<br>

UNIT 2

Sequences and Series

Infinite series are sums that involve infinity many terms. Since adding all terms in an
infnite series directly is an impossible task, we need to define the meaning of the um of
an infinite series. To achieve this task we need to define a sequence and its convergence,
which we have taken up in the first section. In the subsequent sections we develop tools
for determining which infinite series have finite sums and which do not.

2.1 Sequences
A sequence is a function whose domain is the set of integers.
is an alternative notation for the function f(n) =
an, = 1,2, 3,.. ..
fan}1

2.1.1 Limit of a Sequence

Asequence {an} is said to converge to the limit L if given
e > 0, there is a positive integer
N such that -
an L
<€, n>N
In this case we write
lim an=L

A sequence which is not convergent is called a divergent sequence.

1. Examine the convergence of the following sequences:

(a) (b) 2n
2n + 1,nel t lJn=1

Solution:r.I
(a) Let an
2n + 1

43
<br>

44 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

Then
7.
n(2 + +
1/n) 2+1/n
liu dy
2+0 2

The sequence converges.

(b) 2n +
1Jn=l

-{ 2
5' 7'
3 4
9'"

2rn - 1
|
1

and the even num

the odd numbered sequence 4n
Converges to
2
-1)n1
bered sequence
-2n converges to
1

4n + 2
the given sequence diverges.
2. Findthe limits of the sequence

Solution:
lim is an indeterminant form.

Therefore by IHopital rule

1
lim lim =0

Next, we state a theorem without proof.

Therom: A sequence converges tO a limit Lif the sequence of even-numbered terms
and odd numbered terms both converge to L.
3. Examine the convergence of the sequences:
1 1 1

(a) (b) 1, 2, 22,...,2",.

Solution:

(a) Let an =
.
Then lim ) =
0, since 0 <
0<<l.
2
1
Therefore, fan}}n0
ConVergAs to )
<br>

(b) Let a,y = 2". Then lin " 0, since 2 I. Therefore, {a,}0 diverges.
7.)

4. Show that linn n/= I.

?7-O

Solution:
By L. Hopital rule,
log n. =
lim lim =0 (1)
1

Therefore,

lim n'/n = lim elog(n'/")

= lim en1 logr

=e', by (1)
=1

2.2 Sequencing Theoremn

Let fan}, fbn} and fcn} be sequences such that an S bn S cn, n N.
Then, lim bn = L, if lim an = L= lim cn

n!
1. Show that lim =0
Solution:
n!
Let an Then

1!
aj = 1
=1

2! 1x 2
1
22
2x 2 2
3
3! 1x2 2
V
33 3 x3 x3 3× 3 3

4! 1x 2 >X
3 × 4 3 1
V
44 4 x 4 x 4 x 4 32 4

! 1x 2 x 3 X... X n 2x3 >X... X n 1

VI
n
nX n X n X...X m \ n
X n X ... X
<br>

46 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

(1 ) times.

Thus:

7. (1)
1

Since lim
=
0, by sequence theorem (1) > 7L--C
27-N )

i.e., lim =)

Theron: Prove that lim an = 0 lim,oo

n
= 0

Proof:
We have,
(1)

with
lim anl=0 and lim - lan= 0
Therefore, by sequence theorem, (1) lim an =0.

Infinite Series
Definition: If {u1, u2, u3,...} is a sequence of real numbers then u1 + + ug
u
t
Un iS called a series.

1. If all the terms of a series are positive number then we say that the series is a series
1 1
of positive terms.
E.g:1+,t,t..
2 3 .=limn=l
2. If both positive and negative numbers occur in a series
then the series is said to be a
series of positiveand negative terms.
1 1 1
E.g:
1--tit;t.)
3. If positive and negative terms occur alternatively, then we say that the series is an
alternating series.
1 1 1
E.g:
1-5t3 4 n=1
 Sequences 47
<br>

arnd Series

2.3 Convergence of a Series

Let u1 + u2 t u3 t.. real numbers. Let s1 = u], 82 = U1 + u2,.
be a given series of

