CL 329: Process Control

Week 10-11
Sayantan Dutta

Frequency response analysis

 Learning Objectives

• Finding systematic way to evaluate the long-term output of

oscillatory (sinusoidal inputs)
• Controller tuning based on the techniques we learn.
Let’s take a step backwords from controller tuning
Our analysis so far were mostly limited to step inputs

x(t)
x G(s) y
t
Our analysis so far were mostly limited to step inputs
In output we have seen different types of y(t)
response including oscillating ones x(t)

x(t)
x y
y(t)
G(s) x(t)

t
y(t)
x(t)

t
Our analysis so far were mostly limited to step inputs
In output we have seen different types of y(t)
response including oscillating ones x(t)

x(t)
x y
y(t)
G(s) x(t)

t
1. Step response was easy to deal with polynomial algebra y(t)
x(t)
2. Realistically represent servo control (shift of operating point)

t
Our analysis so far were mostly limited to step inputs
In output we have seen different types of y(t)
response including oscillating ones x(t)

x(t)
x y
y(t)
G(s) x(t)

t
However,
y(t)
1. Disturbances are often oscillatory in nature. x(t)
2. We had to approximate time delay transfer function by Pade
approximation.
t
 The only example we looked so far
kp
x(t) = sin(ωt) x τps + 1
y
ω kpωτp
x̄(s) = 2 A=
s + ω2 ω 2τp2 + 1
kpω kpω/τp A Bs + c
ȳ(s) = = = + 2 kpωτp
(τps + 1)(s 2 + ω 2) (s + 1
)(s 2 + ω 2) s+ 1 s + ω2 B=−
τp τp ω 2τp2 + 1
kp
y(t) = A exp(−t/τp) + B cos(ωt) + C sin(ωt) C=
ω 2τp2 + 1
B = R sin(ϕ) C = R cos(ϕ)
y(t) = A exp(−t/τp) + R sin(ωt + ϕ)
kp B
2 2 ϕ = = − tan−1(ωτp)
R= B +C = C
ω 2τp2 + 1
 ω = 5; kp = 5; τp = 0.1
kp

y(t)
ω 2τp2 + 1

y(t) = A exp(−t/τp) + R sin(ωt + ϕ)

kp

x(t)
2 2
B
R= B +C = ϕ= = − tan−1(ωτp)
C
ω 2τp2 + 1
kpω/τp
A= 1
ω2 +
τp2

kpω/τp
B=− 1
ω2 +
τp2

kpω
C= 1
ω2 +
τp2

Delay

In long term, it’s also oscillatory with same frequency with a time delay.
What is a general way to analyse the oscillatory inputs
and find the long-term output ?
A warm up about the complex algebra
|C| = R = a2 + b2
−1
arg(C) = θ = tan (b/a)
Im C = a + ib = R exp(iθ) C1 = R1 exp(iθ1)
C2 = R2 exp(iθ2)
C1C2 = R1R2 exp[i(θ1 + θ2)]
C1 R1
Re = exp[i(θ1 − θ2)]
C2 R2

| C1C2 | = R1R2 | C1 /C2 | = R1 /R2

arg(C1C2) = θ1 + θ2 arg(C1 /C2) = θ1 − θ2

A warm up about the complex algebra
|C| = R = a2 + b2
−1
arg(C) = θ = tan b/a
Im C = a + ib = R exp(iθ) C1 = R1 exp(iθ1)
C2 = R2 exp(iθ2)
C1C2 = R1R2 exp[i(θ1 + θ2)]
C1 R1
Re = exp[i(θ1 − θ2)]
C2 R2

| C1C2 | = R1R2 | C1 /C2 | = R1 /R2

arg(C1C2) = θ1 + θ2 arg(C1 /C2) = θ1 − θ2

i vs j: i: Mathematics/Physics. j :Electrical engineers

Long term output of a sinusoidal input

x G(s) y
ω
x(t) = sin(ωt) x̄(s) = 2
s +ω 2
 Long term output of a sinusoidal input

x G(s) y
ω
x(t) = sin(ωt) x̄(s) = 2
s +ω 2

N(s) r(s) N(s)r(s)

ȳ(s) = G(s)x̄(s) = =
D(s) q(s) (s − p1)(s − p2) . . . (s − pn)(s − q1)(s − q2) . . (s − qv)

