Lecture Notes

Course Name: Physics 2 (EEE)

Course Code: PHY 1213-0533
Course Teacher: Md. Kawser Ahmed Seyam
 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is a type of periodic motion in which a particle moves back and forth
about a fixed equilibrium position, such that its acceleration (a) is directly proportional to its displacement
(x) from the equilibrium position and is always directed towards it.
Properties of SHM:
1. Periodic
2. Harmonic
3. Straight
4. Acceleration (𝑎) is directly proportional to its displacement (x) from the equilibrium
position, a ∝ –x
5. Force always acts toward the equilibrium position. Force, F ∝ –x.
Time Period(T): The time taken by the particle to complete one full oscillation or cycle is called time
period.
1 2𝜋
𝑇= =
𝑓 𝜔
Unit of T is s(second).
Frequency(f): The number of oscillations or cycles completed per unit time is called frequency(f). It is
the reciprocal of the time period (T).

Unit of f is Hz (Hertz).
Angular frequency (𝝎): The rate at which the particle oscillates in terms of angular displacement per
unit time is called Angular frequency (𝜔).
2𝜋
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑇

Unit of 𝜔 is rad𝑠 −1 (radian per second)

Differential Equation of SHM

𝑑2 𝑥
+ 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2

Solution of the equation is,

x = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)
or, x = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)
Where, x is the displacement from equilibrium, 𝜔 is the angular frequency and 𝛿 is phase constant or
initial phase
Velocity, 𝑣 = 𝐴𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) = 𝜔√𝐴2 − 𝑥 2
Acceleration, 𝑎 = −𝐴𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) = − 𝜔2 𝑥
 Energy of SHO
Total energy: Potential Energy (𝐸𝑝 ) + Kinetic Energy (𝐸𝑘 )

Potential Energy:
The potential energy (U) of a simple harmonic oscillator (SHO) is the energy stored in the system due to
its displacement from the equilibrium position. It is given by:

𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑤 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑥
= ∫0 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑥2
= 𝑘 [2]
0
1
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2
1
Therefore, W = 𝐸𝑝 = 2
𝑘𝑥 2

This is 𝐸𝑝 as a function of displacement.

1
And, 𝐸𝑝 = 2
𝑘𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)

This is 𝐸𝑝 as a function of Time.

Kinetic Energy (𝐸𝑘 )

The kinetic energy of a system is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion. For a Simple
Harmonic Oscillator (SHO), the kinetic energy is the energy associated with the movement of the object
as it oscillates back and forth around its equilibrium position.
1 1
𝐸𝑘 = 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝜔2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 )
2 2
1
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑘(𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 )
2
This is 𝐸𝑘 as a function of displacement.
And,
1
𝐸𝑘 = 2
𝑘𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)
This is 𝐸𝑘 as a function of Time.
1 1 1
So, Total Energy, E = 𝐸𝑝 + 𝐸𝑘 = = 2
𝑘𝑥 2 + 2
𝑘(𝐴2 − 𝑥2) = 2
𝑘𝐴2

Graphical Representations

Potential Energy (𝑬𝒑 )

Kinetic Energy (𝑬𝒌 ):

Math Problem 1:

Questions:
I. What is the displacement at point P?
II. For any given time t prove, AB + AC = AD
 Spring-mass System

At Equilibrium,
kl = mg
For spring mass system,

𝑘 𝑔
𝜔= √ = √
𝑚 𝑙

1 𝑘 1 𝑔
𝑓= √ = √𝑙
2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋

𝑙 𝑚
T = 2𝜋 √𝑔 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑘

Math Problem 2:

A spring is attached from a rigid support and a mass is attached to its free end, the spring is
stretched by 8cm. When the mass is pulled and released, the SHO will be created Determine the
period and frequency of the spring.
Math Problem 3:

A spring is attached from a fixed support and a mass of 2kg is attached to its connecting end, so
the spring is stretched (in (– ve) or toward ground) of 0.08m by 0.1m and stands oscillating making
SHO.
I. Spring constant?
II. Angular frequency and amplitude?
III. Maximum velocity and maximum acceleration?
IV. v and a from displacement of 0.03m(from equilibrium)
V. Time period? frequency?
VI. Total Energy of S.H.M.
VII. In energy conserved at (x = 0.03m) from equilibrium?
VIII. Initial phase on phase constant?
IX. Equation of SHM?
X. x, v, t of the particle after 0.15s of the start?
XI. Is energy conserved after 3.15s of starting?

Torsional Pendulum
A disk suspended by a wire or shaft attached to the center of mass of disk, when rotated in horizontal
plane is called torsional pendulum or torsional oscillator.
Here, 𝜏𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∝ 𝜃 𝑜𝑟, 𝜏𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑘 𝜃

Restoring torque,
𝜏𝑟 = −𝑘 𝜃
𝜏𝑟 = 𝐼𝛼
So, we can write

𝐼𝛼 = −𝑘 𝜃
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑘
𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝐼
𝜃 =0

Which is similar to the differential equation of SHO.

