
or a cursor. The movement of a mouse is mirrored by a pointer on the screen. To make a
selection the pointer should be on the item that is to be selected, then manipulate the item by
pressing the mouse button.
A Mouse consists of 4 parts
1. A Casing - to assist in holding the mouse in the hand.
2. A Roller ball – used to slide/move the mouse on a flat surface. It also enables the
cursor to move on the screen as required.
3. The Sensor Buttons (Right & Left) – used for making selections.
4. A Cable - connects the mouse to the System unit.

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– The mouse is mostly used with Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs). It issues commands to the
computer by activating certain simple graphic images called Icons displayed on the screen.

Rules to observe when using the mouse

1. Place the mouse on a flat smooth surface
2. Gently hold the mouse with your right hand, using the thumb and the two right
most fingers
3. The index finger should rest on the left button while the middle finger rests on
the right button. See diagram below.
Mouse terminologies and meaning

Terminology Meaning
Point Move the mouse until the mouse pointer on the screen points on the
item
Click Position tip of the mouse pointer over specified element, then press and
release the left mouse button once. Selects an object/icon, files in a list
and dialog box options.
Double clicking Pressing the left mouse button twice in quick/rapid succession.
Expands icons, starts applications, opens a file and chooses items from
a list.
Right clicking Pressing the right-hand side mouse button once. It displays a shortcut
menu or context sensitive menu, which apply to the right clicked text /
item.

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 Drag and Drop Press and hold down the mouse button as the mouse is moved. Release
once the destination is reached. Through drag and drop, user drags an
item from one location on the screen to another, move windows, icons
and resizes windows.

Selecting items using the mouse

Item Using the mouse
Single item Click
Multiple sequential items Click first item, hold SHIFT key and click the last
item.
Multiple non-sequential items Hold CTRL and click.

To move an item on the screen by dragging;

1. Point to the item you want to drag.
2. Press & hold down the left mouse button.
3. Slide the mouse until the pointer reaches the desired position on the screen while still
holding down the mouse button.
4. Release the mouse button to ‘drop’ the item in its new location.

PRACTICE LESSON

Objectives
1. Identifying parts of a computer system
2. starting up a computer
3. manipulating the keyboard
4. Using the mouse.

A. Class exercise on identification of parts of a computer system

• System unit
• Monitor
• Keyboard
• Mouse

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 B. Starting and restarting a computer
• Cold booting
• Warm booting

C. Manipulation of the keyboard

• Function keys
• Alphanumeric keys
• Special keys
• Cursor movement keys
• Numeric keypad
D. Mouse skills
• Single clicking
• Double clicking
• Dragging
• Right clicking
• Scrolling

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 HARDWARE
Computer System Components
Hardware concepts
Hardware is a term used to describe all the physical and tangible devices that make up a
computer system. It consists of the parts that can be touched and felt.
Physical Parts of a Computer
A computer is made up of a collection of different components that are interconnected
together in order to function as a single entity. A computer is basically made up of four basic
components and other devices connected to the system unit called peripheral devices.

Some peripheral devices are: - ▪ Keyboard

Is a device that enables the user to enter data and instructions in the computer by pressing its
keys?
 The mouse
Is a hand held device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer and move
items on the screen by controlling a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen?

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  The monitor
Is a TV like device that displays output? It is a called a monitor because it enables the user to
monitor or see what is going on in the computer.
There are two types of power protection devices:
A surge protector and Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
a) A surge protector
- A surge protector is a power protection device that protects the computer against electrical
surges. Surges are large amounts of electricity which exceed the maximum level device is
capable of holding. Surges can damage or destroy computer components.
b) Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
Protects a computer from loss of power. It charges when mains power is on and has power
surge and brownout protection capabilities. When the main’s power goes off, it beeps to alert
the user.
The UPS has a power plug to connect from Main power supply and Power sockets for the
computer and other hardware to tap power from.

Function of UPS
- It regulates power from unstable power source to the required clean stable
voltage - It temporarily provides power to the computer in case of a sudden
power failure.
- It beeps to alert the user when the main Power goes off.

Computer hardware can be classified into input devices, output devices, central processing
unit and storage media.

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i). System unit
This is the casing (unit) that houses electronic components such as the brain of the computer
called the Central Processing Unit (CPU), motherboard, main memory, and the drives. The
drive is used to store, record and read data. The two common types of system units are Tower
and desktop type. The below picture shows a tower style.

Peripheral devices
Peripheral devices can be external -- such as a mouse,keyboard, printer, monitor, external Zip
driveor scanner-- or internal, such as a CD-ROM drive,CD-R drive, memory, motherboard,
hard drive, graphics card, floppy drive, cd/dvd drive or internal modem.
Internal peripheral devices are often referred to as integrated peripherals.

Motherboard, and internal storage devices.

Mother board is the main printed circuit board in a computer. It a computer’s central
communications backbone connectivity point through which all components and external
peripherals are connected.
It has the computer’s power switch.
The components inside the System unit include: -
• Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is also referred to as the Processor.
• Motherboard.
• Power supply unit.
• Fan(s).

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 • Port
• Random Access Memory
• Read Only Memory.
• Drives.
• Interface cables.
• CMOS battery.
• Heat sink.
• Speaker.
• Buttons.

Most of the Peripheral devices are connected using data interface cables. The interface
cablesthat carry data, programs and information to the processor. The cables are attached to
the system unit using connectors called ports.

A port is a docking point using which an external device can be connected to the computer.
A port can also be a programmatic docking point through which information flows from a
program to a computer or over the internet.
Examples of external devices attached via ports include the mouse, keyboard, monitor,
microphone and speakers.
–Some of the few important computer ports available include; Serial Port, Parallel Port, PS/2
Port,
Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port, Video Graphics Array (VGA) Port, Digital Video
Interface (DVI), High Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) port, Fire wire Port,
Modem Port, Ethernet Port, Game Port, Power
Connector, etc.
Serial Port
This is a serial communication interface through which information transfers in or out
sequentially one bit at a time. It is a male connector port.
It is commonly used for external modems and older computer mouse or printers
It is the slowest of all ports on a computer, i.e. data travels at 115 kilobits per second. Modern
computers have replaced it with much faster USB ports.
Parallel Port

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This communication interface sends / receives multiple bits of data at once, as opposed to
serial port. It is a female connector port.
It is commonly used for printers, scanners. In newer computers, it is getting replaced by the
faster USB and fire wire ports.
PS/2 Port
It is also called the mouse port. It is (was) used in old computers for the keyboard and mouse.
Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port
This is a standard interface for personal computers and consumer electronics devices for short
distance digital data communications. It was introduced in 1997.
The interface also supports supply of electric power across the cable to devices than need it.
It is extremely fast compared to serial, parallel and PS/2 ports i.e. data travels at 12 megabits
per second.
It is used to connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer,
scanner, mouse, keyboard etc.
VGA Port
This connector is used for display devices and is used to connect a computer to a monitor,
projector or
TV. Modern computers are slowly replacing this connector with HDMI and DVI ports.
Digital Video Interface (DVI) port
This interface transmits a video signal in digital format while maintaining high image quality.
It has the ability to transmit both analog and digital signals unlike VGA which transmits only
analog signals. It also supports large resolutions and high frequencies.
It used to connect Flat panel LCD monitors to the computer's high end video graphic cards
and is also very popular among video card manufacturers. Modern computers are slowly
replacing this port with the
HDMI port.
High definition media interface (HDMI) Port
This interface transmits signals in digital format, which means maintaining original quality.
The interface supports many different devices; players, TVs, Projectors, Game consoles.
–It is the modern standard interface for connecting audio-visual devices together
Ethernet Port
–This interface is for connecting a computer to a network and high-speed Internet. It resides
on an
Ethernet card.

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–Data transfer speeds on this port range between 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds
depending upon the network bandwidth.
Game Port
–It connects a joystick to a PC. Currently it is getting replaced by USB.
Power Connector
–This is a three-pronged plug that connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a
wall socket.
Types of computer hardware
Computer hardware is generally divided into four major categories namely; input hardware,
processing hardware, output hardware and storage hardware.

INPUT DEVICES
Input hardware enables the computer user to enter data into the computer. It also enables the
user to issue commands to the computer.
Functions of input devices
1. Accepts data and instructions from the user into the computer system.
2. Converts the human-readable data into electronic/machine-readable form.
3. Accepts commands for running, halting or aborting a program from the user.
These are grouped into:
(a) Keying devices.
(b) Pointing devices.
(c) Touch screens and digitizers.
(d) Speech recognition or Voice input devices such as Microphones.
(e) Scanning and other data capture devices.

1. Keying Devices
These devices use a set of buttons or keys to enter data or instructions into the computer.
Examples include keyboards and Keypad on a calculator, Keypad on a feature phone
Keypad is a mini-keyboard. It has fewer keys than the ordinary keyboard and is meant to be
used for a specific device or for specific purposes.
2. Pointing devices
(a) Mouse – Enters data or instructions by controlling a pointer on the screen.
(b) Track ball – It uses a sphere located on top that is rotated by hand to control
cursor movement.

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 (c) Joystick – It looks like a car gear lever which can be moved sideways,
upwards, downward to control the position of the cursor.
(d) Light pen – It is a hand-held pen-like device that has a light sensitive point.
3. Scanning devices
They are devices that capture data into the computer directly. They can be classified into: -
(i) Optical Scanners
They capture data using light. The following are the types of optical scanners: -
(ii) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
This scanner uses mark-sensing to scan and translate the locations of a series of pen or pencil
marks into computer-understandable form used in marking K.C.P.E, multiple choice exam,
questionnaire etc.
Advantages of OMR
i. Has a low error rate.
ii. Conspicuous errors are easily corrected.
iii. Data is captured at source, hence minimizing the amount of manual
work.

Disadvantages of OMR
i. Mark readers are relatively slow.
ii. Verification of marked data is difficult.
iii. Not widely used in business.
Application of OMR
• Multiple choice exams.
• Market research questionnaires.
• Payroll data entry.
• Traffic surveys.
(iii)Optical Bar Recognition (OBR)
They scan and translate a bar code into machine understandable mode. Used in supermarkets,
wholesale shops etc.
Advantages of OBR
i. Bar codes can be printed by normal printing methods.
ii. The type of item or price does not have to be repeatedly written / typed.
Disadvantages of OBR

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 i. Bar codes can only be read by machines.
ii. Only numbers can be coded in this way.
iii. They are relatively fixed, so they are unsuitable for recording prices which can
frequently change.
Application of OBR
• On labels and on shelves for stocktaking.
• Printed on shop goods e.g. In supermarkets.
• In libraries.
(iv) Magnetic Scanners
They capture data using magnetic technology. The following are the types of magnetic
scanners:
(a) Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition(MICR)
This scanner is able to detect characters written in special magnetic ink. It is used in banks to
read cheques, credit cards etc.
Advantages of MICR
It’s fast, accurate and automatic.
The codes are both machine and human readable.
Reduces forgery i.e. it’s difficult to forge.
Disadvantages of MICR
MICR system is limited to only 14 characters.
MICR system is based on magnetism and can easily be damaged.
Application of MICR
Banking industry for cheques.
(b) Magnetic Stripe Recognition
A magnetic stripe is a thin magnetic tape, often found at the back of a plastic card e.g. ATM
card. The magnetic stripe is used to recognize the data in such cards.
Advantages of magnetic stripes
i. Simple to produce.
ii. Not easily damaged.
iii. Stores fairly large numbers of characters.
Disadvantage of magnetic stripes
i. Data can be changed or erased by magnetic fields.
Application of magnetic stripes

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On credit cards.
On bank cards.
As tags on clothes.
As a phone card.

4. Speech Recognition devices

This is a type of input method where a microphone is used to enter data in the form of spoken
words into the computer.
Advantages of Speech Recognition
i. No keyboard is necessary i.e. very fast.
ii. Useful in situations where: -
- Hands or eyes are busy handling documents etc.
- People are moving around, since wireless microphone can be used.
iii. Can be used from remote locations via a telephone.
Disadvantages of Speech Recognition
i. Homophones – Some words sound the same.
ii. Recognition is slow.
iii. Limited vocabulary.
iv. Background noise can disrupt the data entered.
v. Speaker variability i.e. the speed, pitch, loudness and pronunciation of
individuals vary.
Application Areas of Speech Recognition
Security and access control e.g. office security for room access, house/car security.
Quality control and automation in factories i.e. speech input is used to order robots.
Automated materials handling – in airports to direct luggage to appropriate conveyor belt.
Voice activated toys and games.

Other Digital Input Devices

(a) Touch Screen
This device recognizes the location of a touch on the screen through a built-in grid of
sensing lines and sensors.
(b) Digital Camera
Used to take electronic pictures of an object.
(c) Digitizer

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 It has a graphic tablet on which the user writes using a device similar to a pen (stylus). The
stylus moves on the tablet and the drawing is directly reflected on the screen.

Factors to consider while selecting an Input device.

• Cost
• Volume
• Reliability
• Accuracy
• Mode of operation
• Appropriateness

OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devises are peripheral devices that a computer uses to give out information produced
after processing.
Functions of Output Units
1. Transmit the intermediate results & final results to the users
2. Convey messages, e.g. error messages, to the operators
3. Accept the results produced by the computer (which are in coded form & hence cannot be
easily understood) & convert these coded results to human readable form.
Divisions of output
-Output can be classified as: -
1. Hardcopy output.
2. Softcopy output.