A1 A2 An B1 B2 Bv
= + + ... + + + + ...
s − p1 s − p2 s − pn s − q1 s − q2 s − qv
 Long term output of a sinusoidal input

x G(s) y
ω
x(t) = sin(ωt) x̄(s) = 2
s +ω 2

N(s) ω N(s)ω
ȳ(s) = G(s)x̄(s) = =
D(s) s + ω
2 2 (s − p1)(s − p2) . . . (s − pn)(s − iω)(s + iω)

A1 A2 An B1 B2
= + + ... + + +
s − p1 s − p2 s − pn s − iω s + iω
 Long term output of a sinusoidal input
ω
x(t) = sin(ωt) x̄(s) = 2
s +ω 2

N(s) ω N(s)ω
ȳ(s) = G(s)x̄(s) = =
D(s) s + ω
2 2 (s − p1)(s − p2) . . . (s − pn)(s − iω)(s + iω)
A1 A2 An B1 B2
= + + ... + + +
s − p1 s − p2 s − pn s − iω s + iω

−1
ℒ [G(s)x̄(s)] = A1 exp(p1t) + A2 exp(p2t) + . . . . . . + B1 exp(iωt) + B2 exp(−iωt) + . .
 Long term output of a sinusoidal input
ω
x(t) = sin(ωt) x̄(s) = 2
s +ω 2

N(s) ω N(s)ω
ȳ(s) = G(s)x̄(s) = =
D(s) s + ω
2 2 (s − p1)(s − p2) . . . (s − pn)(s − iω)(s + iω)
A1 A2 An B1 B2
= + + ... + + +
s − p1 s − p2 s − pn s − iω s + iω

−1
ℒ [G(s)x̄(s)] = A1 exp(p1t) + A2 exp(p2t) + . . . . . . + B1 exp(q1t) + B2 exp(q2t) + . .
Let’s consider real parts of {p1, p2, . . . pn} < 0
Realistic assumption for process, instrumentation or controller transfer functions.
 Long term output of a sinusoidal input
ω
x(t) = sin(ωt) x̄(s) = 2
s +ω 2

N(s) ω N(s)ω
ȳ(s) = G(s)x̄(s) = =
D(s) s + ω
2 2 (s − p1)(s − p2) . . . (s − pn)(s − iω)(s + iω)
A1 A2 An B1 B2
= + + ... + + +
s − p1 s − p2 s − pn s − iω s + iω

−1
ℒ [G(s)x̄(s)] = A1 exp(p1t) + A2 exp(p2t) + . . . . . . + B1 exp(iωt) + B2 exp(−iωt) + . .
Let’s consider real parts of {p1, p2, . . . pn} < 0
Only terms with B1, B2 survive in long term.
 How do we find B1, B2 ignoring other terms
ω
x(t) = sin(ωt) x̄(s) = 2
s +ω 2

N(s) ω A B1 B2
ȳ(s) = G(s)x̄(s) = = + +
D(s) s + ω
2 2 D(s) s − iω s + iω
2 2
A(s + ω ) + B1D(s)(s + iω) + B2D(s)(s − iω)
=
D(s)(s + ω )
2 2

N(s) i
lim N(s)ω = 2B1D(s)iω ⟹ B1 = lim =− G(iω)
s→iω s→iω 2iD(s) 2
N(s) i
lim N(s)ω = − 2B2D(s)iω ⟹ B2 = lim = G(−iω)
s→(−iω) s→−iω −2iD(s) 2
 How do we find B1, B2 ignoring other terms
ω
x(t) = sin(ωt) x̄(s) = 2
s +ω 2

N(s) ω A B1 B2
ȳ(s) = G(s)x̄(s) = = + +
D(s) s + ω
2 2 D(s) s − iω s + iω
N(s) i
lim N(s)ω = 2B1D(s)iω ⟹ B1 = lim =− G(iω)
s→iω s→iω 2iD(s) 2
N(s) i
lim N(s)ω = − 2B2D(s)iω ⟹ B2 = lim = G(−iω)
s→(−iω) s→−iω −2iD(s) 2
If ± iω are roots of D(s) (i.e. poles of G(s))
B1, B2 goes to infinity. The system will blow up. The case of resonance.
Input frequency=Natural frequency of the system
 Long term output of a sinusoidal input
ω
x(t) = sin(ωt) x̄(s) = 2
s +ω 2
−1
ℒ [G(s)x̄(s)] = A1 exp(p1t) + A2 exp(p2t) + . . . . . . + B1 exp(iωt) + B2 exp(−iωt) + . .

