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DC 2

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9 views42 pages

DC 2

Uploaded by

ggg667587
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Chapter 3: Introduction to

Physical Layer
Agenda
1. DATA AND SIGNALS

2. PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

3. DIGITAL SIGNALS

4. TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

5. DATA RATE LIMITS

6. PERFORMANCE
Analog and Digital Data
 Analog Data:
 Continuous information

 Analog data (e.g., sound waves) represents continuous values and can
be captured and converted into analog or digital signals.

 Digital Data:
 Discrete information with defined states.

 Digital data is stored in computer memory as binary (0s and 1s) and
can be converted for transmission as either digital or modulated into
analog signals.
Analog and Digital Signals
 Signals can be analog or digital.

 Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a


range.

 Digital signals can have only a limited number of values.


Periodic and Nonperiodic
• Periodic Signals:
• completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a
period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical
periods.

• Cycle: One full completion of a pattern.


 Nonperiodic Signals:
 Change without a repeating pattern or cycle.
 In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog
signals and nonperiodic digital signals.
Periodic and Nonperiodic
Sine Wave
 The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic
analog signal.
Sine Wave
 A sine wave can be represented by three parameters:
 Peak amplitude
 Frequency
 Phase
Peak Amplitude
 The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its
highest intensity, proportional to the energy it carries.
 For electric signals, peak amplitude is normally measured
in volts.
Period and Frequency

 Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal

needs to complete 1 cycle.

 Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1 s.


Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies
Units of period and frequency
Example

 The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz.

 The period of this sine wave can be determined as follows:


Example
 The period of a signal is 100 ms.

 What is its frequency in kilohertz?

 Solution First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we


calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10–3 kHz).
Frequency
 Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.

 Change in a short span of time means high frequency.

 Change over a long span of time means low frequency.

 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.

 If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is


infinite
Phase
 Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to
time 0.
Example
 A sine wave is offset (1/6) cycle with respect to time 0.

 What is its phase in degrees and radians?

 Solution We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°.


Therefore, cycle is
Wavelength
 Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling
through a transmission medium.

 Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple


sine wave to the propagation speed of the medium.
Wavelength

 The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel

in one period.
Time and Frequency Domains

 Time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude

with respect to time.

 Frequency-domain plot is concerned with only the peak

value and the frequency.


Time and Frequency Domains
Time and Frequency Domains
Composite Signals
 A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data
communications; we need to send a composite signal, a signal
made of many simple sine waves.
 According to Fourier analysis, any composite signal is a
combination of simple sine waves with different frequencies,
amplitudes, and phases.
 If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a
series of signals with discrete frequencies; if the composite
signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition gives a combination of
sine waves with continuous frequencies.
Composite Signals
Bandwidth
 The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal

 The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference


between the highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.

 For example, if a composite signal contains frequencies


between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 − 1000, or
4000.
Example
 If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves
with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what
is its bandwidth?

 Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a


maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Example
 A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest
frequency is 60 Hz.

 What is the lowest frequency?

 Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of


the same amplitude.
Exercises
True or False
 Nonperiodic signals exhibit a repeating pattern over time.
 The frequency domain provides information about the
phase of a signal.
 The bandwidth of a signal can be zero if the highest and
lowest frequencies are the same.
 The phase of a sine wave indicates its amplitude.
 Time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with
respect to time.
True or False
 Nonperiodic signals exhibit a repeating pattern over time.
 The frequency domain provides information about the
phase of a signal.
 The bandwidth of a signal can be zero if the highest and
lowest frequencies are the same.
 The phase of a sine wave indicates its amplitude.
 Time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with
respect to time.
What type of data is described as having
continuous values?
o A) Digital Data
o B) Analog Data
o C) Discrete Data
o D) Binary Data
In the frequency domain, a sine wave is represented by:

o A) A continuous line

o B) A spike

o C) A sinusoidal curve

o D) A straight line
If a signal has a frequency of 2000 Hz, what is
its period?
o A) 0.0005 seconds
o B) 0.5 seconds
o C) 0.002 seconds
o D) 0.005 seconds
Practical
Python Code: Generating and Plotting Analog and
Digital Signals
Python Code: Generating and Plotting Sine Wave
To convert a signal from the frequency domain
back to the time domain
Project 2: Sine Wave Generator, Analyzer, and
Wavelength Calculator

 Create a comprehensive program that generates a sine

wave based on user-defined parameters (amplitude,

frequency, phase) and calculates its wavelength.

 The program will analyze the generated wave in both the

time and frequency domains.


Project 3: Composite Signal Visualizer and
Bandwidth Measurement
 Develop a program that generates and visualizes
composite signals made up of multiple sine waves, and
measures their bandwidth.

 This program will analyze the generated signals in both


the time and frequency domains, providing visual insights
and bandwidth calculations.
Project 3
 User Input:

• Prompt the user for parameters:


• Number of sine waves in the composite signal.

• For each sine wave, ask for:


• Amplitude (Peak Intensity)

• Frequency (Hz)

• Phase (in radians)

• Sampling Rate (Hz)

• Propagation Speed (m/s)


Task
Task

 What is the difference between digital and analog

signals?

 What are the key applications of digital signals?

 What are the main applications of analog signals?

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