Types of Output Devices

1. Soft Copy
Refers to intangible output mainly displayed on the screen or through devices like speakers.
Softcopy Output
-This is where the end results are displayed on a screen. The user can see the results but
cannot touch them. The output lasts for a short-time only, i.e., it is available only as long as it
appears on the screen.

2. Hard Copy

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Refers to tangible output produced on papers e.g. by printers, plotters etc.
Hardcopy Output
-Hardcopy implies that the output is permanent, i.e. it can be retained for an indefinite period.
The user can see and touch the results.
-Hardcopy is desirable if the information or the results of the computer working is to be
maintained for future reference/ use.
The following table is a summary of the comparison between hard copy output and soft copy
output, based on a number of factors.

Basis for comparison

➢ Hard copy output- Soft copy output
➢ Nature It is physical (tangible) Not physical (non-tangible)
➢ Cost More expensive to generate less costly
➢ Portability can be difficult to carry Easy to carry
➢ Modification Not easy to edit (modify) Easy to edit or modify
➢ Transmission does not require electronic medium for transmission, requires electronic
device or medium to read or view or listen to
➢ Longevity (lifespan) cannot be preserved for long periods of time due to wear and tear
while this soft copy not subject to wear and tear hence can be preserved for long
periods of time.
➢ Bulkiness it can be bulky, occupying large physical space, this occupies virtual space
in computer memory hence not bulky.

Examples of soft copy devices

1. MONITOR/VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT (VDU)
I t displays information on its screen thus helping the user to monitor operations carried out
by the computer.
Types of Monitors
A. Monochrome monitor
It displays images and text in only one color, mostly black and white.

B. Color monitor
It displays images and text in multiple colors.

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Types of Displays Screen
i) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).

Characteristics of CRT:
The screen of CRT is curved slightly outward
They are not portable
They consume a lot of power
They are cheap

ii) Flat Panel displays

Characteristics of Flat Panel Displays:

The screen is flat
They are portable
They consume less power
They occupy less space
They are expensive
They provide high quality output

Examples of Flat Panel Displays:

Liquid crystal display (LCD) – They have tiny liquid crystals that reflect light falling on
them from the environment.

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Thin Film Transistors (TFT) – It provides high quality output (text and graphics).
Electro Luminescent (EL) – They glow when exposed to an electric current, giving rise to
an electroluminescent display. Images are clearer than LCD.
Gas Plasma – They use gas that emits light when electric current is passed through them.

Graphic Adapter / Video Card

It’s a piece of circuit board that connects a monitor to a computer and allows the computer to
show images and text on its screen.
Examples of Graphic Adapters:
Monochrome Displays Adapter (MDA) – It displays text only in one colour.
Hercules Graphic Card (HGC) – Displays both text and images in one colour.
Colour Graphic Adapter (CGA) – Displays text and images using up to 16 colors.
Enhanced Graphic Adapter (EGA) – Displays text and images using 16 colors.
Video Graphic Arrays (VGA) – Offers at most 256 colors.
Super Video Graphic Array (SVGA) – Offers over 256 colors.
Advantages of visual display units
The display of output is almost instantaneous.
Minimizes paperwork.
Disadvantages of visual display units
Can lure computer operator into not keeping hardcopy records.
Screen might not allow the viewing of the full array of data.

2. SOUND OUTPUT
Sound output is in form of spoken words. Speakers are used to output the sound from
computers e.g. music, warnings, videos etc.
Advantages of sound output
No reading is necessary.
Useful in situations where you can’t look or where you are busy.
Fast, natural output.
People grow fond of “computer speak”.

Disadvantages of sound output

Not suitable for noisy situations.
Inappropriate for lengthy or permanent information.

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APPLICATION OF SOUND OUTPUT
Learning aids e.g. Computer Aided Learning.
Lifts – Messages can be used in lifts to greet visitors and tell them the floor they are in.
Emergency messages i.e. public-address systems, in cars when running out of petrol,
household e.g. vacuum cleaners “tub is overloaded”.
Text to speech translation – for the blind.

3. LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LED)

They are light emitting components that display light when an electric current is passed
through them. It is used mainly for warnings e.g. the Red and Green light displayed by the
system unit to help the user to know whether it is ON or OFF.

Examples of hard copy output devices

Hardcopy devices are devices that produce output on paper in the form of text or graphics.
1. PRINTERS
Printers produce hard copy of information on paper.
Classification of printers
Printers are categorized as follows:
• How they produce characters on paper.
• The speed at which they print.

A. How they produce characters on paper

(i) Impact printers
They provide prints by printing head element coming into actual contact with the stationery
through inked ribbon.
(ii) Non - Impact printers
They provide prints by printing head elements not coming into actual contact with the
stationery; they use other means e.g. thermal.

Differences between Impact and Non – Impact Printers

IMPACT NON-IMPACT

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Slow Faster
Use inked ribbons Use thermal or electrostatic principles
Cheaper Costly
Noisy Quiet
Multiple copy production possible Multiple copy production almost
impossible

Types of Impact Printers

Dot Matrix Printer:

It’s an impact character printer that provides character prints in terms of dots.
The printing head element is made up of a set of arranged needles, which are activated
depending on the character to be formed for printing.

Daisy Wheel Printer:

Shown below is a picture of a daisy wheel and a daisy wheel printer:

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 A daisy wheel printer has a wheel with petals on which characters are
mounted. When printing, the wheel rotates allowing petals to hit a ribbon with different
characters.

Golf Ball Printer:

The character images are incorporated on the surface of a gold ball like print head, which is
either rotating or pivoted. Shown below is a picture of the golf ball print head:

Drum Printer:

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It provides one whole line print at a time. The characters are embossed in rings around a
cylinder.

Chain Printer:

It’s an impact line printer that incorporates engraved characters printing slugs on a moving
chain or belt. The chain moves the character printing slugs at high constant speed past
printing positions.
When the required character in the chain has revolved to the selected print column, the
hammer pushes the paper into the ribbon and against the type slug of the letter or digit.

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Types of Non - Impact Printers
(a) Thermal Printer:
A non-impact character printer that provides character prints using heat principles.

(b) Inkjet Printer:

This printer forms characters by spraying ink from tiny nozzles through an electrical field
that arranges the charged ink particles into characters.

(c) Electrostatic Printer:

It’s a non – impact printer that uses electrostatic charges to form characters in a line on a
special paper.

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 (d) Laser Printer:
It prints by passing a laser beam back and forth over a rotating drum.

B. Classification based on speed of printing

(i) Character Printers

They produce one character at a time e.g. daisy wheel, dot matrix etc.
(ii) Line Printers
They produce one line at a time e.g. drum, chain etc.

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 (iii) Page Printers
They produce an entire page at once e.g. Laser Printer.

Factors to consider when selecting a Printer

✓ Initial cost and subsequent costs of maintenance.
✓ Volume of printing expected.
✓ Nature of reports to be generated.
✓ Range of capability for selected printer e.g. multiple copier, print styles e.t.c.
✓ Interface with the computer system.
✓ Speed.
✓ Quality of prints.

2. PLOTTERS
It’s a type of hard copy output device. Plotters are used mainly in the fields of engineering
and architecture for producing graphical output on paper.

Types of plotters
(i) Flatbed plotters

(ii) Drum plotter

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3. COMPUTER OUTPUT ON MICROFORM (COM)
The COM devices record computer output (images or text) on to photographic film which can
be viewed later by special microfilm readers.

Types of Microform
(a) Microfilm:
The output is usually on a roll of film.

(b) Microfiche
The output is on a page of film on which data images are arranged in a grid of patterns.

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Advantages of COM
➢ Saves on stationery and space.
➢ Faster than printing.
➢ Non-bulky hence portable.
➢ Contents on COM are not easily read using naked eyes hence guaranteed security.
➢ Have got larger lifespan compared to paper output.

Disadvantages of COM
➢ Are expensive.
➢ Cause eye-strain.
➢ Additional equipment needed to read the contents.

Applications of COM
➢ Libraries for book catalogues.
➢ Local authorities to retain town plans, maps, statistics, etc.
➢ Companies to store personal and customer records.

PROCESSING HARDWARE

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Responsible for processing data inside the computer and as well as controlling the instruction
to the computer. Example is central processing unit.

Central processing unit

The Central Processing Unit (Processor) is that part of the computer that decodes and
executes instructions. Also referred as the brain of the computer.
Functional units of CPU
(i) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
In this unit of the CPU all the arithmetic and logical operations are carried out.
Functions of ALU
Does all the mathematical computations in a computer. Does all of the logical
comparisons of values as well.
(ii) Control Unit
This unit coordinates all the processing activities in the CPU as well as Input, Storage and
output operations.
Functions of control unit
Directs the flow of information into the CPU, memory and storage. Controls the
instructions the CPU will perform next.
(iii) Main Memory (Primary storage)
This unit provides storage location for data and instructions accessed by the control unit.

Processor Clock speed

Which is the speed of the internal timer that determines how many instructions per second the
processor can execute. The internal clock regulates the rate at which instructions are executed
and synchronizes all the various computer components. The faster the clock, the more
instructions the CPU can execute.
Clock speed is measured in units called Hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz equals 1 cycle (tick) per
second. A Hertz is a unit of frequency which measures the number of cycles in a signal.
The clock/clock rate – refers to how many instructions per second the processor can
execute.
Quantities of clock speed can be expressed in:
i) Kilohertz (kHz) : approximately one thousand hertz’s.
ii) Megahertz (MHz): approximately one million hertz’s
iii) Gigahertz (GHz) : Approximately one billion hertz’s.

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- Modern CPUs reach over 3 GHz.

Types of memory
A. Read Only Memory (ROM)
This memory is used to store programmed instructions and data permanently or semi-
permanently. Data and instructions stored in ROM are those required to remain unchanged
for a long time.
Types of ROM
Mask Read Only Memory (MROM)
Once contents are written on it by the manufacturer, it cannot be changed.
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)
This allows the user to alter it only once after the content is written on it.
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)
The contents stored in this memory can be erased by exposing them to ultra-violet
light and then re-programmed for another use.
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)
This memory can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity.

Characteristics of ROM
❖ Can only be read but not written on.
❖ It’s non - volatile.
❖ Stores permanent instructions from the manufacturer.

B. Random Access Memory (RAM)

It’s called random access memory because its content can be read directly regardless of the
sequence in which it was stored.
Functions of Main Memory
❖ Holds data awaiting processing.
❖ Holds processed data.
❖ It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
❖ All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.
❖ It supplies information to the other units of the computer when needed.

Characteristics of primary memory

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 ➢ Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is
currently working.
➢ It has limited capacity
➢ It is usually volatile i.e. data is lost when power is switched off
➢ It is faster than secondary memories but slower than cache memories.
➢ A computer cannot run without primary memory.
➢ Data can be read and written on it.
➢ It’s temporary; its contents disappear when the computer is switched off.
➢ Its content is user defined.

Types of RAM
Static RAM (SRAM)
It’s a very fast memory and holds its content as long as there is power.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
It holds its contents for a short while even when the power is on. To maintain its
content, it must be refreshed severally per second.

Virtual memory
If you have limited memory or you have many programs open, your computer may need to
use part of the hard drive to simulate more memory. This simulated more memory is called
virtual memory and allows the computer to continue operating but at much slower speed.
Therefore a virtual memory is simulated memory from hard drive which makes the computer
operate at a much slower speed.
If your computer lacks the random access memory (RAM) needed to run a program or
operation, Windows uses virtual memory to compensate.
Virtual memory combines your computer’s RAM with temporary space on your hard disk.
When RAM runs low, virtual memory moves data from RAM to a space called a paging file.
Moving data to and from the paging file frees up RAM to complete its work.

SPECIAL PURPOSE MEMORIES

1. Buffer
It’s a special purpose memory used during input/output or processing to
temporarily hold data or instructions between communicating elements.
2. Cache Memory

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 It’s a very high-speed type of SRAM whose purpose is to allow the processor to
access data and instructions faster.
3. Register
They are temporary storage locations within a CPU that hold one piece of data at
a time.
Examples of Registers
a. Accumulator – Temporarily holds the results of the last processing step of
the ALU.
b. Instruction register – Temporarily holds an instruction before it’s
interpreted into a form that the CPU can understand.
c. Address register – Temporarily hold the next piece of data waiting to be
processed.
d. Storage register – Temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way from
the CPU to the main memory and vice versa.

Memory capacities
Memory and storage capacity is measured in special units called bytes. A byte is equivalent
to a single character, which can be numbers 0 – 9, letters A – Z or a special symbol e.g. a
number 2341 has 4 bytes, while words ‘My school’ has 9 bytes.
Memory quantities can be expressed in:
1. Kilobytes (KB) – Approximately one thousand bytes (103)
2. Megabytes (MB) – Approximately one million bytes (106)
3. Gigabytes (GB) – Approximately one billion bytes (1012)
4. Terabytes (TB) – Approximately one trillion bytes (1024)

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 FUNCTIONAL ORGANISATION OF THE CPU

.
The Arithmetic Logic Unit, Control Unit and Main Memory are linked through electrical
pathways called buses. A bus is an electrical path for a signal to flow from one point to
another in a circuit.