Then the sequence {s1, $2, S%,...} is said to bethe sequence of

the partial sums of the series ) lun. We say that the series S Uy, COnverges (or) diverges
according as the sequence (s1, 82,
.., ns..} converges or diverges.
m=1

Example

Consider the series

n=1 n(n + 1)
1 1 1
Let un Then
n(n+ 1) n
+1
Sn = W] t u2 t...+Un

-(+-)+6-)*.* ( 1

n+1
1
=1
n+1
Therefore,
lim Sn =1-0=1
1
Hence the sequence fSn} and therefore the series 1) COnverges.
m=l n=1 n(n+
Therom: Let an, be a series of positive terms which converges.
Then lim ap = 0.
Proof:
Let sn = aj + az +...+ an. Then an converges implies that the sequence fs,}
converges.
Let lim s, = e. Then

an = Sn Sn-1
lim a= lim Sn -
lim sp-1
=l-l=0
<br>

48 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

2.4 Divergence Test

Taking contrapositive of the above result, we get that

op 0 an diverges.
lin

Note: The converse of the above theorem is not true, since lim 0: but the series
1

diverges.
27.

1. Exanmine the convergence of the series 8(

n=1 n
+1
Solution:
-1
Let an 1
n+1 (1+
1
1+
1 1
Then lim an = lim
1+
1 1+0 =1#0

Therefore, by the divergence test the given series is divergent.

1 n+1
2. Test the convergence of the following series:

(a)
n=1 (n t 1) (n + 2)

(b) V +
2 3 +V
4 2(n +1) +
Solution:
n2
(1) Let un
(n+1)(n+ 2)
(Note: In un, degree of NT = degree of
Dr= 2.)
Then,

= n2
lim un lim

(1+)(1+)
(1 L)1Lo) =l#0
<br>

Sequences and Series 49

The given series diverges.

(2) Let ln /2(n+ 1)

Then

lim un = lim
2n( 1+
1

V 2(1+0)

The given series diverges.

2.4.1 Convergence of a geometric series:

A geometric series
at ar + ar+ + arn + (a 0)

converges if r <l and diverges if r|>1.

If the series converges, then the sum is

iMe
ar"
n=0

1. Determine whether the following series converges, and if so find its sum:
M80 2
(a)
037
IM:
(b) S 22n .gl-n
Solution:
2
(a) Let an Then
3n
-M:
0
--2+2() +*()*..
0
<br>

Ready Reckoner for Matrices and

Calculus
50

This is a geometric series with a =

2
and 3
since r
=,<
3
1, the geometric
(. 2 2
= 3
series converges. Its sum is 1 -
1

3 3

(b) Let

an = 227.3l-n
= (2)" x 3
3n )
Then
-Me -M:

2
3 +3 +...
4
This is a geometric series with commÔn ratio T= 3 Since rl> 1, the geometric
series diverges.
2. Find the rational number represented by the repeating decimal 0.234234234
Solution:

0.234234234 =0.234+ 0.000234 +

0.000000234 +...
234 234 234
103 106 109
+
234 1
This is a geometric series with a=
103103
1
SinceT=
103 <1, the series converges and its sum is

234
103 234
1
1-r 1 999
103

3
3. Find the sum of the series 4n-1
<br>

Sequences and Series 51

We have,

E-)'+()+..
2=1

1
1

1 1
since this series is a geometric series with a = =
2

-- =1

3 3 3

n=1
4n-1 =3+7t 42
1
3
since a =3 and =
r

1-} 4
3
3 =4
4

Hence,

13 1
- 3

m=1
2r m=l
4n-1
n=l
=
=1–4 -3

2.5 The Integral Test

The following result show the relationship between the convergence of a series and an
integral known as the integral test:
Let S uK be a series of positive numbers. If f is a decreasing and continuous [a, oo)
both
satisfying f(n) = un, for all
K> a, then the series n=1' y integral
and the integral f)da
f(¢)dz
Converge or both diverge.

