CS 228 : Logic in Computer Science

Krishna. S

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 Recap

◮ Signature τ : set containing relations and constants

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 Recap

◮ Signature τ : set containing relations and constants

◮ Each relation in τ has an arity

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 Recap

◮ Signature τ : set containing relations and constants

◮ Each relation in τ has an arity
◮ A FO formula is written over some signature τ ; that is, it uses the
relations and constants from τ . It also uses variables denoted xi ,
boolean connectives and quantifiers ∀, ∃.

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 Recap

◮ Signature τ : set containing relations and constants

◮ Each relation in τ has an arity
◮ A FO formula is written over some signature τ ; that is, it uses the
relations and constants from τ . It also uses variables denoted xi ,
boolean connectives and quantifiers ∀, ∃.
◮ A relation R of arity k is used in the formula as R(t1 , . . . , tk )
where ti ’s are variables or constants

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 Recap

◮ Signature τ : set containing relations and constants

◮ Each relation in τ has an arity
◮ A FO formula is written over some signature τ ; that is, it uses the
relations and constants from τ . It also uses variables denoted xi ,
boolean connectives and quantifiers ∀, ∃.
◮ A relation R of arity k is used in the formula as R(t1 , . . . , tk )
where ti ’s are variables or constants
◮ Equality t1 = t2 is available irrespective of τ

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 Recap

◮ Signature τ : set containing relations and constants

◮ Each relation in τ has an arity
◮ A FO formula is written over some signature τ ; that is, it uses the
relations and constants from τ . It also uses variables denoted xi ,
boolean connectives and quantifiers ∀, ∃.
◮ A relation R of arity k is used in the formula as R(t1 , . . . , tk )
where ti ’s are variables or constants
◮ Equality t1 = t2 is available irrespective of τ
◮ To make sense out of a formula, we need structures

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 Recap

◮ A structure of signature τ consists of a universe, and assigns

meanings to all the entities of τ

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 Recap

◮ A structure of signature τ consists of a universe, and assigns

meanings to all the entities of τ
◮ So, if R is a k -ary relational symbol of τ , the structure specifies
which k -tuples of elements from the universe are legitimate
relations for R
◮ If c is a constant in τ , the structure also maps c to some fixed
element of the universe

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 Recap

◮ A structure of signature τ consists of a universe, and assigns

meanings to all the entities of τ
◮ So, if R is a k -ary relational symbol of τ , the structure specifies
which k -tuples of elements from the universe are legitimate
relations for R
◮ If c is a constant in τ , the structure also maps c to some fixed
element of the universe
◮ So, structures of τ give life to τ

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 Recap

◮ A structure of signature τ consists of a universe, and assigns

meanings to all the entities of τ
◮ So, if R is a k -ary relational symbol of τ , the structure specifies
which k -tuples of elements from the universe are legitimate
relations for R
◮ If c is a constant in τ , the structure also maps c to some fixed
element of the universe
◮ So, structures of τ give life to τ
◮ Structures also tell you the set of values your variables xi can
assume : these are the elements from the universe

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 Recap

◮ A structure of signature τ consists of a universe, and assigns

meanings to all the entities of τ
◮ So, if R is a k -ary relational symbol of τ , the structure specifies
which k -tuples of elements from the universe are legitimate
relations for R
◮ If c is a constant in τ , the structure also maps c to some fixed
element of the universe
◮ So, structures of τ give life to τ
◮ Structures also tell you the set of values your variables xi can
assume : these are the elements from the universe
◮ A structure in PL will just consist of the universe {0, 1}, since
there is no signature. All variables assume values from this
Boolean universe.

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 Satisfiability in PL and FO

◮ The satisfiability of a PL formula depends on the existence of an

assignment satisfying it; likewise, the satisfiability of a FO
formula ϕ over signature τ depends on the existence of a
structure A of τ such that ϕ is true on A.

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 Free and Bound Variables

◮ For a wff ϕ = ∀x ψ, ψ is said to be the scope of the quantifier x

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 Free and Bound Variables

◮ For a wff ϕ = ∀x ψ, ψ is said to be the scope of the quantifier x

◮ Every occurrence of x in ∀x ψ is bound
◮ Any occurrence of x which is not bound is called free

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 Free and Bound Variables

◮ For a wff ϕ = ∀x ψ, ψ is said to be the scope of the quantifier x

◮ Every occurrence of x in ∀x ψ is bound
◮ Any occurrence of x which is not bound is called free
◮ ϕ = P(x , y ) → ∀x ((∀yR(x , y )) → Q(x , y ))
◮ y is free in Q(x, y ) and bound in R(x, y ),
◮ x is free in P(x, y ), and bound in Q(x, y ), R(x, y )