Types of computer Buses

e. Control Bus
This is a pathway for all timing and controlling functions sent by the control unit to other
parts of the system.

f. Address Bus
This pathway is used to locate the storage position in memory of the data to be executed
or an instruction to be decoded.

g. Data Bus
This is the pathway where the actual data transfer takes place.

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SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

These are storage devices that complement the Primary Memory. They are used to store
information for a longer period.

Characteristics of secondary storage

❖ Non-volatile storage
Data stored in this media is permanent unless erased by the user.

❖ Mass storage
Stores large volume of data.

❖ Reusability
Stored data can be erased and the media reused to store fresh data and programs.
❖ It is slower than main memory.
❖ It is non-volatile
❖ It is not accessed directly by the CPU. Instead it is accessed via input-output routines.
❖ It can save huge amounts of data in the range of gigabytes (GB’s) or Terabytes (TB’s)

Classification of secondary storage

(i) Removable storage devices

These devices are not housed inside the system unit hence can be used in another
computer e.g. floppy disk, flash disk, CD.

(ii) Fixed storage devices

These devices are housed inside the computer system unit e.g. hard disk.

Removable Storage Devices

Magnetic Disks

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 (a) Floppy disks
They are made of a small flexible round disk coated with iron oxide. They are
used to store information for later use in the same or a different computer, and can
be used to move information from one computer to another.

Advantages of Floppy disks

a) They are very cheap.
b) They are small, lightweight and convenient.
c) Exchangeable.

Disadvantages of Floppy disks

a) Floppies are vulnerable i.e. have a short life.
b) Time consuming if access is needed to many files over a short period.
c) Easily damaged.
d) Have a limited storage capability.

(b) Zip disks

They resemble floppy disks but have high storage capacity. They are slightly
larger and thicker in size than floppies. Can hold at least 250 MB. Mostly they
come with a separate portable external Zip drive.

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 (c) Jaz disks
They are small portable disks with high storage capacity of about 1GB – 2GB.
They are used for storing data that require larger capacity. They have an external
jaz drive.

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 Magnetic Tapes
This is ribbon of Mylar (plastic – like) material coated with a thin layer of iron oxide.
A magnetic tape resembles the tape found in a music cassette. The tape is stored in
blocks separated by inter-block gaps left for stopping purposes. Tapes are sequentially
accessed. This implies that if information is at the end of the tape, the computer will
have to read almost the entire tape which is time consuming.

Advantages of magnetic tapes

a) They are portable.
b) Cheap.
c) Can be erased and re-used.
d) Holds a lot of data in a compact space.

Disadvantages of magnetic tapes

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 a) Very slow in accessing of data.
b) Easily damaged i.e. dust, heat, touching etc.
c) The inter-block space is wastage of storage area.

Optical Disks
Laser beams are used to record data on these disks. The laser ray burns tiny holes onto
their shiny surface to record data.

Examples of Optical storage disks

(a) LS – 120 Super disks

This is a diskette that resembles the floppy diskette but uses optical technology
instead of magnetic technology to read data. It has greater storage capacity and
greater speed of data access than a floppy diskette.

(b) Compact Disk (CD)

They hold larger quantities of data and information. A CD can hold as much as
700MB. They are mostly used to store data or information that requires a lot of
space e.g. video clips, software e.t.c.

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 Forms of Compact Disks

1. CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory)

Once written on, the disks can no longer be written on again and the data on
them remains permanent. These are normally written on by the manufacturer.

Advantages of CD-ROM
a) It’s smaller, more portable and has a larger storage capacity compared
to diskettes.
b) More secure than a diskette as it cannot be changed or attacked by
viruses.

Disadvantages of CD-ROM
a) Not possible to change data written on a CD-ROM.
b) Are more expensive than diskettes.
c) Can’t erase the data stored.

2. Compact Disk – Recordable (CD-R)

It is initially blank. The user can record data on it. However once data has
been written on it, one can only read the data but not change it.

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 3. Compact Disk – Rewritable (CD-RW)
With CD-RW the user can record, erase and rewrite new information.

4. WORM (Write Once Read Many times)

These are disks that allow the user to record data on them once but read those
many times e.g. CD-ROMs and CD-Rs.

(c) Digital Versatile Disks (DVDs)

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 Also known as Digital Video Disks. They resemble compact disks but have higher
storage capacity of up to 17GB. They are suitable for recording motion pictures
e.g. video because they offer better sound and picture quality than CDs.

(d) Optical Card

It resembles the Magnetic Stripe card but uses an optical recordable stripe that
stores information instead of the magnetic stripe. Mainly used in banks and
companies.

(e) Optical Tape

It’s similar to a magnetic tape only that data is stored using optical technology.

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 (f) Photo CD
This CD is used to process photographic film or negatives to produce and store
high quality photographs on a CD-R.

Advantages of Optical Storage

(a) Have massive capacity.
(b) Stores data permanently.
(c) Accessing of data is fast.
(d) Secured i.e. it’s hard to copy.
(e) High quality pictures and sound.
(f) Portable.

Disadvantages of Optical Storage

(a) Expensive.
(b) Costly hardware and software for reading.
(c) Breaks easily (it’s fragile).
(d) Very sensitive to things like dust, water, heat, scratches which easily
damage them.
Flash Disk

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 This is the most current storage device in the market. It has a massive storage
capacity, it’s more reliable and portable. It’s small in size and can store over 32 GB of
information.

Fixed Storage Devices

These are storage devices that are housed inside the computer system unit.

Examples of Fixed Storage Devices

Hard disk (Winchester)

It is made from metal and is coated with a thin film of magnetic oxide. The hard disk unit
is made of shiny, rigid magnetic disks or platters which are arranged vertically on a
common axis. The platters can hold thousands of programs and files.
Shown below is an opened hard disk for a laptop computer showing the reading heads and
platters:

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 Advantages of Hard disk
(a) It’s cheap.
(b) Very reliable.
(c) Does not deteriorate as quickly as a floppy disk.
(d) Has more storage capacity.
(e) Accessing of data is faster.

Disadvantages of Hard disk

(a) It can suffer a head crash resulting in loss of data.
(b) It is sensitive to things like dust, humidity and magnets which can corrupt the data
stored.
(c) It is inflexible i.e. cannot be changed.

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Hardware considerations
i). Processor type and speed
The price of a computer is dictated by the type of microprocessor installed and its clock
speed. A good computer must have high processor speed of over 4GHz

ii). Memory capacity

Should have a sufficient memory to handle the heavy applications that require a lot of
memory space in order to run. A computer with at least 128MB of RAM is recommended.
Memory capacity dictates the operating system and the application that can run efficiently on
the computer.

iii). Warranty
The hardware bought must have a warranty cover and must be guaranteed for a specific
period of time. Warranty is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out
Terms and conditions of, after selling a product in case of failure or malfunction a good
warranty should cover the following:
o Duration e.g. six months, one year, etc. the least warrant period should be at
least 1 year. In most cases, the longer the warranty the better the hardware.
o How comprehensive is the warranty? Does it cover all the parts of a
computer?
o Whether the warranty offer onsite support, so that you don’t need to take the
computer back to the seller / manufacturer in case something goes wrong.
o Call-out response and liability agreement e.g. how long should the supplier
take to repair a fault or replace the product and if he/she delays who bears the
cost.
o Preventive maintenance for example regularity of service at intervals etc.

iv). Cost
The cost of computers is related to the size and additional components that may come with
the computer. The cost depends on:
- Its processing capability
- Whether it is branded or a clone. Branded computers are more expensive than
their equivalent clones because of the reliability and good after sale services

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 - Its size – portable computers are more expensive than desktops because of the
superior technology involved manufacturing smaller computer components without
losing performance abilities.
Do market survey from magazines, newspapers and electronic media or visit a number of
vendors to compare prices to enable you purchase genuine components at a reasonable cost.

v). Upgradeability and compatibility

Buy a computer than can easily be upgraded to accommodate emergent technologies. NB:
You upgrade an existing computer when you either add to it a new device or memory or
when you replace one or more of the computers processor or peripheral devices with its faster
equivalent. E.g.
- Replacing a 1GHz processor with a 2.4 GHz processor, a 1oPPM laser printer
with a 16PPM laser printer
- Increasing RAM from 64MB to 128MB, 10GB hard disk drive with 20GB.
Some older computers cannot support large had disks or USB devices (USB and firewire) in
the market today, hence difficulty in upgrading them because smaller hard disks are no longer
in circulation.

vi). Portability
Look for a computer that you carry with you in case you wish to access your computer and
files wherever you are. Smaller devices enhance portability.

vii). Special User needs

Focus around the unique user needs for buying the computer system e.g. a point of sale (POS)
terminal is most suitable for record transactions in the supermarket, physically challenged,
consider buying voice input devices.

Other considerations
- Monitor
Your choice of monitor may depend on size, resolution and technology used to make it.
Currently flat panel displays are replacing CRTs.
- Multimedia capability

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Refers to the ability for as computer to process and output text, sound, video and pictures.
Multimedia system consists of speakers, CD/DVD drive, sounds card and SVGA monitor.
Also a software that supports multimedia capability.
Other considerations include available ports, wireless connectivity, and the system unit form
factor (whether tower type or desktop).

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 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Computer software refers to a set of instructions that direct a computer on what to do or set of
programs that computer uses to perform a different task. The computer software can be
classified into three ways according to purpose, acquisition and End– user – License (EUL).
Examples of software
Web browser
Office suits
Image editors
Graphics software etc.

Classification according to purpose

Computer software is classified into two main categories:
- System software
- Application software

1) System software
Manages the operation of the computer itself and makes sure that the computer works
efficiently.
It enables the user to communicate with the computer and its hardware e.g. mouse.

Example of system software:

i). Operating system: It’s a set of programs that control and supervise the hardware resources
of a computer during processing. Examples are: Microsoft Windows
95/98/2000/XP/Vista/NT, Macintosh OS, OS/2, CP/M, VMS, UNIX, and MS-DOS

ii). Firmware: also referred to as stored logic, it’s a combination of both hardware and
software etched on a single silicon chip which accepts and interprets external commands
from the user.

iii). Utility software: also called service programs, is software that provides support to the
application software. It performs commonly used services that make certain aspects of
computing to go on more smoothly. Can also be defined as special programs used to enhance
performance of the system.

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Functions of the utility software
- Formatting disk s
- Repairing diskettes
- Renaming files
- Sorting files
- Copying and deleting files
- Repairing damaged files, etc.
Examples of utility software: system level, application utility, program translator, settings
editor, test editor, sort editor, graphics editor, file manager, calculator, time, backup utility,
recovery utility, compress/decompress utility, defragment utility, antivirus utility, diagnostic
utility, sound player utility, internet browsing utility, calendar utility.

iv). networking software: It’s used to establish communication between two or more
computers by linking them using a communication channel e.g. cables to create network.
Also, it enables computers and other peripheral devices connected on a network to
communicate and share resources. Examples: Novel Netware and Linux

2) Application Software (Application Packages)

Are designed to help the end - user to accomplish specific tasks.
Application software are classified according to purpose and acquisition
Classification according to purpose
Application software can be either a general purpose or special purpose software. The
general-purpose software such as word processors, spreadsheets, database and presentation
software are packaged and made available for general use.
Special purpose applications such as DTP, video editing and photo editing software are used
to carry out specific tasks.

Examples of application software are:

1. Word processor – for typing documents like letters e.g. Ms Word, Lotus,
Word Pro, WordStar
2. Database – for keeping records e.g. Ms Access, Dbase, FoxPro, Paradox
3. Spreadsheets –for calculations e.g. Ms Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro Pro.
4. Desktop Publishing (DTP) – designing publication like cards, pamphlets,
magazines e.g. Adobe PageMaker, Ms Publisher

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 5. Computer Aided Design – for technical drawing e.g. AutoCAD
6. Graphics software – for designing and manipulating graphics e.g. Corel Draw,
Adobe Photoshop.

Summary of computer software

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Application Software
System Software

- Word processor
- Operating system - Spreadsheets
- Firmware - Database
- Utility software - Desktop Publishing
- Networking software Computer aided design
- Graphics software

Classification according to Acquisition

An application software can be either in-house developed or an off-shelf software.
a). In-house developed (Custom program/ bespoke/ tailor – made / standard software)
These programs are designed/tailored to meet specific needs within the organization. e.g. in
banks for managing their operations, airlines for booking, school for grading and test analysis
etc.

b). Standard software (off the shelf) packages

These programs are developed by software engineers, packaged and made available for
purchase through a vendor or directly from developer e.g. Microsoft office. Off-the –shelf
software is widely used because;
It takes less time to assess company’s needs, buy and install them
They are less expensive to acquire and maintain
They are readily available for almost any task
They are thoroughly tested before being released hence less chances of errors
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 Easily modified to meet specific user needs

Disadvantages
May not meet special needs
They are not as efficient as user made programs
When changes occur, extra costs is usually needed from user
Not all packages are compatible with all computer system
They may have some features not needed by user which may take extra storage
c). General purpose software – are not written to solve any particular problem, and can
be used in different ways depending on the problem to be solved

Classification according to End – User Licence (EUL)

Software may be classified as open source (non-proprietary), proprietary or freeware.
Open source software – is a software whose source code (programmed set of instruction) is
freely made available to users. Users are encouraged to modify and distribute the modified
product.
Proprietary software – are software whose source code is hidden from users. Modifications
can only be made by the software manufacturer. They are licensed to users at a fee or applied
freely. Examples are; Microsoft Operating Systems, Microsoft Office, Adobe PageMaker and
CorelDraw suit.
Freeware are software products that are freely made available to the user. Some may be
malicious software.

