Instrumentation engineering

Chapter one

Review of basic instrumentation

 Outlines
 General Principles of Instrumentation

Sensing element

Signal conditioning element

Signal processing element

Data presentation element

Sensors and their Applications

Ac bridges
 General Principles of Instrumentation
 Instrumentation is the science of automated measurement and control.
 The first step, naturally, is measurement. If we can’t measure something, it is really
pointless to try to control it.
 General structure of measurement and instrumentation system is shown bellow.

Sensing element
This is in contact with the process and gives an output which depends in some way
on the variable to be measured. Examples are:
• Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature
• Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain
• Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flow rate.
 Signal conditioning element
• This takes the output of the sensing element and converts it into a form more suit-
able for further processing, usually a d.c. voltage, d.c. current or frequency signal.
Examples are:
• Deflection bridge which converts an impedance change into a voltage change
• Amplifier which amplifies millivolts to volts
• Oscillator which converts an impedance change into a variable frequency
voltage
Signal processing element
This takes the output of the conditioning element and converts it into a form more
suitable for presentation. Examples are:
 Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a voltage into a digital
form for input to a computer
 Computer which calculates the measured value of the variable from the
incoming digital data
 Cont..
• Digital-to-analog converter, or DAC, performs the conversion of digital
signal in to analog signals
Examples of DAC are R/2nR DAC/ binary-weighted-input DAC & R/2R ladder
DAC
Examples of ADC are Flash or parallel ADC, Counter ADC & Slope integrating
ADC
 Data presentation element
This presents the measured value in a form which can be easily recognized
by the observer.
Examples are:
• Simple pointer–scale indicator
• Chart recorder
• Alphanumeric display
• Visual display unit (VDU
• Pointer deflection
• Cathode ray oscilloscope
• Digital display
 Sensors and their Applications
• A sensor is a converter that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal
which can be read by an observer or by an electronic instruments.
• Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons and
lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base. There are also innumerable
applications for sensors of which most people are never aware. Applications include
cars, machines, aerospace, medicine, manufacturing and robotics etc.
• In automation industry every mechatronic system has some sensors to measure the
status of the process variables
• In human controlled systems, the operator observes the behavior of the system,
makes a decision and then, using his muscular power to take a particular control
action is taken.
• In computer controlled systems the sensors replaces the eyes for observation,
actuators replace the muscle, and the computer replaces the human brain
 Cont…
• The main components of any automated system are shown bellow in block
diagram form.

• Sensor is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of sensing of a
physical phenomenon
 cont…
 Sensors are used to
• Inspect work
• Evaluate the conditions of work under progress.
• Facilitate the higher level monitoring of the manufacturing operation.
• Are used to translate a physical phenomenon into an acceptable signal that can be
analyzed for decision making
 Based on their mode of operation sensors can be Null Type & Deflection Type
Deflection Type :- are used in a physical setup where the output is proportional to
the measured quantity that is displayed.
Example:- potentiometer
Null Type:- any deflection due to the measured quantity is balanced by the opposing
calibrated force so that any imbalance is detected.
Example:- Wheatstone bridge
 Ac bridges
• Bridges are used to convert the output of resistive, capacitive and
inductive sensors into a voltage signal.
• Ac bridges are used to measure inductance and capacitances and all ac bridge
circuits are based on the Wheatstone bridge.
• Has four arms of impedance designated as ZA, ZB, ZN and ZX as shown bellow.
 Cont…
• Mathematically
 Cont…..
• The requirement for balance in any bridge circuit is that there is never a
potential difference between a and b in Figure above.
• This means that the voltages at a and b must not only be of the same
magnitude, but they must also be in phase, that is peak at the same time.
• With the Wheatstone bridge using pure resistors and a dc energizing supply, we
are concerned only with magnitude; there are no phase differences around the
circuit.
• Even with an a.c. supply, because the Wheatstone bridge uses pure resistors, the
values of which do not change with frequency, the bridge can still be balanced
by the adjustment of the voltage magnitudes at a and b provided an a.c.
sensitive null detector is used.
• If we now wish to use a bridge circuit with a sensor which contains a frequency
sensitive element (a reactance) then we run into problems when trying initially
to balance the bridge before applying the stimulus to the sensor.
 Cont..
• We now must balance both the magnitude and the phase of the voltages at a and b for
a zero response on the null detector.
• For the figure bellow the condition of ballance is given by