Thus, the equation of motion of torsional pendulum is,
𝜃 = 𝜃𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
The time period of torsional pendulum will be,

𝐼
T = 2𝜋 √𝑘

The frequency of torsional pendulum will be,

1 𝑘
𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝐼

The velocity of torsional pendulum will be,

𝑣𝑡 = 𝜃𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

The acceleration of torsional pendulum will be,

𝑎𝑡= − 𝜔2 𝜃
 Two Body Oscillation (Coupled Oscillation)
Two masses connected with a spring
A system of two bodies connected by a spring so that both are free to oscillate simple harmonically along
the length of the spring constitutes a two-body harmonic oscillator or coupled oscillator.
Ex: Di-atomic molecules like CO, HCl etc.
Expansion in the spring, x =𝑥 = (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) − 𝑙0 …(1)
Now the Force in 𝑚1 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒
𝐹1 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑2 𝑥1 …(2)
𝑚1 𝑚2 = −𝑘𝑚2 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2

And the Force in 𝑚2 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒

𝐹1 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑 2 𝑥2 …(3)
𝑚1 𝑚2 = −𝑘𝑚1 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2

Subtracting equation (3) from (2)

𝑑2 𝑥1 𝑑2 𝑥2 …(4)
𝑚1 𝑚2 ( − ) = −𝑘𝑥(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
Differentiating equation (1) we get,
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥1 𝑑2 𝑥2 …(5)
= −
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
Equation (4) can be written as,
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑑2 𝑥1 𝑑2 𝑥2
( − ) = −𝑘𝑥
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2 𝑥
𝜇 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
2
= − 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝜇
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘 …(6)
𝑑𝑡 2
+𝜇𝑥 = 0
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝜇= 𝑚1 +𝑚2
which is called reduced mass of the system.

For two body oscillators

𝑘
𝜔 = √𝜇

1 𝑘
𝑓= 2𝜋
√𝜇

𝜇
T = 2𝜋 √𝑘

𝑥 1
And potential Energy = 𝑈 = 𝐸𝑝 = ∫0 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2
𝑘𝑥 2
 Damped Oscillation
A real oscillating system will overtime experience a decrease in amplitude because of internal friction and
air resistance. This is called damped oscillation.

Damping force:
𝑓𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 = −𝑏𝑣

For a damped oscillator,

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

−𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑚𝑎 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏𝑣 = 0
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑑𝑡
=0

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 …(1)
+ 𝑘𝑥 + =0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡
Solution of (1) is,

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝛾𝑡 cos (𝜔′ 𝑡 + 𝜑) …(2)

Here,
𝑘 𝑏2 𝑏
𝜔′ = √𝑚 − 4𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 = 2𝑚

Therefore (2) can be written as

𝑏
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −2𝑚𝑡 cos (𝜔′ 𝑡 + 𝜑)
Damped oscillation will be called,
I. Overdamped if 𝑏 2 ≫ 4𝑚𝑘
II. Underdamped if 𝑏 2 < 4𝑚𝑘
III. Critically damped if 𝑏 2 = 4𝑚𝑘

𝑏
Damped Energy, E ≈ 𝑘𝑥 2 𝑒 −2𝑚𝑡
 Waves

In physics, a wave is defined as a disturbance. or oscillation or vibration that travels through space and
matter, transferring energy from one point to another without the transport of matter itself. Waves can
propagate through different mediums (e.g. Air, water, solid materials) or even in a vacuum (in the case of
electromagnetic waves).

1. Based on Medium of Propagation:

(a) Mechanical Waves:
• Require a medium (solid, liquid, or gas) to propagate.
• Examples: Sound waves, water waves, seismic waves.
• Subtypes:
o Longitudinal Waves: Particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of wave
propagation (e.g., sound waves).
o Transverse Waves: Particles vibrate perpendicular to the wave's direction (e.g., water
waves, waves on a string).
(b) Electromagnetic Waves:
• Do not require a medium and can travel through a vacuum.
• Consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields.
• Examples: Light, radio waves, X-rays, microwaves.

2. Based on Direction of Particle Motion:

(a) Transverse Waves:
• The motion of particles is perpendicular to the wave's direction of travel.
• Examples: Light waves, water surface waves.
(b) Longitudinal Waves:
• The motion of particles is parallel to the wave's direction.
 • Examples: Sound waves, pressure waves.
(c) Surface Waves:
• A combination of transverse and longitudinal waves.
• Particles move in a circular or elliptical path.
• Example: Waves on the surface of water.

3. Based on Shape:
(a) Plane Waves:
• Wavefronts are flat and propagate in a straight line.
(b) Spherical Waves:
• Wavefronts form expanding or contracting spheres, such as sound waves radiating from a point
source.

4. Based on Energy Transfer:

(a) Progressive Waves:
• Energy is transferred continuously from one point to another.
• Examples: Sound waves, light waves.
(b) Standing Waves:
• Energy does not propagate; instead, nodes and antinodes are formed.
• Examples: Vibrations in a string fixed at both ends.

5. Special Types of Waves:

(a) Matter Waves:
• Associated with particles of matter, based on quantum mechanics.
• Examples: Electron waves, de Broglie waves.
(b) Shock Waves:
• High-energy waves that propagate faster than the speed of sound in a medium.
• Examples: Sonic booms, explosions.
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