Application areas of software

Software Considerations
Authenticity
This is genuineness, validity or legitimacy of an item. Software is an intangible product, and
it’s quite easy to pirate software (make illegal copies of software). When purchasing
software, get the original software that will be supported by the developer’s license and
certificate of authenticity. This is because some people illegally produce pirated copies which
are an offense.
Documentation

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It includes user manuals, trouble shooting and installation guides as well as on-line help. A
good software product must be accompanied with these documentations.
User needs
It must meet users need e.g. if the user needs to type documents most often would go for a
word processor.
User friendliness
This is how easy the users can be able to operate the computer. The ease of use of a program
will (most likely) influence whether the user will prefer it or not.
System requirements
Are basically the hardware specifications required to run a particular program and are usually
indicated on the package e.g. you need a minimum of 16MB of RAM to run an Access
Dbase, but 32MB is recommended. The system requirements will usually include the amount
of Ram, Hard disk space, monitor type, processor type and peripheral.
Cost
Software tend to be more expensive than the hardware. The cost of acquiring software
product must be carefully considered before acquiring it against the benefits that it is likely to
bring. The cost of software is a major contributing factor in deciding whether to purchase it
or not. It is usually cheaper to purchase general purpose software if it can meet the users
need.
Compatibility and system configuration
Software compatibility refers to the ability of a computer to run the software depending on
the system setup (configuration). The new package should read and process files created by
the existing package. When upgrading software, the upgrades are backwards compatible e.g.
Ms Access 2000 can convert MS Access 97 files to Access 2000 format and use them. It
often does not work the other way round e.g. Ms Access 2000 file cannot be opened in
Access 97. Therefore, a software product must be compatible with the existing hardware,
operating system or application programs and should be readily upgradable.
Portability
Software portability refers to ability of a program to be copied or installed in more than one
computer. Data is said to be portable if it can be transferred from one application to another
in electronic form. Most software’s in the market are portable.
Reliability
Good software must be reliable and secure.

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 OPERATING SYSTEM
Functions of Operating System
Operating system basically consists of two main parts namely;
Shell – the outer part of an operating system used to interact with operating system Shell is a
computer program that simplifies the interface between a user and the operating system by
allowing the user to pick from a set of menus instead of entering commands
Kernel – (the key portion of operating system). Kernel is the core of a computer's operating
system that resides in the memory and performs essential functions such as managing and
controlling the processor, main memory, storage devices, input devices, output devices,
communication devices, files and allocating system resources
i). Processor/ job Scheduling (CPU)
Processor scheduling refers to allocating each job waiting for execution processor time at
each given interval. The processor can only handle one task at a time. A job is a group of
tasks taken as a unit of work for a computer which may include one or more computer
programs, files and instructions to the Operating System. The [OS]scheduler decides which
of the jobs is allocated to the CPU for processing first.
ii). Resource control and allocation
Includes controlling the use of computer resources by other system software and application
programs being executed. The resources include I/O devices, CPU and processing time. The
OS strives to avoid deadlocks by allocating resources wisely to tasks or programs that are
competing for them. Each device has unique identification number called an interrupt
number. So when two tasks request to use a resource at the same time, the one with higher4
priority interrupt is granted control. Deadlock is a situation where a particular task holds a
needed resource and refuses to release it for use by other tasks.
Analogy: John has a pen but needs a book to write on while Mary has a book but needs a pen
to write with. Neither of the two wants to release whatever they have for the other to use first.
Hence a deadlock occurs because neither is able to write.
iii). Input / Output management
The OS coordinates between I/O devices and other peripheral devices making sure that data
flows properly between them and sorting out any possible confusion. It will also monitor the
state of I/O devices and signal any faults detected. It also governs the input/output of data and
their location, storage and retrieval.
iv). Memory management

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Since data and instruction entered into the computer are temporary held in the main memory
before and after processing. Since RAM is a scarce resource, the OS determines which task
remains in memory waiting for execution and which one will be kicked out back to secondary
storage.
The OS organize the main memory into partitions called page frames. Processes are equally
divided into pieces that can fit into the frames called pages. The OS swaps pages between the
main memory and the secondary storage and ensures that each program and the data it
requires are allocated adequate space in memory to access data or instruction, the OS knows
where to find each piece of data as long as the correct address of the partition is used. In the
hard disk where pages are held is referred to as Virtual memory.
v). Communication control and management
The OS manages various communication devices and provide protocols that governs
communication between devices on a network.
vi). Error handling
The operating system alerts the user of errors that may arise out of illegal operations,
hardware or software failure. The OS deals with errors produced during program execution
by expressing what the error is and provides the error correction routines to ensure smooth
operations within the CPU.
vii). Security
Modern operating systems implement security policies such that unauthorized users cannot
get access to a computer or network resource.
viii). Job sequencing
The OS keeps a list of tasks currently being run and arranges them in a particular order to
make it easy for the processor to execute them and to know how and when to fetch
instructions and data for each task. I.e. clocks them in and out of the processor.
v). Interrupt handling
An interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a program.
The OS determines the cause of the interrupt and transfer the control to the most appropriate
program.
An external request causes the processor to stop executing the current task and do something
else before returning the control back to the program that was interrupted. Each hardware
device communicates to the processor using Interrupt Request Number (IRQ number) which
is a special number.
Types of Operating Systems

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Operating system can be classified according to:
a) Number of users
i). Single user OS
Used only by one person and runs one user application at a time. ii). Multi-user OS
(multiprogramming)
Enables two or more users to run a program simultaneously. Examples are UNIX, Linux,
Windows XP, Novell, OS/2, Windows 3.11, and Windows NT & Windows 2000.
b) Number of tasks
i). Single program/tasking OS
Allows processing of only one program in the main memory at a time e.g. Ms – DOS.
ii). Multitasking OS
The OS allows a single CPU to execute more than one program at a time e.g. Windows Vista,
XP, etc.
c) Interface
i). Command line
User interacts with a computer by typing a command at the dot prompt found on a command
line. The computer reads the typed command at the command line and executes it. Examples
of command line OS are Ms-Dos, UNIX and OS/2. To apply: Click Start menu>All
Programs>Accessories>Command Prompt.
For example, you can copy a file called Fruits.Dat from a hard disk C to floppy diska type the
following at the command prompt:
COPY C:\ FRUITS.DatA:\
This interface is hard to learn or remember the commands, they cannot process complex
graphics and they hardly make use of emerging hardware and software technologies.
ii). Menu driven
Allows the user to select commands / options from a list or menu using keyboard or pointing
device e.g. mouse. The use needs not to remember commands since is represented with
choices.
iii). Graphical user interface
Enables the user to choose commands, start programs and see lists of files and other options
by pointing and clicking at objects icons or pictures that appear on the screen. Besides
menus, GUI make use of rectangular frames called windows, graphical objects called icons,
most commands are executed using a pointing device. These features are given an acronym

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WIMP which stands for windows, icons, menus and pointer. Examples GUI operating
systems include Microsoft Windows 95/98/2000/XP/Vista, Marcos and Linux.
3.5 Factors to consider when choosing an operating system
Hardware configuration of the computer such as the memory capacity, processor speed and
hard disk capacity
The type of computer in terms of size and make.
Basic design of the computer is it IBM Compatible or Apple
Computer.
Applications intended for the computer
User friendliness of the operating system, GUI will be preferred.
Cost of the operating system
The documentation available
Availability in the market e.g. Microsoft Windows based OSs are very common.
Reliability and security provided by the OS– can it run without crashing or hanging.
Hanging is to stop responding to commands.
The number of users it can support

Managing files using the operating system

The smallest data item on a computer is called a bit (with a value of 0 or 1). In a computer
system, data is systematically organized, often in a hierarchical form as follows:
✓ Data field holds a single fact or attribute of an entity. Consider a date field, e.g.
"September
✓ 19, 2004". This can be treated as a single date field (e.g. birthdate), or 3 fields,
namely, month, day of month and year.
✓ Record is a collection of related fields. An Employee record may contain a name
field(s), address fields, birthdate field and so on.
✓ File is a collection of related records. If there are 100 employees, then each employee
would have a record (e.g. called Employee Personal Details record) and the collection
of 100 such records would constitute a file (in this case, called Employee Personal
Details file).
✓ Database – a group of related files

Characteristics of Files /File attributes

-Every file must have the following features:

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1. Identifiers: the name a file can be addressed by.
2. Size: every file must have same size and this can be known by the number 'of bytes it
occupies.
3. Date of creation or modification: -refers to the age of the file.
4. Author/user: -the person who created the file or who the file was created for.
5. Organization: -this is the mode in which data can be retrieved from the file.
6. Type: -it can be a master file or a data file.
7. Size: -is the amount of data that is in the file, it may be expressed in terms of number of
records or character.
8. Growth: -files often grow in size as records are added or shrink as unwanted records are
deleted. Growth must be allowed for when planning to store a file. The increase or decrease
in the number of records that have been added or removed from the file or the percentage
increase or decrease of records in relation to existing records are referred to as Growth.
9. Volatility: -is the frequency with which records are added or deleted from a file. If the
frequency is high the file is said to be volatile, a file that is not altered is said to be static and
if the frequency is low it is said to be semi-static.
10. Hit rate: Is the term use to describe the rate of producing master files in terms of active
records. It is a measure of file activity.

-The operating system is responsible for file management in a computer system.

Types of computer files
The major file types in computer systems include:
1) Ordinary Files or Simple File
Ordinary File may belong to any type of Application for example notepad, Songs etc. So, all
the Files those are created by a user are Ordinary Files.
With the help of Ordinary Files, we can store the information which contains text, database,
any image or any other type of information.
2) Directory files/Folders
A directory / folder is a place where files or other directories are saved.
Goals of directory organization
❖ Efficiency - locating a file quickly
❖ Naming - convenient to users
❖ Two users can have the same name for different files.
❖ The same file can have several different names.

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 ❖ Grouping; logical grouping of files by properties (e.g. all Pascal programs, all
games…)
3) Special Files/System files
-The Special Files are those which are not created by the user or the files that are necessary to
run a
System. These files must be on the computer for it to function well.
Types of File Operations
-Files are not made for just reading the Contents. We can also perform some other operations
on the Files such as:
1) Read Operation: Meant: To Read the information which is Stored into the Files.
2) Write Operation: For inserting some new Contents into a File.
3) Rename or Change the Name of File.
4) Copy the File from one Location to another.
5) Sorting or Arrange the Contents of File.
6) Move or Cut the File from One Place to Another.
7) Delete a File
8) Execute.
9) Share
10) Print

Computer File Types by Extension

When you create a file in a computer system, you specify its name and its extension. The
extension associates the file with the application program responsible for the file e.g.
Extension Associated Program
DOC/DOCX Microsoft Word
PDF Adobe Acrobat Portable Document
XLS Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet
JPG Image
MP3 Audio
AVI Animated Video
BMP Bitmap Graphic
DLL Dynamic Link Library
GIF Image

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A file should be organized in such a way that the records are always available for processing
with no delay. This should be done in line with the activity and volatility of the information.
Files need to be properly arranged and organized to facilitate easy access and retrieval of the
information.
A program that uses a file needs to know the structure of the file and needs to interpret its
contents.

DOS Internal and External Commands

Command is an instruction written in a computer acceptable language that user types on the
dos prompt. It will execute and do the appropriate action. There are mainly two types of dos
command.
✓ Internal commands
✓ External commands
1. Internal commands: The internal commands are those commands that are automatically
loaded in the memory. Some commonly used DOS internal commands are

1 Cls 6. Copycon 11.CD

2. Dir 7. Type 12. RD
3. Date 8. Ren 13. Copy
4. Time 9. Del
5. Ver 10. MD

1) Cls :- The purpose of this command is to clear the display screen and redisplay
the Dos prompt at the top left corner of the screen.
Syntax:- C : / > Cls
2) Dir:- It displays the list of directories and files on the screen.
Syntax:- C : / > dir.
a. C : / > dir/p – It displays the list of directories or files page wise
b. C: / > dir/w- It displays the list of directories or files width wise
c. C : / > dir/d: –It display list of directories or files in drive D
d. C : / > dir filename . extension – It displays the information of specified file.
e. C : / > dir file name with wild cards.
2. Wild cards: - It is the set of special characters wild are used with some commonly
used DOS commands there are two types of wild cards.