….. Magnitude condition

………… Phase condition

• Hence there are two balance conditions which must be satisfied in four arm Ac
bridges.
 cont…
• The common ac bridges are given bellow.
 Comparison Bridge: Capacitance
• Used to Measure an unknown capacitance by comparing with a known
capacitance
• Substitute in the balance equation: R1Rx − jR1 X cx = R2 R3 − jR2 X c3
R1Rx = R2 R3
R1 (R x − jX cx ) = (R3 − jX c 3 )R 2 − jR1 X cx = − jR2 X c3
Z 1 = R1 − jR1
1
= − jR2
1
ωCx ωC3
Z 2 = R2
R1C3 = R2Cx
Z 3 = R3 − jX c 3
R2
Z 4 = R x − jX cx Rx = R3
R1
R1
Cx = C3
R2
 Comparison Bridge: Inductance
• Used to Measure an unknown inductance by comparing with a known
inductance

where Rs=R3 and Ls=L3

 Schering Bridge
• Used extensively for the measurement of capacitance and the quality of
capacitor in term of D
• Dissipation factor tells us about the quality of a capacitor, how close the phase
angle of the capacitor is to the ideal value of 90 degree.
The impedance of the arm of the Schering
bridge is 1
Z1 =
1 / R1 + 1 / − jX c1
Z 2 = R2
Z 3 = − jX c 3
Z 4 = R x − jX x
 Cont..
• Expanding yields
Z2Z3 R2 ( − jX c 3 ) Equating the real and imaginary terms gives
Z4 = =
Z1 1
1 / R1 + 1 / − jX c1 C1
R x = R2
 1 1  C3
= R2 ( − jX c 3 ) − 
R
 1 jX c1  R1
C x = C3
 − j  1  R2
= R2   − jωC1 
 ωC3  R1 
j RC jR2
Rx − = 2 1−
ωCx C3 ωC3 R1
 Wien Bridge
• Used to Measure frequency of the voltage source using series RC in one arm
and parallel RC in the adjoining arm.
 Cont..
• Now the frequency is
 Hay Bridge
• Used to Measure an unknown inductance by comparing with a known
capacitance.
 Cont…….
• Solve the above equations simultaneously

• Inductive impedance has a resistive term in it because it is impossible to realize a

pure inductor. An inductor coil always has a resistive component, though this is
made as small as possible by designing the coil to have a high Q factor
(Q factor is the ratio inductive reactance/resistance)
 Maxwell Bridge
• Measure an unknown inductance in terms of a known capacitance
 Example-1
• The impedances of the basic ac bridge shown below are given as follows

• Determine the unknown impedance & comment

• Magnitude balance Magn on the parameter of the arm
• From Magnitude balance

• The second condition for bridge balance requires that the sum of the phase
angles of opposite arms be equal, therefore
Indicating that we are dealing with a capacitive element
 Example-2
• An ac bridge is in balance with the following constants: arm AB, R = 200 Ω in
series with L = 15.9 mH ; arm BC, R = 300 Ω in series with C = 0.265 µF; arm CD,
unknown; arm DA, = 450 Ω. The oscillator frequency is 1 kHz. Find the
constants of arm CD
 Example-3
• In the Maxwell bridge shown in Figure below let the fixed-value bridge
components have the following values: R3 =5 ohm; C = 1 mF. Calculate the
value of the unknown impedance (L u, R u)if R 1 = 159 ohm and R 2 = 10
ohm at balance.
THE END!