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 Free and Bound Variables

◮ For a wff ϕ = ∀x ψ, ψ is said to be the scope of the quantifier x

◮ Every occurrence of x in ∀x ψ is bound
◮ Any occurrence of x which is not bound is called free
◮ ϕ = P(x , y ) → ∀x ((∀yR(x , y )) → Q(x , y ))
◮ y is free in Q(x, y ) and bound in R(x, y ),
◮ x is free in P(x, y ), and bound in Q(x, y ), R(x, y )
◮ Given ϕ, denote by ϕ(x1 , . . . , xn ), that x1 , . . . , xn are the free
variables of ϕ, also free(ϕ)
◮ A sentence is a formula ϕ none of whose variables are free

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P(x, y) → ∀x((∀yR(x, y)) → Q(x, y))

→
P(x, y) → ∀x((∀yR(x, y)) → Q(x, y))

P ∀x
P(x, y) → ∀x((∀yR(x, y)) → Q(x, y))

P ∀x

x y
→
P(x, y) → ∀x((∀yR(x, y)) → Q(x, y))

P ∀x

x y
→

∀y Q
P(x, y) → ∀x((∀yR(x, y)) → Q(x, y))

P ∀x

x y
→

∀y Q

x y
R
 P(x, y) → ∀x((∀yR(x, y)) → Q(x, y))

P ∀x

x y
→

∀y Q

x y
R

x y

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 P(x, y) → ∀x((∀yR(x, y)) → Q(x, y))

ϕ(s, t) = P(s, t) → ∀x ((∀yR(x , y )) → Q(x , t))

→

P ∀x

s t
→

∀y Q

x t
R

x y

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∀x(R(x, y) → ∀yP(y))

∀x
∀x(R(x, y) → ∀yP(y))

∀x

→
∀x(R(x, y) → ∀yP(y))

∀x

R ∀y
∀x(R(x, y) → ∀yP(y))

∀x

R ∀y

x y P
∀x(R(x, y) → ∀yP(y))

∀x

R ∀y

x y P

y
 ∀x(R(x, y) → ∀yP(y))

∀x

R ∀y

x y P

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 ∀x(R(x, y) → ∀yP(y))

∀x

R ∀y

x t P

ϕ(t) = ∀x (R(x , t) → ∀yP(y ))

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 Assignments on τ -structures

Assignments
For a τ -structure A, an assignment over A is a function α : V → u(A)
that assigns every variable x ∈ V a value α(x ) ∈ u(A). If t is a
constant symbol c, then α(t) is c A

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 Assignments on τ -structures

Assignments
For a τ -structure A, an assignment over A is a function α : V → u(A)
that assigns every variable x ∈ V a value α(x ) ∈ u(A). If t is a
constant symbol c, then α(t) is c A

Binding on a Variable
 α over A, α[x 7→ a] is the assignment
For an assignment
α(y ), y 6= x ,
α[x 7→ a](y ) =
a, y = x

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 Satisfaction

We define the relation A |=α ϕ (read as ϕ is true in A under the

assignment α) inductively:

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 Satisfaction

We define the relation A |=α ϕ (read as ϕ is true in A under the

assignment α) inductively:
◮ A 2α ⊥

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 Satisfaction

We define the relation A |=α ϕ (read as ϕ is true in A under the

assignment α) inductively:
◮ A 2α ⊥
◮ A |=α t1 = t2 iff α(t1 ) = α(t2 )

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 Satisfaction

We define the relation A |=α ϕ (read as ϕ is true in A under the

assignment α) inductively:
◮ A 2α ⊥
◮ A |=α t1 = t2 iff α(t1 ) = α(t2 )
◮ A |=α R(t1 , . . . , tk ) iff (α(t1 ), . . . , α(tk )) ∈ R A

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 Satisfaction

We define the relation A |=α ϕ (read as ϕ is true in A under the

assignment α) inductively:
◮ A 2α ⊥
◮ A |=α t1 = t2 iff α(t1 ) = α(t2 )
◮ A |=α R(t1 , . . . , tk ) iff (α(t1 ), . . . , α(tk )) ∈ R A
◮ A |=α (ϕ → ψ) iff A 2α ϕ or A |=α ψ

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 Satisfaction

We define the relation A |=α ϕ (read as ϕ is true in A under the

assignment α) inductively:
◮ A 2α ⊥
◮ A |=α t1 = t2 iff α(t1 ) = α(t2 )
◮ A |=α R(t1 , . . . , tk ) iff (α(t1 ), . . . , α(tk )) ∈ R A
◮ A |=α (ϕ → ψ) iff A 2α ϕ or A |=α ψ
◮ A |=α (∀x )ϕ iff for every a ∈ u(A), A |=α[x7→a] ϕ