y(t) ∼ B1 exp(iωt) + B2 exp(−iωt)

i i
= − G(iω)exp(iωt) + G(−iω)exp(−iωt)
2 2

Let’s consider real parts of {p1, p2, . . . pn} < 0

Only terms with B1, B2 survive in long term.
 Properties of G(iω) and G(−iω)
2
N(s) a0 + a1s + a2s + . . .
G(s) = =
D(s) b0 + b1s + b2s + . . . . .
2

2 3
N(iω) (a0 − a2ω + . . ) + i(a1ω − a3ω + . . )
G(iω) = =
D(iω) (b0 − b2ω 2 + . . ) + i(b1ω − b3ω 3 + . . )
2 3
N(−iω) (a0 − a2ω + . . ) − i(a1ω − a3ω + . . )
G(−iω) = =
D(−iω) (b0 − b2ω + . . ) − i(b1ω − b3ω + . . )
2 3

| G(iω) | = | G(−iω) | arg[G(iω)] = − arg[G(−iω)] = ϕ

 Long term output of a sinusoidal input
ω
x(t) = sin(ωt) x̄(s) = 2
s +ω 2
−1
ℒ [G(s)x̄(s)] = A1 exp(p1t) + A2 exp(p2t) + . . . . . . + B1 exp(iωt) + B2 exp(−iωt) + . .

y(t) ∼ B1 exp(iωt) + B2 exp(−iωt)

i i
= − G(iω)exp(iωt) + G(−iω)exp(−iωt)
2 2
i
= − [ | G(iω) | exp(iωt + ϕ) − | G(iω) | exp(−iωt − ϕ)]
2
= | G(iω) | sin(ωt + ϕ)

The amplitude of the oscillation increases by a factor of | G(iω) | and the oscillation gets a
shift of arg[G(iω)].
Lecture 2
 Learning Objectives

• Finding systematic way to evaluate the long-term output of

oscillatory (sinusoidal inputs).

• Representation of frequency response in standard diagrams.

• Controller tuning based on the techniques we learn.
 Recap: Our analysis so far were mostly limited to
step inputs
y(t)
In output we have seen different types of
x(t)
response including oscillating ones

x(t)
x y
y(t)
G(s) x(t)

t
1. Step response was easy to deal with polynomial algebra y(t)
x(t)
2. Realistically represent servo control (shift of operating point)

t
Recap: Our analysis so far were mostly limited to
step inputs

x G(s) y

ω
x(t) = sin(ωt) x̄(s) = 2
s +ω 2
If G(s) has no poles with positive real parts
lim y(t) = | G(iω) | sin(ωt + ϕ) ϕ = arg[G(iω)]
t→∞
Amplitude ratio (AR)= | G(iω) | Phase shift=arg[G(iω)]
Applicable for any sinusoidal waves.
 First order process
kp
G(s) =
τps + 1

What is the AR and phase shift as a function of ω ?

 First order Process
kp
G(s) =
τps + 1
kp
G(iω) =
1 + iτpω

kp
| G(iω) | = −1
ϕ = − tan (ωτp)
1+ τp ω
2 2

What is the AR and phase shift as a function of ω ?

 Second order process
kp
G(s) =
τs
2 2 + 2ζτs + 1

What is the AR and phase shift as a function of ω ?

What would be the frequency if 0 < ζ < 1?
 Second order process
kp
G(s) =
τs
2 2 + 2ζτs + 1
kp
G(iω) =
1− τω
2 2 + 2iτζω

kp 2ζωτ
| G(iω) | = ϕ = − tan−1
(1 − τ 2ω 2)2 + 4ζ 2τ 2ω 2 1 − τ 2ω 2

What is the AR and phase shift as a function of ω ?

 Time delay process
G(s) = exp(−tds)

What is the AR and phase shift as a function of ω ?

Let’s look at some common transfer function
G(s) = exp(−tds)
G(iω) = exp(−itdω)

| G(iω) | = 1 ϕ = − (ωtd)

What is the AR and phase shift as a function of ω ?

Let’s look at some common transfer function
G(s) = exp(−tds)
G(iω) = exp(−itdω)

| G(iω) | = 1 ϕ = − (ωtd)

What about FOPTD process ?