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 1. Asterisk (* )
2. Question mark (?)
1. Asterisk:- (*) The wild word will match all characters.
1. C : / > dir *.* - will display list of all files and directories.
2. C : / > dir R*.* - will display all files stored with first character R.
2. Question mark: - This wild card represents a single character that a group or files
have in common.
1) C : / > dir ac .* - will display all files having any first character and
remaining name has given in command.
2) C : / > dir ??? R . doc-will display all files having extension doc and having
any first three letters and fourth letter is R.
3) Date: - It displays the current system date. User can also change the current
date with new date by using this command.
Syntax: - C : /> date
Current date is: sat 3-25-2015
Enter of new date (mm-dd-yy):-
4. Time : - It displays the current systems time user can also change existing
time with new time by using this command.
Syntax : - C : / > time
Current time is 12 : 39 - 48 : 36 p
Enter new time : -
5. VER : It displays the version of DOS being used currently.
Syntax : -
C : / > Ver
MS – Dos
version 6 :
20
Copy card .
6. copycon : - The purpose of this command is to create a file.
Syntax : - C : / > copy con filename . extension
Saves the contents of file by pressing ctrl +z key combination at the last time of the
file. File name should not be greater than 11 characters out of which 8 characters are
for the name and 3 characters are for the extension.
Extension is optional :

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Eg : C : / > copy con ram
I am a good boy
1. File is copied.
C:/>
7. TYPE:-Allows the user to see the contents of a file.
Syntax :- C :/ >Type path
Eg: C:/ > Type D:/> ramu
8. REN : - The purpose of this command is to rename the old file name with
new file name.
Syntax : - C : / > ren oldfilename newfilename
C : / > ren ramu somu
9. DEL:- The purpose of this command is to delete file. The user can also delete
multiple files by busing this command and long with while cards.
Syntax : - C : / > Del file name . extension
C:/>
Del ramu
C : Del x . prg.
10. MD:- The purpose of this command is to create a new directly or sub directly
i.e sub ordinate to the currently logged directly.
Syntax : - C : /> MD directory
C : /> MD sub directory
Ex : C : / > MD college
Now user wants to create a sub directory first year in college directory then
C : / > cd college
C : / > college > Md first year
11. CD : - The purpose of this command is to change from one director to another
directory or sub – directory.
Syntax : - C : / > CD directory name
Ex : C: / > cd college
C : / > college > CD first year
C : / > college > first year >
If the user wants to move to the parents directory then use CD command as
C : / > college > first year > cd ….
C : / > college >

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12 . RD: - The purpose of this command is to remove a directory or sub directory. If
the user wants to remove a directory or sub – directory then first delete all the files in
the sub – directory and then remove sub directory and remove empty main directory.
13. COPY: The purpose of this command is to copy one or more specified files to
another disk with same file name or with different file name.
Syntax : - C : / > copy source path target path
C : / > copy A :/> *. * C : /> chinni
2. External commands: - This commands are not permanent part of the memory.
To execute or run this commands an external file is required.
Example : [.] Dot exe, bat.
Some commonly used DOS external commands are .
1. CHKDSK:- The command CHSDK returns the configuration status of the
selected disk. It returns the information about the volume, serial number, total disk
space, space in directories, space in each allocation unit, total memory and free
memory.
Syntax : - C : / > CHKDSK drive name
Eg:- C : / > CHKDSK e :
If drive name is not mentioned by default current drive is considered.
2. Diskcopy : - Disk copy command is used to make duplicate copy of the disk
like Xerox copy. It first formats the target disk and then copies the files by
collection. From the source disk and copied to the target disk.
Syntax : - C : / > disk copy < source path >< destination path >
Ex: - c : / > diskcopy A : B :
NOTE: - This command is used after diskcopy command to ensure that disk is
copied successfully.
3. Format : - Format is used to erase information off of a computer diskette or
fixed drive.Syntax : - C : / > format drive name
Ex : C : / > format A:
4. Label : This command is used to see volume label and to change volume
label.
Syntax : C : / > label drive name
Ex : C : / > label A:

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5.Scandisk : - This utility is used to repair and check various disk errors. It also
defects various physical disk errors and surface errors. Syntax : - C : / > scandisk <
drive names >
C : / > Scandisk A :
6. Move : The purpose of move is move to files from one place to another place.
Syntax: C : / > Move < source path >< target path >
7. Print :This command allowed users to print a text file to a line printer.
Syntax : C : / > Print < files name >
C : / > print ramu
8. Tree : This command displays the list of directories and files on specified
path using graphical display. It displays directories of files like a tree.
Syntax:- C : / >
tree > path C : /
> tree A:
9. Deltree: This command is used to delete files a directories same as by the del
and RD commands. This command is more useful than del and RD commands
because it completely removes specified directories ie., disk will all it files and sub –
directories at a time.
Syntax:- C : / > deltree (path)
C : / > deltree A:/>ramu

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 DATA SECURITY AND CONTROL
Objectives
By the end of the chapter you should be able to: a). Define the terms data security and
privacy
b). Identify security threats on ICT and possible control measures
c). Identify types of computer crimes
d). Discuss laws governing protection of information and communication technology

6.0 Data Security and Controls

Data security is the protection of programs and data in computers and communication
systems, against unauthorized modification, destruction, disclosure or transfer, whether
accidental or intentional.

It involves:
- Protection of data and information against access or modification - Denial of
data and information to unauthorized users
- Provision of data and information to authorized users.
Data control is the measure taken to enforce the security of programs and data.

Data and information privacy

Private data or information is that which belongs to an individual and must not be accessed
or disclosed to any other person unless with direct permission from the owner. Confidential
data – data or information held by a government or organization about people, must be
protected against unauthorized access or disclosure.

6.2 Data security core principles

Also referred to as information security. They are; Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability.

Confidentiality
Sensitive data or information like employee’s details, business financial, etc. belonging to the
organization or government should not be accessed by or disclosed to unauthorized people.

Integrity
Means that data should not be modified with without owner’s authority.

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Availability
Information must be available on demand.
6.5 Laws governing protection of information
Computer Ethics – are the moral principles and values that govern the actions and decisions
of an individual or group. They serve as guidelines on how to act rightly and justly when
faced with moral dilemmas.

ICT Legislation – these are laws that govern what information can be kept about an
individual and how that information may be used. Any activity that contravenes these laws is
considered illegal.

6.3 Security threats and control measures

Threats from malicious programs

These programs affect the smooth running of a system or carry out illegal activities. A good
example is a virus.

Viruses
The term virus stands for: Vital Information Resource under Siege
A virus is a program that will change the operation of the computer without the user’s
information. Viruses attach themselves to computer files called executable files such that any
time such programs are run a copy of the virus is sent out. So it duplicates itself continuously.
Therefore a computer virus can be defined as:
- A self -replicating segment of computer code designed to spread to other
computers by sharing “infected” software.
- A destructive program that attaches itself to other files and installs itself
without permission on the computer when the files are opened for use.
- A program that can pass a malicious code to other non-malicious programs by
modifying them.
- A program or code that replicates itself and infects other programs, boot and
partition sectors or documents inserting itself or attaching itself to the medium.

Types of computer viruses

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  Boot sector – they destroy the booting information on storage media.
 File viruses – attach themselves to files
 Hoax viruses – come as e-mail with an attractive subject and launches itself when e-
mail is opened.
 TrojansHorse – they perform undesirable activities in the background without user
knowledge.
 Backdoors – may be a Trojan or worm that allows hidden access to a computer
system.
 Worms – it attaches itself on non-executable files and it self-replicates clogging the
system memory and storage media. When a document is emailed the worm travels with it
and through that easily spreads to other computers on a network.
 A logic bomb – infects a computer’s memory, but unlike a virus it does not replicate
itself. A logic bomb delivers its instructions when it is triggered by a specific condition,
such when a particular date or time is reached or when a combination of letters is typed on
a keyboard. A logic bomb has the ability to erase a hard drive or delete certain files.

Note: The main difference between a virus and a worm is that a viruses attaches themselves
to computer executable files while a worm attaches itself on non-executable files in the
computer.

Symptoms of a computer affected by viruses

- Unfamiliar graphics or quizzical messages appearing on screen.
- Program taking longer to load
- Slow – down of the general operation
- Unusual and frequent error messages occurring more frequently
- Access light turning on for non-referenced devices
- Programs / files mysteriously disappearing
- Executable files changing size for no obvious reason.
- Change in file size
- Loss or change in the file size
- Loss or change of data
- Disk access seeming excessive for simple tasks - System crash
- Files and programs disappearing mysteriously
- Disk access seems excessive for simple tasks

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Sources of virus into the computer system
- Copies of pirated software
- Fake computer games
- Freeware / Shareware and bulletin board programs that have not been checked for
viruses.
- Using infected disks from vendors, consulting firms, computer repair shops and main-
order houses.
- Downloading and opening infected files from the Internet.
- Hacker’s intent on malicious destruction of networked systems to which they have
gained unauthorized.
- Infected proprietary (private) software - Updates of software distributed via networks.
- E-mail attachments
- Contacts with contaminated systems e.g. diskettes, flash disks, CDs, etc.

Control measures against viruses

- Install the latest version of antivirus software on the computer
- Avoid foreign diskettes in the computer system
- Avoid opening mail attachments before scanning for viruses
- Regular backing-up of all software and data files. Files back-up can be used to restore
lost files in the event of a system failure.
- When opening e-mails, user should not open attachments from unknown senders.
- All unlicensed software should be carefully examined before use.
- Always check for virus on portable disks when used to move files between computers.
Information system failure
Some of the causes include;
 Hardware failure due to improper use
 Unstable power supply as a result of brownout or blackout and vandalism
 Network breakdown
 Natural disaster
 Program failure

Control measures

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  Use surge protectors and UPS to protect computer systems against brownout or black
out which causes physical damage or data loss.
 Install a Fault Tolerant system which has the ability to preserve the integrity
electronic data during hardware or software malfunction.
 Disaster recovery plans by establishing offsite storage of an organizations databases
so that in case of disaster or fire accidents, the backed-up copies are used to reconstruct
lost data.
Unauthorized access
Physical access to computer system should be restricted to ensure that no unauthorized
person gets access to the system.
Form of unauthorized access:
(i). Eaves dropping / wire tapping
This is tapping into communication channels to get information packet sniffers can eavesdrop
on all transmissions and activities on the system
(ii). Surveillance (monitoring)
This involves where a person may keep a profile of all computer activities done by another
person or people. The gathered information is used for other illegal works. Special programs
called cookies are used by many websites to keep track of your activities.
(iii). Industrial espionage
Spying on your competitor to get information that you can use to counter or finish the
competitor.
(iv). An employee who is not supposed to see sensitive data by mistake or design gets it.
(v). Strangers straying into the computer room when nobody is using the computers.
(vi). Network access in case the computers are networked and connected to the external
world.
Control measures against unauthorized access:
1. Encrypt the data and information during transmission
Encryption is a process of encoding a message so that its meaning is not obvious; decryption
is the reverse process of transforming an encrypted message back into its normal form. Data
can only be read by person holding the encryption ‘key’. Alternatively, the terms encode and
decode or encipher and decipher are used instead of the verbs encrypt and decrypt.
2. Reinforce the weak access points like doors and windows with metallic grills.
3. Installing alarm systems and other security devices.
4. Keeping computer rooms locked after hours and when not in use.

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 5. Restricting access to areas with computers so that only authorized personnel
are allowed to use passwords.
6. Use file passwords
7. Use of magnetic token or ‘SAMRT’ card or fingerprint or retinal scan for
identification.
Computer errors and accidental access
Errors and accidental access to data and information may be as a result of people
experimenting with features they are not familiar with. Also, people may mistake printing
sensitive reports and unsuspectingly giving them to unauthorized persons.
Control measures
1. Set up a comprehensive error recovery strategy in the organization.
2. Deny access permissions to certain groups of users for certain files and computers.
Physical theft
This involves the theft of computer hardware and software. It involves breaking into an office
or firm and stealing computers, hard disks, data and other valuable computer accessories by
being taken away by either an insider or an intruder. Most cases of theft are done within an
organization by untrustworthy employees of the firm {Inside job} or by an intruders
(outsiders) for commercial, destruction to sensitive information or sabotage resources.
Control measures
- Employ guards to keep watch over data and information centres and backup.
- Burglar proof the computer room.
- Reinforce weak access points
- Create backups in locations away from main computing centre.
- Motivate workers to feel sense of belonging in order to make them proud and trusted
custodians of the company resources.
- Insure the hardware resources with a reputable firm.
Trespass
This is the act of gaining access or entering into a computer system without legal permission.
Cracking
Refers to the use of guess work over and over again, by a person until he/she finally discovers
a weak in the security policies or codes of software. Alternatively refers to someone using his
/ her knowledge of information systems to illegally or unethically penetrate computers
systems for personal gain.