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 Satisfaction

We define the relation A |=α ϕ (read as ϕ is true in A under the

assignment α) inductively:
◮ A 2α ⊥
◮ A |=α t1 = t2 iff α(t1 ) = α(t2 )
◮ A |=α R(t1 , . . . , tk ) iff (α(t1 ), . . . , α(tk )) ∈ R A
◮ A |=α (ϕ → ψ) iff A 2α ϕ or A |=α ψ
◮ A |=α (∀x )ϕ iff for every a ∈ u(A), A |=α[x7→a] ϕ
◮ A |=α (∃x )ϕ iff there is some a ∈ u(A), A |=α[x7→a] ϕ
Last two cases, α has no effect on the value of x . Thus, assignments
matter only to free variables.

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 Example of Satisfaction

◮ G = ({1, 2, 3}, E G = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)})
◮ For any assignment α, G |=α ∀x∀y (E(x, y ) → E(y , x)) iff for every
a, b ∈ {1, 2, 3}, G |=α[x 7→a,y 7→b] (E(x, y ) → E(y , x))

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 Example of Satisfaction

◮ G = ({1, 2, 3}, E G = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)})
◮ For any assignment α, G |=α ∀x∀y (E(x, y ) → E(y , x)) iff for every
a, b ∈ {1, 2, 3}, G |=α[x 7→a,y 7→b] (E(x, y ) → E(y , x))
◮ There is an assignment α which satisfies
G |=α ∃x(E(x, y ) ∧ E(x, z) ∧ y 6= z)

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 Example of Satisfaction

◮ G = ({1, 2, 3}, E G = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)})
◮ For any assignment α, G |=α ∀x∀y (E(x, y ) → E(y , x)) iff for every
a, b ∈ {1, 2, 3}, G |=α[x 7→a,y 7→b] (E(x, y ) → E(y , x))
◮ There is an assignment α which satisfies
G |=α ∃x(E(x, y ) ∧ E(x, z) ∧ y 6= z)
◮ G 2 ∃x∀yE(x, y ), G |= ∀x∃yE(x, y )
◮ W = abaaa

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 Example of Satisfaction

◮ G = ({1, 2, 3}, E G = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)})
◮ For any assignment α, G |=α ∀x∀y (E(x, y ) → E(y , x)) iff for every
a, b ∈ {1, 2, 3}, G |=α[x 7→a,y 7→b] (E(x, y ) → E(y , x))
◮ There is an assignment α which satisfies
G |=α ∃x(E(x, y ) ∧ E(x, z) ∧ y 6= z)
◮ G 2 ∃x∀yE(x, y ), G |= ∀x∃yE(x, y )
◮ W = abaaa
◮ There is an assignment α for which
W |=α (Qa (x) ∧ Qa (y ) ∧ S(x, y ))

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 Example of Satisfaction

◮ G = ({1, 2, 3}, E G = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)})
◮ For any assignment α, G |=α ∀x∀y (E(x, y ) → E(y , x)) iff for every
a, b ∈ {1, 2, 3}, G |=α[x 7→a,y 7→b] (E(x, y ) → E(y , x))
◮ There is an assignment α which satisfies
G |=α ∃x(E(x, y ) ∧ E(x, z) ∧ y 6= z)
◮ G 2 ∃x∀yE(x, y ), G |= ∀x∃yE(x, y )
◮ W = abaaa
◮ There is an assignment α for which
W |=α (Qa (x) ∧ Qa (y ) ∧ S(x, y ))
◮ There is no assignment α which satisfies
∃x∃y (Qb (x) ∧ Qb (y ) ∧ x 6= y )

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 Example of Satisfaction

◮ G = ({1, 2, 3}, E G = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)})
◮ For any assignment α, G |=α ∀x∀y (E(x, y ) → E(y , x)) iff for every
a, b ∈ {1, 2, 3}, G |=α[x 7→a,y 7→b] (E(x, y ) → E(y , x))
◮ There is an assignment α which satisfies
G |=α ∃x(E(x, y ) ∧ E(x, z) ∧ y 6= z)
◮ G 2 ∃x∀yE(x, y ), G |= ∀x∃yE(x, y )
◮ W = abaaa
◮ There is an assignment α for which
W |=α (Qa (x) ∧ Qa (y ) ∧ S(x, y ))
◮ There is no assignment α which satisfies
∃x∃y (Qb (x) ∧ Qb (y ) ∧ x 6= y )
◮ Prove or disprove : W |= ∃x∀y [Qb (x) ∧ x < y ∧ Qa (y )]
◮ Prove or disprove : W |= ∃x∀y [Qb (x) ∧ x < y ⇒ Qa (y )]

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 Satisfiability, Validity and
Equivalence