AR will be multiplication of both processes

Phase shift will be sum of both processes
 Controller transfer functions
Gc = Kc

1
Gc = Kc(1 + )
τls

1
Gc = Kc(1 + + tds)
τls
 Controller transfer functions

Gc = Kc | G(iω) | = Kc ϕ=0

1 1 −1 π
Gc = Kc(1 + ) | G(iω) | = Kc 1+ 2 2 ϕ = tan (ωτl) −
τls τl ω 2

1 1 2
Gc = Kc(1 + + tds) | G(iω) | = Kc 1 + (ωτd − )
τls τlω
−1 1
ϕ = tan (ωτd − )
ωτl
 Visualizing the frequency response: Bode Diagram

•Amplitude ratio and phase shift due to a transfer function as a

function of ω.

•Amplitude ratio is generally plotted in the log-log scale.

• Phase-shift is generally plotted in the log-linear scale.

 Visualizing the frequency response: Nyquist Diagram

• Re(jω) vs Im(jω) for −∞ < ω < ∞ in the complex plane.

• The trajectory for 0 < ω < ∞ is marked with a solid line.

• The trajectory for −∞ < ω < 0 is marked with a dotted line.

• The direction is shown by an arrow.

Let’s construct the Bode and Nyquist Diagram for some
common transfer functions
 First order Process
kp
G(s) =
τps + 1
kp
G(iω) =
1 + iτpω
kp
| G(iω) | =
1+ τp ω
2 2

−1
ϕ = − tan (ωτp)

What is the AR and phase shift as a function of ω ?

 First order Process
kp = 10.
kp
G(s) = τ = 10−2
τps + 1 τ
τ
= 10−1
=1
τ = 10
kp τ = 102
G(iω) =
1 + iτpω
kp
| G(iω) | =
1+ τp ω
2 2

−1
ϕ = − tan (ωτp)
 Second order process
kp
G(s) =
τ 2s 2 + 2ζτs + 1
kp
G(iω) =
1− τω
2 2 + 2iτζω
kp
| G(iω) | =
(1 − τ 2ω 2)2 + 4ζ 2τ 2ω 2

−1 2ζωτ
ϕ = − tan
1 − τ 2ω 2

What is the AR and phase shift as a function of ω ?

 Second order process
ζ=0
kp ζ = 0.5
ζ=1
G(s) = ζ = 1.5
τ 2s 2 + 2ζτs + 1 ζ=2

kp
G(iω) =
1− τω
2 2 + 2iτζω
kp
| G(iω) | =
(1 − τ 2ω 2)2 + 4ζ 2τ 2ω 2

−1 2ζωτ kp = 10.
ϕ = − tan
1 − τ 2ω 2 τ=1
 Logistics of the course.

• Coding Assignment is due next Monday.

• Best of 2 quizzes will be scaled to 10 for grading purpose.
• No class on Monday, 4th November.
• Quiz 2 on Thursday 7th November, 8:30 am (class time).
• Doubt clearing/Problem Solving session on Friday, 8th November,
8:30 am.
Lecture 3
 Learning Objectives

• Finding systematic way to evaluate the long-term output of

oscillatory (sinusoidal inputs).

• Representation of frequency response in standard diagrams.

• Controller tuning and stability analysis based on the techniques
we learn.
Recap: Our analysis so far were mostly limited to
step inputs

x G(s) y

ω
x(t) = sin(ωt) x̄(s) = 2
s +ω 2
If G(s) has no poles with positive real parts
lim y(t) = | G(iω) | sin(ωt + ϕ) ϕ = arg[G(iω)]
t→∞
Amplitude ratio (AR)= | G(iω) | Phase shift=arg[G(iω)]
Applicable for any sinusoidal waves.
 Second order process
ζ=0
kp ζ = 0.5
ζ=1
G(s) = ζ = 1.5
τ 2s 2 + 2ζτs + 1 ζ=2

kp
G(iω) =
1− τω
2 2 + 2iτζω
kp
| G(iω) | =
(1 − τ 2ω 2)2 + 4ζ 2τ 2ω 2

−1 2ζωτ kp = 10.
ϕ = − tan
1 − τ 2ω 2 τ=1
Controller Stability criterion
 What should not be the control parameters ?

We can’t let the system become unstable.

When does a system become unstable ?

The transfer function has poles with positive real parts.
Routh Stability Criterion gives us a binary answer about stability.
It also requires time delay transfer functions (very common in
process industry) to approximate as polynomial.
Frequency Response Based analysis.
Frequency response based stability criterion

GOL(s) = GcGf GpGm

 How do we understand it in terms of Bode and Nyquist
Diagrams ?