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Hacking
Refers to when an individual intentionally breaks codes and passwords top gain unauthorized
access into a computer system, but without intent of causing damage.
Tapping
Tapping is when someone gains access to information that is being transmitted via
communication links. Any information that is transmitted across a network is at risk of being
intercepted, if appropriate security measures are not put in place.
Piracy
Is the act of making illegal copies of copyrighted software, information or data? To eliminate
piracy
- Make software cheap, enough to increase affordability
- Use licenses and certificate to identify originals
- Set installation password to deter illegal installation of software
- Enforce laws that protect the owners of data and information against piracy.
Fraud
Refers to leaking personal or organizational information using a computer with the intention
of gaining money or information.
Example of fraud is where one person created an intelligent program in the tax department
that could credit his account with cents from all the tax payers. He ended up becoming very
rich before he was discovered.
Alteration
Refers to illegal changing of data and information with the aim of gaining or misinforming
the authorized users. When a system is compromised the data lacks reliability, relevance and
integrity. Example of data alteration are when students break into system to alter exam
results, or someone breaks into a banking system to change account details or divert money.
Spam
A spam is unsolicited electronic junk mail, often commercial, message transmitted through
the Internet as a mass mailing to a large number of recipients. Is send by a person gaining
access to a list of e-mail addresses and redirecting the e-mail through the Mail Server of an
unsuspecting host, making the actual sender of the spam difficult to trace. Spam is annoying,
but usually harmless, except in cases where it contains links to web sites. Clicking on these
links may sometimes leave your system open to hackers or crackers.
Junk – is meaningless or worthless information received through e-mail?

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6.4 Description and protection against computer crimes
Audit trail
Computer Audit Trails are used to keep a record of who has accessed a computer system and
what operations he or she has performed during the given period of time. Audit Trails are
useful both for maintaining security and for recovering lost transactions. Audit Trails help to
detect trespassing and alterations. In case the system is broken into by a hacker; an Audit
Trail enables their activities to be tracked. Any unauthorized alterations can be rolled back to
take the system back the state it was in before the alterations were done
Data encryption
Data encryption is a means of scrambling (or ciphering) data so that it can only be read by the
person holding the encryption ‘Key or ‘algorithm’. The key is a list codes for translating
encrypted data – a password of some sort. Without the key, the cipher cannot be broken and
the data remains secure. Using the Key, the cipher is decrypted and the data remains secure.
Using the Key, the cipher is decrypted and the data is returned to its original value or state.
Each time one encrypts data a key is randomly generated. The same key is used by the data
recipient to decrypt the data.
Data encryption is a useful tool against network snooping (or tapping).
Log files
They are special system files that keep a record (log) of events on the use of the computers
and resources of the information system. The information system administrator can therefore
easily track who accessed the system, when and what they did on the system.
Firewalls
A firewall is a program or hardware that filters information coming through the Internet and
connection into your personal computer or network. Firewalls can prevent unauthorized
remote logins, limit or stop Spam, and filter the content that is downloaded from the Internet.
Some Firewalls offer virus protection, but it is worth the investment to install Anti-Virus
software on each computer.
Security monitors
These are programs that monitor and keep a log file or record of computer systems and
protect them from unauthorized access.
Biometric security – is unauthorized control measure that takes the user’s attributes such as
voice, fingerprints and facial recognition.

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Authentication policies such as signing users log on accounts, use of smart cards and
Personal Identification Number (PIN).
Difficulty in detection and prevention of computer crimes
1. the crime might be complex
2. it’s not easy to find clear trail of evidence leading to the guilty party e.g. No
finger prints
3. there is no witness
4. Few people in management and law enforcement know little about computers
to prevent the crime.
6.6 Policies and laws governing information security
Bodies governing data security internationally
- International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
- Information Security Forum (ISF)
Regulations and laws in Kenya, United Kingdom and USA that govern data processing and
information security.
ICT Related Acts in Kenya
- The Science and Technology Act, Cap.250 of 1977 - The Kenya
Broadcasting Act of 1988 - Kenya Communication Act of 1998.
Kenya ICT policy
Was developed by the government to address issues of privacy, e-security, ICT legislation,
cybercrimes, ethical and moral conduct, copyrights, intellectual property rights and piracy.
Down load a portable document file (pdf) from the Government website titled National
{Information & Communications Technology (ICT) Policy, Ministry of Information &
Communications, January 2006.}
United Kingdom Data Protection Act 1998
Protects an individual’s privacy
Family educational rights and privacy act (USA)
Is a USA Federal law that protects the privacy of student’s education records to release any
information from a student’s education record, there must be a written permission from the
parent or the student.
Security Breach Notification laws
Businesses, non-profit and state institutions are required to notify consumers when
unencrypted personal information is compromised, lost or stolen.

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Copyright and software protection laws
Hardware and software are protected by either national or international Copyright, designs
and patents laws or Acts.
In Kenya, the Copyright Act was amended in 1996 to include protection for computer
programs and software copyrights.
1. Data and information should be kept secure against loss or exposure 2. Data and
information should not be kept longer than necessary 3. Data and information should be
accurate and update.
4. Data should not be transferred to other countries without the owner’s
permission.
5. Data and information should be collected, used and kept for specified lawful
purposes.
6. To observe copyrights for those who create original works.
Some laws governing privacy and confidentiality have been created, and can be summaries
as follows:
1) No secret databases – no keeping of personal data exclusively secret in
government or private organizations.
2) Right of individual access – an individual must be able to find out what
information about themselves is recorded and how it is used.
3) Right of consent – information obtained for one purpose cannot be used for
other purposes without owner consent.
4) Right to correct – an individual must be able to correct or amend records of his
or her information.
5) Assurance of reliability and proper use – data must be reliable.

Effects of ICT on health

Some health concerns on the use of ICT devices such as computers and cellular phones are:
• Eye strain and headache – this can be controlled by taking frequent breaks,
using TFT LCD displays or antiglare screen on CRT monitors.
• Back and neck pains – use adjustable and right sitting posture
• Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) – also known as repetitive motion injury or
cumulative trauma disorders results from fast repetitive tasks such as typing. This
results in damage of nerves and tendons. Make sure correct use of the keyboard and
take frequent breaks in between.

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 • Noise – some noise, such as that of an impact printer, may leave a person with
“ringing ears”. Use non-impact printers, head mounted earphones and microphones.
Effects of ICT on the environment
Disposal of dead computer parts, consumption and emissions have resulted in environmental
pollution. Environmental Protection agency (EPA) has created the energy star compliance
policy, which coerces electronic components manufacturers worldwide to comply with
acceptable levels of environmental pollution and radiation.
Computer manufacturers are also avoiding excessive use of harmful chemicals such as
chlorofluorocarbons and nickel cadmium and other heavy metals in their productions.

DATA SECURITY AND CONTROLS

Revision questions
1. Private data – belongs to individual and held by him/her confidential data –
data held by Government or organization.
2. Because of its importance in transactions, sharer ability and high value
attachment to it.
3. Unauthorized exposure
Unauthorized access
Destruction by natural calamities
Fraudsters and computer crime stars
4. (i). keep data and information in well secured and restricted places.
(ii). Use passwords and access permission policies to control access to the data
(iii). Use firewall to enforce security policy
(iv). Audit trials to identify threats to data and information.
5. The stealing of data and information for commercial gain and for competitors.
6. Hacking – breaking security codes.
Cracking – looking for weak access points in software in order to get access to data and
information
7. For economic gain, Ego, etc.
8. Is the ensuring of safety of data and information against threats.
9. Access can be through the network
10. Enforce copyright laws and other regulatory frameworks.
11. A virus is a destructive program that installs itself on storage media causing
improper functioning of the computer system.

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 12. (i). data should not be used for gain unlawfully
(ii). the owner of data and information has a right to know what data is held by the person /
organization having it.
(iii). do not collect irrelevant and overly too much information for the purpose etc, refer to
handout.
13. (i). Trojans (ii). Boot sector viruses (c). Backdoors
14. A software update that when incorporated in the current software make it
better
15. Install anti-virus software. Also restrict foreign storage media in the computer
room.
16. Changing stored data without permission. This changes the information
inferences from the data.
17. Defines roles to various categories of users.
18. because information is one of the most valuable business resource for any
organization or Government
19. Listening to a transmission line to gain a copy of the message being
transmitted
20. To deter illegal copying.

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 INTERNET AND E-MAIL
Objectives
By the end of the chapter, be able to:
a). Define internet
b). Explain the development of internet
c). Explain the importance of internet
d). Describe internet connectivity
e). Identify internet services
f). Access internet
g). Use e-mail facilities
h). State the moral, social and spiritual issues that may emerge through access to the internet

5.0 Definition of the Internet can be defined as:

1. Internet is a large network of networks that covers the whole world and enables
millions of computers from different organizations and people to communicate globally;
or
2. Internet is a vast network of networks; or
3. Largest net of networks; or
4. Internet is a world-wide computer network linking countless thousands of computer
networks, through a mixture of private and public data and telephone lines
Internet is sometimes called the Information Superhighway because of its large size and
great volume of information that passes through it.
Computer Network is formed when two or more computers are connected together to enable
communications among them
5.2 History of Network
The Department of USA defence established an agency to fund a project to allow dissimilar
computers to communicate with each other through a WAN. This project started in 1969 and
it was referred to as ARPHANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network). The
military intention was to build a network that could continue to work in the event of war even
if parts of the network were disabled. ARPHANET connected four universities which were
the University of California at Los Angeles Stanford Research Institute, the University of
California at Santa Barbara and the University of Utah.
In 1982 the Defence Communications Agency (DCA) and DARPA (Defence Advanced
Research Projects Agency) established a protocol, known as Transmission Control Protocol

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and Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), as the standard connection protocol used on the
ARPHANET.
The conversion of TCP/IP on the ARPHANET was completed in January 1983, and the term
“Internet” came into use in place of “the Internet Protocol (IP)”. The Internet Activities
Board was formed so as to oversee activities regarding Internet.
National Science Foundation Network was established 1986 which established a network
connecting Five supercomputer centres to enhance and network research capabilities in the
United States (US).
As the number of computers connected to the Internet grew, the Internet work bone grew to a
1.54 Mbps WAN in 1988 and a 44.736 Mbps WAN in 1992. Today the internet has grown
and covered the whole world.
5.3 Importance of Internet
- Increased productivity
Staff in a company don’t waste time moving from one office to another to pick a document
hence promoting output.
- speedy and inexpensive communication
- Internet provides a speedy, inexpensive and convenient 24-hours world-wide service
means of communication via its electronic mail facility.
- Improved research tool: Internet is well-stocked research tool, which is able to
provide any kind of information.
- Sharing of resources and information: Devices like printer’s scanners and all files
containing any information can be shared.
- business transaction
- leisure
- news and information dissemination
- Communication services: It attains three forms as follows; like E-mail, Chat (real-
time one-to-one or group conversation, with discussions in typed form), Conferencing
(dynamic exchange of all kinds of information where each participant contribute
responses to any items in the conversations. The participants are at different
geographical locations.
- Education like Virtual learning whereby students log on to the Internet to attend
classes.
- Software downloading: there is a large variety of software on the Internet that users
can download and use i.e. Public domain (free) software.

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 - E-commerce like online shopping, online Banking, online travel, arrangements.
5.4 Internet Connectivity Requirements
For one to access the Internet the following requirements should be put in place:
a). Data terminal equipment’s – which are devices used to process, host and transmit data
on a network e.g. computer mobile phones and personal digital assistants (PDAS).
b). Transmission media – refers to physical or wireless pathways used to transmit data and
information from one point to another e.g. telephones lines, radio waves, microwaves and
satellite.
c). Telecommunication lines – A computer is connected to the external World through a
telephone line and has to dial a remote computer via modem on the net to establish
connection for data transfer. Dial up connection is slow and unreliable and is being replaced
by Dedicated digital leased lines and fibre optic cables.
d). Modem
The modem is a special digital to analog interface card connection, via telephone or cable-
T.V lines between your computer and a computer network that provides Internet access.
Modem is a short form for Modulator – demodulator. Modem changes data from digital to
analog (modulation) so as to be transmitted on telephone lines and on receiving end the data
is changed from analog to digital (demodulation) for computer to understand. The Modem
may be external (a separate box connected to your CPU); or internal *built into your CPU so
that you do not see it).
The wires that carry information between your computer and the outside world are plugged
into your modem, which in turn allows your computer and the outside world to connect to the
Internet.
e). Satellite transmission – is used for intercontinental transfer of data by having satellite
base stations transmitting the data through a wireless uplink channel to the satellite. The
satellite then sends the data signal to the base station on another continent where it is picked
up and sent to telephone exchanges for transfer to the destination computer.
f). Internet Service Providers (ISP’s)
ISP’s are companies that offers Internet services to end users through dial-up connections as
well as broadband services at a fee. There are several ISP services from which a user
specifies the one he/she needs. These include:
i). Limited access – this offer is for those who doesn’t need the service all the time. The user
sub-scribes for only the number of hours he/she needs the service per day.

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ii). Unlimited Access - this is meant for those users who need to be connected to the Internet
all the time (24 hours).
Factors to consider when choosing an ISP
• Ease of use- do they provide you with a simple –to-install set of software that
will get you online with no hassle?
• Support – will they provide you with the help you need? Do they offer 24
hours customer support or offer services only during business hours?
• Cost – consider setup costs, monthly costs and toll costs for extra hours of use.
• Services – should provide up-to-date tools and software to provide e-mail and
Internet access.
• Trial – can you try out the services before you buy?
• Content – if you are interested in the information available within a service
you should check out their promotional material.
• Performance – watch out for sluggish performance during peak hours or
excessive down time. Also ask people who have accounts with the provider about
performance to assess.
• Privacy – do they have a solid privacy policy? Will they assist you in how to
filter undesirable content?
Examples of ISP’s in Kenya and Africa:
o Africa Online o Nairobinet o Wananchi Online o KenyaWeb o
Formnet o Telkom o Access Kenya® o Swiftglobal® o Bidii.com o
Interconnect
o Today’s Online
g). Internet Software
Communication software is required to manage your connection to Internet. Windows
already has built-in communications software to access the Internet. Internet software help
facilitate your access to Internet.
To access internet services, a computer must be installed with an Internet protocol, a browser
and e-mail client.
Internet protocol
To achieve communication between computers and telecommunication devices that have
different hardware and software configuration a special software called Protocol is needed. A
protocol is a set of rules that governs how two computers can send and receive data on the
network.