◮ A formula ϕ over a signature τ is said to be satisfiable iff for

some τ -structure A and assignment α, A |=α ϕ

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 Satisfiability, Validity and
Equivalence

◮ A formula ϕ over a signature τ is said to be satisfiable iff for

some τ -structure A and assignment α, A |=α ϕ
◮ A formula ϕ over a signature τ is said to be valid iff for every
τ -structure A and assignment α, A |=α ϕ

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 Satisfiability, Validity and
Equivalence

◮ A formula ϕ over a signature τ is said to be satisfiable iff for

some τ -structure A and assignment α, A |=α ϕ
◮ A formula ϕ over a signature τ is said to be valid iff for every
τ -structure A and assignment α, A |=α ϕ
◮ Formulae ϕ(x1 , . . . , xn ) and ψ(x1 , . . . , xn ) are equivalent denoted
ϕ ≡ ψ iff for every A and α, A |=α ϕ iff A |=α ψ

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 Satisfiability, Validity and
Equivalence

◮ A formula ϕ over a signature τ is said to be satisfiable iff for

some τ -structure A and assignment α, A |=α ϕ
◮ A formula ϕ over a signature τ is said to be valid iff for every
τ -structure A and assignment α, A |=α ϕ
◮ Formulae ϕ(x1 , . . . , xn ) and ψ(x1 , . . . , xn ) are equivalent denoted
ϕ ≡ ψ iff for every A and α, A |=α ϕ iff A |=α ψ
◮ Recap ϕ1 (x ) = ∀yR(x , y ) and ϕ2 = ∃x ∀yR(x , y ).
◮ It is clear that whenever ϕ2 is satisfiable on A, one can find an
assignment α such that A |=α ϕ1 (x ).
◮ Likewise, if A |=α ϕ1 (x ), then A |= ϕ2 .
◮ Thus, ϕ1 (x ), ϕ2 agree on satisfiability.

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 True or False?

For a formula ϕ and assignments α1 and α2 such that for every

x ∈ free(ϕ), α1 (x ) = α2 (x ), A |=α1 ϕ iff A |=α2 ϕ

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 True or False?

For a formula ϕ and assignments α1 and α2 such that for every

x ∈ free(ϕ), α1 (x ) = α2 (x ), A |=α1 ϕ iff A |=α2 ϕ

◮ For example, ϕ(y ) = ∀x (R(x , y ) → ∀zP(z))

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 True or False?

For a formula ϕ and assignments α1 and α2 such that for every

x ∈ free(ϕ), α1 (x ) = α2 (x ), A |=α1 ϕ iff A |=α2 ϕ

◮ For example, ϕ(y ) = ∀x (R(x , y ) → ∀zP(z))

◮ Consider two assignments α1 , α2 such that
α1 (y ) = α2 (y ) = α(say )

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 True or False?

For a formula ϕ and assignments α1 and α2 such that for every

x ∈ free(ϕ), α1 (x ) = α2 (x ), A |=α1 ϕ iff A |=α2 ϕ

◮ For example, ϕ(y ) = ∀x (R(x , y ) → ∀zP(z))

◮ Consider two assignments α1 , α2 such that
α1 (y ) = α2 (y ) = α(say )
◮ Evaluate for all a, b ∈ u(A), R(a, α) → P(b)

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 True or False?

For a formula ϕ and assignments α1 and α2 such that for every

x ∈ free(ϕ), α1 (x ) = α2 (x ), A |=α1 ϕ iff A |=α2 ϕ

◮ For example, ϕ(y ) = ∀x (R(x , y ) → ∀zP(z))

◮ Consider two assignments α1 , α2 such that
α1 (y ) = α2 (y ) = α(say )
◮ Evaluate for all a, b ∈ u(A), R(a, α) → P(b)
◮ A |=α1 ϕ iff A |=α2 ϕ

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 True or False?

For a sentence ϕ, and any two assignments α1 and α2 , A |=α1 ϕ iff

A |=α2 ϕ

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 True or False?

For a sentence ϕ, and any two assignments α1 and α2 , A |=α1 ϕ iff

A |=α2 ϕ

No free variables!

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 Check SAT

◮ ϕ = ∃x [(∀yE(x , y )) ∧ ∀z[(∀yE(z, y )) → z = x ]]. Does ϕ evaluate

to true under some graph structure?

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 Check SAT

◮ ϕ = ∃x [(∀yE(x , y )) ∧ ∀z[(∀yE(z, y )) → z = x ]]. Does ϕ evaluate

to true under some graph structure?
◮ ψ = ∃x [Qa (x ) ∧ ∀y [(y < x ∧ Qb (y )) → (z < x ∧ y < z ∧ Qa (z))]].
Does ψ evaluate to true under some word structure?

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