We can construct these diagrams for any open loop transfer

function.
 Bode Stability criterion

Crossover frequency is the frequency where phase shift of the open loop
transfer function is −π.
 Gain and Phase margins
1
Gain margin=
M
Phase margin=ϕ(1) − π
gain
crossover
frequency

(phase)
crossover
frequency
 Gain and Phase margins
1
Gain margin=
M
Phase margin=ϕ(1) − π
gain For a stable system, Gain margin >1.
crossover
frequency
For a stable system, Phase margin >0.
Gain and Phase margin quantifies
relative stability.

(phase)
Estimates of how much modeling
crossover error the design can handle.
frequency
 Limitations of Bode criterion

If the AR and phase margins are not strictly decreasing with ω, Bode
stability criterion is not applicable.
In those cases, we can’t ensure that for ϕ = 3π,5π.. the AR is <1.
Also we can’t ensure that ϕ ≠ π for a higher ω.
 Let’s look at an example

First find the amplitude ratio and phase margin as a function of ω for the
open loop transfer function
 Let’s look at an example

kc exp(−0.1s)
GOL(s) =
0.5s + 1

kc
| GOL(iω) | =
0.25ω 2 + 1

−1
arg[GOL(iω)] = − 0.1ω − tan (0.5ω)

Would there be a stability issue if there was no time delay ?

 Let’s look at an example

First find the amplitude ratio and phase margin as a function of ω for the
open loop transfer function

kc exp(−0.1s) | GOL(iω) | =
kc
GOL(s) = arg[GOL(iω)] = − 0.1ω − tan−1(0.5ω)
0.5s + 1 0.25ω 2 + 1
 Bode Stability criterion

Crossover frequency is the frequency where phase shift of the open loop
transfer function is −π.

But why ?
 A thought experiment

Let’s consider the open loop system is subjected to a sinusoidal

change in set point of frequency ω.
G(iω) = − k + 0i, ym = − k sin(ωt)
 A thought experiment

The feedback loop is connected and the set point disturbance is

removed.
ym = − k sin(ωt) ϵ = k sin(ωt)
n
After n such cycles ϵ = k sin(ωt)
 A thought experiment

ym = − k sin(ωt) ϵ = k sin(ωt)
n
After n such cycles ϵ = k sin(ωt)
Oscillation grows for k > 1, sustains for k = 1, decays for k < 1.
 Another attempt of proof

When does a system become unstable ?

The transfer function has poles with positive real parts.
The poles of the closed loop transfer functions are roots of
characteristic equations (i.e. 1 + GOL(s) = 0.)
GOL(s) = GcGf GpGm
 Poles of closed loop transfer function

The poles of transfer functions are roots of characteristic

equations (i.e. 1 + GOL(s) = 0.)
GOL(s) = GcGf GpGm

If arg(GOL(iω)) ≠ π for all finite ω

There is no root of characteristic equation in the neighborhood of

the imaginary axis because it always have an imaginary part that
can’t be cancelled with a real contribution.
What about roots on real axis ?
 Poles of closed loop transfer function

The poles of transfer functions are roots of characteristic

equations (i.e. 1 + GOL(s) = 0.)
GOL(s) = GcGf GpGm

If GOL(iω) = − 1, ± iω are the poles of the

closed loop transfer function.
The closed loop transfer function has poles on the imaginary axis
(i.e. real parts are zero, the system is marginally stable)
 Poles of closed loop transfer function

The poles of transfer functions are roots of characteristic

equations (i.e. 1 + GOL(s) = 0.)
GOL(s) = GcGf GpGm

If GOL(iω) = − k; k = 1 + ϵ,
Let’s assume a ± iω are roots of the charaterstic equation.
1 + GOL(a + iω) = 0;
 Poles of closed loop transfer function

Let’s assume a ± iω are roots of the charaterstic equation.

GOL(iω) = − k; k = 1 + ϵ 1 + GOL(a + iω) = 0;

d[Re(GOL)] ϵ
1 − (1 + ϵ) + a = 0; a = dGOL
d(Re[s])
ds
GOL(s) = GcGf GpGm is generally a positive function.
If k > 1 ⟹ ϵ > 0 ⟹ a > 0. Poles have +ve real part.
If k < 1 ⟹ ϵ < 0 ⟹ a < 0. Poles have -ve real part.
dGOL
This needs to be +ve at s = ± iω. Can we prove that ?
ds
Nyquist Stability Criterion

Clockwise encirclement only

Nyquist Stability Criterion
 Nyquist Stability Criterion

stable unstable stable

no encirclement clockwise encirclement anticlockwise encirclement

 Nyquist Stability Criterion: Relative stability

stable If the curve somehow encircles a region in

complex plane, the distance of the closest point
from (-1,0) gives us a measure of relative stability
of the process.

no encirclement
 What does encirclement have to do with stability ?