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There two types of protocols used with Internet:
i. Transmission control protocol (TCP)
It governs how data is transferred from one computer to the next.
ii. Internet Protocol (IP)
It determines the addressing system on the Internet.
Browsers
Is a special program that lets the user surf or browse the internet
A web browser can also be defined as a program used for displaying and
viewing pages on the World Wide Web. The most common Web Browser are:
• Netscape Navigator
• Internet Explorer
• Mozilla browser
Before accessing the Internet, a person must start the Browser software.
E-mail software
E-Mail software is a communication software specifically designed and developed to help a
person to compose, send and receive (read) text documents on the internet. Both the sender
and the receiver MUST have an e-mail address. Examples of e-mail software: Microsoft
Outlook Express, Eudora, Yahoo mail, Gmail, etc.
Internet Services
a). E-mail
This is the exchange of electronic letters, data and graphics on the Internet.
b). Electronic learning (E-Learning) Can be defined as:
- The use technology to deliver learning and training programs using interactive medias
such as CR-ROM, Internet, wireless and mobile media to facilitate learning; or -
Learning through interaction with special programs on the computer.
c). Electronic Commerce (E- commerce)
Is the trading in the internet where goods and services are sold over the Internet. The Internet
gives an opportunity for sellers of goods to advertise them on the websites where the
consumers can be able to place an order from any corner of the World. Payment is done via
internets -commerce.
Advantages of E-commerce
- Company can access customers all over the world and is not limited by space and
time.

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 - It has allowed companies to create lo0w cost distribution channel
- It has created opportunity to new companies to enter previously impenetrable markets.
- Small companies have established websites to auction / advertise their goods reducing
operation costs and increasing sales.
d). World Wide Web
- WWW is a vast virtual space on the Internet where information pages called websites
are installed; or
- WWW is a vast virtual space on the Internet where information is made available; or
- WWW is a wide area hypermedia information retrieval initiative that aims to give
universal access to a large universe of documents.
The World Wide Web is driven by two fundamental technologies: HTTP and HTML. HTTP
is the Hypertext Transfer Protocol that controls how Web servers and Web browsers
communicate with each other. HTML is the Hypertext Mark-up Language that defines the
structure and contents of a Web page.
In order to connect a network to the internet, the local area network needs an Internet Server.
This server is given the name World Wide Web (WWW) and has all the information that
others on the internet access. This information is made available on:
Web pages
A web page is a single screen of information, which may contain text, images, animation,
sound and video. You view a web page via the web Browser software.
A website
Is a collection of web pages, or other resources located on a web server. The first page on a
website is called a home page.
Individuals and organizations establish Websites where their web documents can be placed
for easy access by external world. These sites are a special address called Uniform Resource
Allocation (URL) is used to access them.
Web portals – offer specialized services such as searching, e-mail, sports updates, financial,
news and links to selected websites.
A blog – a website that contains personal information which can easily be updated.
Multimedia sites contain photos, movies, music, web TV and internet radio. They are
meant for entertainment.
Examples of WWW Client programs are:
(i). Internet Explorer
(ii). Netscape

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(iii). Mosaic
(iv). Lynx
(v). Charlotte

Links
To get from one Web page to another within a website, or another Web site altogether, you
have to find Hypertext or Hypermedia on the Page you are viewing.
Hypertext - a system of storing images, text, and other computer files that allows direct links
to related text, images, sound, and other data
Hypermedia – (multi-media hypertext system): a hypertext system that supports the
linking of graphics, audio and video elements, and text. The World Wide Web has many
aspects of a complete hypermedia system.

e). Internet fax

Internet provides you with complete fax facilities from your computer. You can configure fax
settings, send and receive faxes, track and monitor fax activity and access archived faxes.
f). Instant messaging - this a messaging service that allows two or more people to
communicate directly. To get the services, you must first register with an instant messenger
such as Yahoo!messenger.
g). Newsgroup
These are organized groups of Internet users who wish to share ideas and interests. Once you
join a newsgroup, you can participate in discussion forums and debates.
h). News media on the net
All major media houses post their daily news on the Internet for clientele to access. i). Health
information
Through Internet we can get latest medical news and research findings for practitioners and
scholars.
j). Music and entertainment on the net
You can listen to music on the web and watch video clips if the computer is multimedia. k).
Chatting on the net
People can sign into a chat room and exchange ideas freely through discussions.
Try accessing www.try.comto see listings of chat topics you can participate in on-line.
(l) Searching: Search engines can be defined as:

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 o Special programs that help the user easily search for information on the
internet.
o Special programs that maintain lists of hyperlinks available; or
o It is a program that searches documents for specified keywords and returns a
list of the documents where the keywords were found; or
o Are special programs that allows the user to type keywords that are run against
a database.
Common search engines include:
Google (http://www.google.com)
Hotmail (http:// www.hotmail.com)
Yahoo (http://www.yahoo.com)
Alta Vista (http:// www.altavista.com) Excite (http:// www.excite.com/search)
hotBot (http:// hotbot.lycos.com)

Multi-threaded search engines are search engines that allow the user to search multiple
databases simultaneously via a single interface.

5.6 Accessing the Internet

Before accessing the Internet, a person must start the Browser software.
a) Log-in / Sign – in
Before you can have access to any mail box, the process of authentication must be done. This
is done by providing the correct user name and password for that account.
Logging-in/signing-in: is the process of authenticating yourself to the computer so as to be
allowed to check the contents (mails) in a mail box.
You will only be allowed entry after provision of the correct username and password. This is
normally for ensuring that there is enough security in storing mails in the internet. To access
the Website, type the full address of the website in the address bar then press enter key or go
icon. Some websites allow free access to all their pages by visitors while others require
people to be members hence a new visitor has to register (sign up).
b) Browsing / surfing
Browsing / surfing is the process of accessing Internet resources like web pages and websites,
using URL address or Hyperlinks.
c) Hyperlinks URLs and Search engine

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Hyperlink are used to navigate from one web page to another. Cal also be explained as a text
or picture on an electronic document, especially web page that causes web pages to open
when the link is clicked.
Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) – is the Internet address of a particular Web page, it
connects the user to a particular website.
The URL has two basic parts
Protocol – standard used to connect to the resource e.g. Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (http ://) and file transfer protocol (ftp ://). E.g.
http://www.google.co.kedisplay Google home page is displayed.
Domain name – name of the web server where the resource is located.
d) Downloading / saving / printing web content
Success of finding what you want online increases with experience.
Downloading
Is the transmission of data files or applications from the server on the Internet to your local
computer.
Free ware or shareware
Are software available on the web for free downloading. You do not have to pay to use them.
Basic guidelines to note when downloading something:
1) Be careful about Beta (or evaluation) software since these are not fully tested
programs and they could end up damaging your computer.
2) Only download software from trusted sites, so that you do not risk getting
viruses.
Downloading procedure
1. Right click the hyperlink to the file
2. On the shortcut menu, click the Save target as command.
3. After some searching the Browser displays the Save As dialog box. Specify
the folder or drive where the file is to be saved then type a unique name for the file in
the name box.
4. Click the Save button and the download progress dialog appears on the screen.
Unless otherwise selected, the download will notify the user at the down load process.
5. Open the file in its application to view it.
Printing

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To print a file, open it in the application in which it was created then send it to the printer for
printing. You can also print a web page directly from the browser window by clicking File
then Print.
5.7 Electronic Mail (E-mail)
E-mail refers to the sending and receiving of electronic letters and documents on the internet.
E-mail software
E-Mail software falls under special application packages communication software
specifically designed and developed to help a person to compose, send and receive (read) text
documents on the internet. Both the sender and the receiver MUST have an e-mail address.
The e-mails are usually stored in separate folders as described below:
Inbox – all incoming e-mails are stored here.
Outbox – contains e-mails that are waiting to be sent.
Sent – contains the e-mails that have already been sent.
Drafts – contains e-mails that have being worked on, and are not yet ready been sent.
Deleted items – contains e-mails that have been deleted. You can recover a deleted e-mail as
long as you have not emptied this folder.
Spam – contains mails from suspected sites e.g. may contain computer viruses.

An e-mail address directs the computers on the Internet on where to deliver the e-mail
messages. A typical e-mail format is described below:
Format: Username@Internat_address Example: [email protected]
[email protected]
Each user ID is made up of two components: Username and Internet domain separated by and
@ sign.
1) fauzifa – is the User name/ personal identifier and is usually coined by the
user during e-mail account registration.
2) @ is the symbol for ‘at’ which separates the username from the rest of the
address.
3) Yahoo.com – is the name of the Host computer in the network i.e. the
computer on which the e-mail account is hosted.
4) The period “.” Is read as dot and is used to separate different parts of the e-
mail address.
5) Com identifies the type of institution offering a particular service(s) and is
called the domain name.

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 6) .ke - is the country indicator.
Other domain names are
.com – commercial institution
.gov – government
.net – network centre
.edu – educational institutions
.mil – military site
.org – organizations
Most network addresses end with a country code, such as:
.ke – for Kenya
.ug – for Uganda
.tz – for Tanzania
.jp – for Japan
.au – for Australia
.uk – for United Kingdom, etc.
The two letter extension is added after the domain name to show the country where the cite is
located e.g. [email protected]

E-mail facilities
1). Mails
a) Checking mails
In order to check mail the user has to open the e-mail account by providing the correct user
name and password. In e-mail account, click the inbox folder command to view link list of all
received mails.
b) Compose e-mail
Composing implies writing. To compose click the compose command. The command header
element in the new e-mail window are:
To: here, you enter the e-mail address of the recipient.
From: here, your e-mail software will enter your address automatically.
Subject: should contain a few words outlining the nature of your message. It is not mandatory
to enter something here, but it generally helps the recipient to know what is contained in the
e-mail.
Cc: stands for Carbon Copy, and is used to copy an e-mail to other recipients. The main
recipient is able to see who the e-mail has been copied to.

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BCC: stands for blind Carbon Copy, meaning that a copy of your message is sent to an extra
address, without any indication of that action appearing in the main recipients copy of the
message.
Date: the date and time the message is sent are indicated automatically from e-mail software.
Attachments – the name and location of any file you may be sending along with the e-mail.

c) Sending e-mail
To send mail, type the correct e-mail address of the recipient in To: text box, type your letter
then click Send command.
d) Forward e-mail – a received mail can be forwarded to another recipient. After
reading click Forward command and then provide the address of the recipient.
2). File Attachment
E-mail software enables a person to attach other files like pictures, music, movie clips, etc.
the source of attachment files can be from the hard disk or other storage devices e.g Flash
disk.
To attach click the Attach button on the window; or
i. Click the Insert menu then File Attachment. A dialog box appears where you
choose the file you want to attach.
ii. Select the file then click the Attach button. An attachment bar is inserted in
the e-mail window with a name of the file you choose.

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 iii. Click Send to send the e-mail.
3). On-line meeting
It’s possible to hold on-line meeting with people by sending mails to them. E.g. on-line
interviews may involve a person sending electronic mail composed of interview questions to
a recipient who can read and question back.
4). Telephone messages
Because of integration between mobile telephony and the Internet technology, wireless
Access Protocol (WAP) makes it possible to send e-mail to a mobile handset and a mobile
message to email account.
5). Contact management
Most mails programs allow the user to develop an address book which holds contact
information like e-mail address of different people. To create a new contact:
i. Start e-mail window
ii. Tools menu / Address book. iii. From the address book window click File then
Contact. iv. Click the Name tab and enter the contact details, then click Add.
v. Close the contact window then the address book.
5.8 Accessing Information on Emerging Issues
Internet is a storehouse of information, presented in the form of text, documents, pictures,
sound and even video. Emerging issues refers to things like HIV/Aids, drug Abuse, moral
issues and environmental issues.
5.9 Effect of internet on the society
Although internet is such an important resource, it has also brought with it some challenges.
These include;
• Accessibility of dirty sites such as pornography by the young hence affecting
their morals. The solution is to restrict the known offensive sites using filter programs
such as CyberPatrol, Cybersitter or net Nanny.
• Security and privacy – Internet has made it easy for criminals to illegally
access organizations private information hence posing security concerns. To improve
on security, install a Firewall and antispyware programs.
• Spread of malicious software – which includes Viruses, Trojan horse and
worm. This results in frustration and loss of data. Install Internet security program and
update it regularly.

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS
Computer network concepts
A computer network is a group of two or more computers interconnected, alongside other
communication devices so that they can communicate with each other to share resources
(data, hardware, software, and processing power).
Computer that are not hooked up to each other or to the internet are simply referred to as
stand-alone computers.
The interconnection of the computers in a network is done through cables or in a wireless
manner using radio signals.
Key terms
 Node – any device connected to a network such as a computer, printer or data storage
device.
 Server – a computer that allows its resources to be used by other computers on a
network. It may be called a file server, printer server, communication server, web
server or database server.
 Client – a node that requests and uses resources available from another nodes / the
server (e.g. a microcomputer).
 Network Operating System (NOS) – the operating system (of the server) that
controls and coordinates the activities between computers on a network.
 Bandwidth – the maximum amount of information (in bits per second) that can be
transmitted along a communication channel.

Advantages and disadvantages of computer networks

Businesses and organizations heavily rely on computer networks to get messages and
information across essential channels. Not only has it benefited establishments, but also
individuals, as they also need to share important information every day. Equally, there are
drawbacks in the use of computer networks.
Networks are used to improve communication between departments, foster customer
relationships, and share data throughout the world.

Advantages of computer networks

1.It enhances communication and availability of information
With computer networks, governments and government agencies, businesses entities and
individuals can communicate faster and get instant feedback through instant messaging (e-

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mails), video calls, etc. This makes communication more effective. Businesses can reach their
customers through online advertisements faster.
2. It reduces operating costs for organizations / businesses
With a computer network, resources such as printers, scanners and photocopy machines can
be shared across multiple users. This resource sharing is important for organizations as it
leads to reduction of operating costs.
3. It makes file sharing easier
Computer networking allows easier accessibility for people to share their files. This greatly
helps them with saving more time and effort.
4. It enhances telecommuting / remote working
People can work remotely (or telecommute) without having to physically be in the office
while they are working by simply logging on to the home computer and work from their own
computer. They can also send documents from their computer to the office and receive
information from the office on the same computer.
5. It boosts storage capacity
Organizations have an abundance of data that needs to be stored. For that purpose, they are
required to store them in a central server. A central server is a remote server that is accessible
to each and every employee so that in case one loses the data, others have it.
6. It enhances collaboration
With a network, businesses / individuals can collaborate with others. Two companies /
organizations with a shared interest can share information about their different projects and
problem-solve. Tasks can be delegated and distributed among various workers.
7. Provides better data security
When data is stored on a computer that is part of a network, the data is more secure because it
can be stored in different places. For example, when the data is stored on a server, it can be
protected against hackers and viruses. The data can also be backed up. If something happens
to the computer, the data can be sent to another computer with the click of a button.

Disadvantages of computer networks

1. Lack of robustness
Computer networks rely on the central server. If the central server malfunctions or there is an
issue in the central server, then the entire network would stop functioning. So, this is a major
disadvantage due to dependency on a single server.
2. Spread of computer viruses

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As computers in a network are interconnected, there is a high probability that if one of the
computers is infected by a virus, others too can get infected. This spread can actually damage
the entire system.
3. Independence issues
The entire networking system is based on a centralized server, individual users lack the
freedom to use the computer as per their wish.
4. Lack of productivity
Since a network has a lot of advantages and applications, it is certain that it results in
simultaneous use of many services that cause distraction. Thus, due to employees focusing on
a number of tasks, productivity issues are quite common
5. Health issues
Computer networks provide access to a range of services including entertainment, gaming,
and movies.
These result in making you addicted to the content and thus results in overuse of these
services. This excessive screen time can cause eye strain and body pain.
6. Criminal activities
Computer networks have presented with us an online environment that has facilitated crime
to grow.
Criminals such as cyber bullies and predators have used computer networks to go after teens
to harass them sexually or take advantage of them in some other way.
7. Erosion of social morals
Computer networks have facilitated sharing of age inappropriate content such as pornography
which has contributed to sexual immorality. Social media has been used as a tool to spread
hate and threats. The fact that the message is put over the network by someone far away
makes them even more courageous to do bad things because they think they can easily get
away with it.
8. High implementation costs
The initial cost incurred in setting up a computer network is high. The cost of setting such a
network especially for small businesses or organizations may outweigh the benefits.

Types of computer networks

Different communication channels allow different types of networks to be formed (Wired or
wireless).

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Telephone lines may connect communications equipment within the same building. You can
also create your own network in your home or apartment. Communication networks also
differ in geographical size.
Modern computer networks can be classified into one of four broad categories centering on
the connection and geographic configuration strategy used with the physical devices. These
network categories are:
• LANs, MANs, PANs and WANs.

Local Area Networks (LANs)

A LAN is a group of computers and associated devices connected to each other in a small
area (up to 1 km radius) such as an office or a commercial establishment. Minicomputers,
mainframes or optical disk storage devices can be added to the network.
The following are some of the characteristics of LANs:
• The equipment in this network is located geographically close together e.g. within a
building.
• They are privately owned i.e. they belong to individuals or particular organizations.
• The speed of LANs is higher compared to that of WANs
• There is little congestion in LANs hence propagation delay is short.
• Their design and maintenance is easy
• They are less costly compared to WANs
• They provide higher security.
Wireless network refers to technology that allows two or more computers to communicate
(using standard network protocols), without network cabling. They are most often referred to
as wireless local area networks (WLANs).
This technology has produced a number of affordable wireless solutions that are growing in
popularity with businesses and schools, or when network wiring is impossible, such as in
warehousing or point-of-sale handheld equipment. Wireless networking hardware requires
the use of technology that handles datatransmission over radio frequencies. Wireless devices
have become extremely popular because of the mobility they provide.

Wide Area Networks (WANs)

A WAN is a computer network that may be countrywide or worldwide. A network is
considered a wide area network (WAN) based on characteristics that are opposite those for a
LAN. The following are some of the characteristics of WANs:

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• Equipment in this network is geographically dispersed.
• Ownership of WANs may be private or public. Mostly, the connection services, and
possibly equipment, are leased from telecommunications providers such as phone companies
or Internet service providers (ISPs).
• They run at much lower speeds compared to LANs.
• Propagation delay in WANs is longer than in LANs.
• Their design and maintenance is difficult
• They are costly compared to LANs.
The internet is an example of a WAN (The largest of all WANs). The internet refers to a
worldwide interconnection of computers that allows for communication among these
computers. Some of the services that the internet provides include:
• Email.
• Worldwide web (www) – a collection of websites with a variety of services or information
• Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services.
• Online movies and gaming.
• Data transfer/file-sharing, often through File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
• Instant messaging.
• Internet forums.
• Social networking.
• Online shopping.
• Financial services.
Terms associated with the use internet
Browser – application software that enables you to view web pages / content in websites.
Examples of browsers include; Mozilla Firefox, Chrome, Opera Mini, Microsoft Edge, etc.
Search engine – a software / program that enables you to look for (search) information on the
internet.
Examples of search engines include; Google.com, Bing, Ask.Com, Baidu, Yandex,
DuckDuckGo, etc.
Surfing / browsing – the acting of moving from one website / web page to another when
using the internet.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is smaller than a wide area network (WAN) but larger
than a LAN.

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MANs connect computers within a metropolitan area, which could be a single large city,
multiple cities and towns, or any given large area with multiple buildings. MANs combine
characteristics of both LANs and
WANs.
The following are some of the characteristics of MANs:
Ownership can be private or public
• Their speeds are average
• Propagation delay is moderate

Personal Area Network (PAN)

This is a computer network that connects computers or devices within the range of an
individual person (typically within a range of 10 meters).
One of the most common examples of a PAN is the connection between a Bluetooth earpiece
and a smartphone. When a PAN is created using wireless technology like this, it is called a
wireless personal area network (WPAN) and it serves multiple users.
Note: While devices within a PAN can exchange data with each other, PANs typically do not
connect to the Internet directly.

Advantages and disadvantages of PAN

Some of the Advantages of PANs include:
• They are relatively flexible and provide high efficiency for short network ranges.
• They are easy to set up and are relative cheaper.
• Do not require frequent installations and maintenance
• They need fewer technical skills to use.
Some of the disadvantages of PANs include:
• Low network coverage area/range.
• Limited to relatively low data rates.
• Devices are not compatible with each other.
• Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.

Network Devices
Networking devices may also be known as network equipment or network hardware. Some of
the most commonly used network devices include:
• Hub

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• Switch
• Router
• CAT 6 cable
Hub
-This is an unintelligent network device that sends one signal to all of the stations connected
to it.
Traditionally, hubs are used for star topology networks but they are often used with other
configurations to make it easy to add and remove computers without bringing down the
network.
Switch
-This device splits large networks into segments, decreasing the number of users sharing the
same network resources and bandwidth.
-It helps prevent data collisions and reduces network congestion, increasing network
performance.
Router
-This device connects any number of LANs. It connects networks of different types (for
example, star and token ring).
-It is commonly used in Local Area Network and Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
-It manages traffic by forwarding data packets to their proper destinations. Traffic between
these networks may be managed.
-It determines the best path to send packets.
CAT 6 Cable
Cabling is an important component of any network because this is how the data will travel
from machine to machine (unless the network is wireless). Several types of network cabling
are available. The three main types are coaxial, twisted pair, and fiber optic.
Some of the factors to consider before choosing the type of cable to use include:
• Bandwidth rating
• Interference susceptibility
• Cost of the cable
• Installation costs
• Maximum number of segments per network
• Maximum number of devise per segment.
Twisted-pair cable is used in most of today’s network topologies. Twisted pair cabling is
either unshielded twisted pair (UTP) or shielded twisted pair (STP).

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UTP is popular because it is inexpensive and easy to install. The following figure shows an
example of UTP cable.
There are seven types of UTP cable (Category 1 (Cat1), Category 2 (Cat2), Category 3
(Cat3), Category 4 (Cat4),
Category 5 (Cat5) and Category 6 (Cat6)
- Category 6 cable (Cat 6) is the 6th generation of twisted pair Ethernet cabling that is used in
home and business networks.
- Cat 6 cable contains four pairs of copper wire and uses all the pairs for signaling to obtain
its high level of performance.
-Cat 6 cables support Gigabit Ethernet data rates of 1 gigabit per second.

Network Topologies
-Network topology is also called computer network configuration. It refers to the physical
layout of the network (how the nodes are connected) and the method of communication.
There are four principal network topologies:
a) Star
b) Bus
c) Ring
d) Hierarchical (hybrid)
e) Mesh topology completely connected (mesh)
Star topology
-In a star network, there are a number of small computers or peripheral devices linked to a
central unit called a main hub.
-All communications pass through the central unit and control is maintained by polling.
Advantages of star topology
• Centralized management of the network through the use of the central computer, hub,
or switch.
• Easy to add another computer to the network
• If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to function
normally.
Disadvantages of star topology
• Can have a higher cost to implement

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 • The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the
network can handle.
• If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and all
computers are disconnected from the network.
Bus topology
-In a bus network, each device handles its communications control.
-All communications travel along a common connecting cable called a bus. It is a common
arrangement for sharing data stored on different microcomputers.
Advantages of bus topology
✓ Reliable in very small networks as well as easy to use and understand
✓ Requires the least amount of cable to connect the computers together and therefore is
less expensive than other cabling arrangements.
✓ Is easy to extend.
Disadvantages of bus topology
✓ Heavy network traffic can slow down a bus because any computer can transmit at any
time.
✓ The bus configuration can be difficult to troubleshoot. A cable break or
malfunctioning computer can be difficult to find and can cause the whole network to
stop functioning.
Ring network
In a ring network, each device is connected to two other devices, forming a ring. There is no
central file server or computer.
Messages are passed around the ring until they reach their destination.
Advantages
➢ Offer high performance for a small number of workstations or for larger networks
where each station has a similar work load.
➢ Ring networks can span longer distances than other types of networks.
➢ Ring networks are easily extendable.
Disadvantages
➢ Relatively expensive and difficult to install.
➢ Failure of one component on the network can affect the whole network.
➢ It is difficult to troubleshoot a ring network.
➢ Adding or removing computers can disrupt the network.

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Hierarchical (hybrid) network
A hierarchical network consists of several computers linked to a central host computer. It is
similar to a star topology. Other computers are also hosts to other smaller computers or to
peripheral devices in this type of network.
It allows various computers to share databases, process power and different output devices. It
is useful in centralized organizations.
Advantages
▪ Improves sharing of data and programs across the network.
▪ Offers reliable communication between nodes.
Disadvantages
▪ Difficult and costly to install and maintain.
▪ Difficult to troubleshoot network problems.
Mesh topology (Completely connected configuration)
Is a network topology in which devices are connected with many redundant interconnections
between network nodes.
Advantages
❖ Yields the greatest amount of redundancy (multiple connections between same nodes)
in the event that one of the nodes fails where network traffic can be redirected to
another node.
❖ Network problems are easier to diagnose.
Disadvantages
❖ The cost of installation and maintenance is high (more cable is required than any other
configuration)
User Accounts
-User accounts are the backbone of network security administration. Through the use of user
accounts, you can determine who can access your network, as well as what network resources
each user can and cannot access.
- Every user account is associated with a username (sometimes called a user ID), which the
user must enter when logging in to the network. Each account also has other information
associated with it (user password, restrictions, group membership, etc.).
Network Resources
Network resources are elements of hardware (printers, scanners and storage devices),
software and files that can be easily accessed from a remote computer through a network e.g.
a LAN.

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