When does a system become unstable ?

The transfer function has poles with positive real parts.
The poles of the closed loop transfer functions are roots of
characteristic equations (i.e. 1 + GOL(s) = 0.)
 What does encirclement have to do with stability ?
N(s)
GOL(s) = GcGf GpGm =
D(s)
N(s) + D(s)
1 + GOL(s) =
D(s)

For any realistic transfer function order of N(s) ≤order of D(s)

Order of N(s) + D(s) = order of D(s)
Same number of roots.
Roots of N(s)+D(s)=Roots of CE=Poles of closed loop transfer function
Roots of D(s)=Poles of open loop transfer function
 What does encirclement have to do with stability ?
N(s)
GOL(s) = GcGf GpGm =
D(s)
1 2 M
N(s) + D(s) (s − pCL)(s − pCL) . . . . (s − pCL)
1 + GOL(s) = = k
D(s) (s − pOL
1 )(s − p 2 ) . . . . (s − p M )
OL OL

1 2 1 2
arg(1 + Gol(iω)) = [arg(iω − pCL) + arg(iω − pCL) + . . ] − [arg(iω − pOL) + arg(iω − pOL) + ..

1 ω + b
pcl = a + ib 1
arg(iω − pCL) =
−a
 What does encirclement have to do with stability ?

1 2 1 2
arg(1 + Gol(iω)) = [arg(iω − pCL) + arg(iω − pCL) + . . ] − [arg(iω − pOL) + arg(iω − pOL) +.

1 ω + b
pcl = a + ib 1
arg(iω − pCL) =
−a
As ω varies from −∞ → + ∞
1 −π −3π unstable
arg(iω − pCL) varies from →−π→ for a > 0 clockwise halfcircle
2 2
1 −π π stable
arg(iω − pCL) varies from → 0 → for a < 0
2 2 anticlockwise halfcircle
 What does encirclement have to do with stability ?
1 2 M
N(s) + D(s) (s − pCL)(s − pCL) . . . . (s − pCL)
1 + GOL(s) = = k
D(s) (s − pOL
1 )(s − p 2 ) . . . . (s − p M )
OL OL

1 2 1 2
arg(1 + Gol(iω)) = [arg(iω − pCL) + arg(iω − pCL) + . . ] − [arg(iω − pOL) + arg(iω − pOL) +.

If there are mCLclosed loop unstable (a > 0) poles, M − mCLclosed loop stable poles.

Net clockwise rotation from the numerator=0.5mCL − 0.5(M − mCL) = mCL − 0.5M
Similarly, net clockwise rotation from the denominator=mOL − 0.5M
Net rotation=mCL − mOL
 What does encirclement have to do with stability ?
1 2 M
N(s) + D(s) (s − pCL)(s − pCL) . . . . (s − pCL)
1 + GOL(s) = = k
D(s) (s − pOL
1 )(s − p 2 ) . . . . (s − p M )
OL OL

1 2 1 2
arg(1 + Gol(iω)) = [arg(iω − pCL) + arg(iω − pCL) + . . ] − [arg(iω − pOL) + arg(iω − pOL) +.

Net rotation=mCL − mOL

For the initial assumption of frequency response open loop transfer function doesn’t have
any poles with positive reeal part
Net rotation=mCL
 What does encirclement have to do with stability ?
1 2 M
N(s) + D(s) (s − pCL)(s − pCL) . . . . (s − pCL)
1 + GOL(s) = = k
D(s) (s − pOL
1 )(s − p 2 ) . . . . (s − p M )
OL OL

Net clockwise rotation=mCL

If the closed loop transfer function is unstable 1 + GOL(s) will encircle the origin in the
complex plane at least once as ω varies from −∞ → + ∞

If the closed loop transfer function is unstable GOL(s) will encircle (−1,0) in the complex
plane at least once as ω varies from −∞ → + ∞

QED!!!!!
https://kindai.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/11170/ les/AN10074306-20140228-0025.pdf
fi
 Ziegler-Nichols Closed loop tuning.

You repeat the same thought experiment as discussed in the class.

Find the (phase) crossover frequency and gain margin.
Not valid if the Bode Stability criterion is not valid.
Ziegler-Nichols Closed loop tuning.
Practice problems (TBD!!)