1. Examine the convergence of the following series using integral test:

0 1
(a) (b)
n
1 1

Solution:
<br>

Ready lReckoner for Marices and

Calulus
52

(:) Lot f()

function On 1,). Furthe,
Then f(.r) is a deercasing and continuous

|f() dr=

= ln oo-In 1
=
O0 -0=oo

Jre
f(z) dz diverges.
1

Therefore, by the integral test the series is divergent.

1 n
1
(b) Let f(¢) =
Then f(z) is a decreasing and continuous function on (1, o). Further,

f(æ)de =
1

=-[0-1] =1
1
Therefore, by the integral test the series
K2 Converges.
K=1

2.6 p-Series
The following is a test to examine the conmvergence
of p-series:
Therom: (Convergence of p-series):
1
1
=1+ 2P
+ 3p
n=1
<br>

Proof:

Let p =
1

Case (1):

Then. diverges, which was previously proved.

Let 1
Case (2):

Then, f(e)= is a decreasing and continuous function on (1,oo). Further,

X

1
dæ
1

1
= lim da
bo0
1

= lim
bop+1]1
1
= lim (1)
boo 1-p 1-p

Let p >
1. Then, 1 -p<0. Therefore,

lim b-p =0
Therefore, from (1),
1 1 1
-da = 0
=
1-p p-1
1

by integral test, O
1
n converges if p > 1.

< p
Let 0
<1. Then, 1 -p0. Therefore,

bo
lim b-P = o
Therefore,from (1),
1
dc = O0
<br>

Caleulus
54 Ready Reckoner for M:alrices and

dr diverCs.

by integral test. diverges if 0

<p <l.

1. Determine whether the series )sec hn converges.

n=1

Solution:
on [1, o0). Further
Let f(¢) = sec hz, Then
f is decreasing and continuous function

f(z)da = sec
h²zda
1

lim sec h²z dæ

1

lim (tan h(b) – tan h(1)] (1)

tan hb =
e-e-b
eb +e-b
e-b

e e

eb

1-e-26
1+e-2b
lim tan hb = 1-0

Therefore, from (1),

sec
h²da=1- tan h(1)

-1-te)
=l
<br>

Sequences and Series 55

e2 +1
2
e2++1

sec hcda converges.

1

Therefore, by the integral test, the series sec h²n converges.

=l

2. Examine the convergence of the series: (Using the integral test)

1 4 9 16 .
(a) -+
e
+ + e4 t..
1
(b)
n=2 n log n
1
(c)
n=1 n(n +1)

Solution:

(a). Let un = Then uz ae-a

en'
Glearly Ug iS COntinuous in 1 <T<oo and
uy =-e +
2xe

-z(2 - 2) for 2
<¢<O0
e
<0

Ug is decreasing in 2 < < oo.

<br>

50 Rely Reckone tor Mattices mlCaleulus

NOw.

e
0 (4 4442)|
l0-2 finite

Therefore, by the integral test, ay converges and hence

n=1
n also converzes.
n=2

1 1
(b). Let um Then Ua is clearly continuous in 2<z< and
n log n

-1 1 a
log æ)2 ,tlog <0 for 2 <I<Oo
(z
Ug iS decreasing in 2
<I<0.

1
dz
-dæ =
log
2 2
= [log(log t)l =oo

Therefore, by the integral test, Uy divergence.

m=2

1
(c). Let un =
n(n + 1)

Then ug = is clearly continuous in 1 <¢ <Koo. Further,

z(a + 1)
-1
{æ(1) + (z + 1)(1)}
[z(* + 1)]2
-(2* + 1)
<0, for 1 <C<O0
a?(z+ 1)2
<br>

Sequences and Series 57

u
is decreasing in 1
< :< o. Now,
1
Uy da =
æ(æ + 1)

-/(?-)1
1
dæ

= [log z - log(z + 1)

C+1

(1++)
1
= log
() log
1+1
= log 1 - log
=0- {log 1 - log 2}

= log 2, finite

Therefore, by the integral test, Un Converges.

n=1

2.7 The Comparison, Ratio and Root Tests

In this section we see some more basic convergence tests, namely ratio and root tests. We
start with

Comparison Test:

Let an,
and by,
be series of non-negative numberssuch that a, < bn .
Then,
(a) an Converges if >b, converges
1 1

, diverges
(b) if 5
a, diverges.
<br>

58 Ready Reckoner for Matriccs and Calculus

series using comparison test:

1. Exannine the convergence of the following

(a) (b)

Solution:
1

Let dn =
1 1
Choose bn = Then n> Vn
2

1
for n = 1,2,...
1
(1)

Vn

bn - Ea(with p=<1)
1
By the convergence of p-series, diverges. There
1
1
fore, by the comparison test, the series an = also diverge.
1

1
(b) Let a
n
3n+
1
Choose bn= Then 3n +n>3n', for each n = 1,2....
3n2
1
(1)
3n +n 342

1
By the convergence of the p-series, p
1) converges. Therefore,
1
(with =2>
0 1

=ba also converges. Hence, by the comparison test, (1) thesernes

1 3n2 1
1
an converges.
1
3n +n also

2.7.1 The Limit Comparison Test

Let an, and bn

be series with positive term and let,
1

p= lim
bn
Ifp is finite and p>0, then the series both converge or both diverge.
<br>

Sequences and Series 59

Problems
Test the convergence of the following series (using Limit comparison test)
1
1.
7.107.10.13 10.13.16 +

2.
n=1
(Va+1- Vn-1)
3.
72
)(V+1-n)
+ ...
1 1 1
4.
23 g8(l+2) t s(l+2+3) + (1+2+3+4)
1 22 33 44
5. 1+ 22 + 33 55 t..
iM8 1
6.
+ n)P(6 + n)9' (p.q > 0)
n=1 (a

Solution:
1 4
1. + 10.13.16
4.7.10 7.10.13

Consider:
1, 4,9,.... Its nn term is = n.
7, 10,... (A.P). a = 4, d=3. It is nth term is
4,

=a+ (n - 1)d= 4+ (n- 1)(3) = 4+ 3n

-3=3n +1
7, 10, 13,... (A.P). Its nth term is

+ 4
=7+ (n- 1)(3) =3n

10, 13, 16, ... (A.P). Its nth term is

= 10 + (n- 1)(3) = 3n +7
Therefore, let

(3n +
1)(3n +
4)(3n+7)
(Here: the degree of NT = 2 and the degree of D" = 3.
<br>

60 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

degree of N
degree of ). Therefore, we apply limit comparison test

Let.

Iwhere = degree of D" - degree of N"

1 1

n3-2

Then,

X
(3r + 1)(3n + 4)(3n + 7)
+ 1

n n
(3+)n(3+) (3+)
1

lim
(3+0)(3 +0)(3 +0)
1

27 #0
Hence, by the limit comparison test both un Un Converge or diverge together.

Here n = , diverges.

Therefore, n also diverges.

2. Let un = Vn+1-Vn?-1
|Vn+1- Vn-1Vn+1+ Vn'-1
Vn2+1+ Vn-1
(n?+1) -(n²- 1)
Vn'+1+ Vn'-1
2

Vn'+i+ Vn-1
<br>

Sequences and Series 61

Let v
Then

2
Vn'+1+ Vn'-1 1
2

n{V1+t/i-}
2
lim
V1+0+ 1–0
2
1+1 =1#0
ence, both andun converge or diverge together. Here,
m n = , diverges.
herefore, un also diverges.
Let auy =
n+1- n. Then
- n
Uy= (n+1)°
-e(1+)
1/3
1+
1 1

=nl+

=n+ 3n2
1
+.
3n2
1
Let Un Then

3n2 t...
1

-nt..)
3n2
1
+ terms involvimg n in the denominator
3
1

lim 3
+0=;#0
3

Hence, both > n and v converge or diverge together.

<br>

62 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

Converges. Thercfore, the series>y also converges.

Here, S
7)=1

4.
3 t
+
2) +
3l+2+3) +...
Its th tern is given by
1
)3(+2+3+...+2)
(n+
1
n(n+ 1)

(n+ 1)3 2

2 (n+1)2

Let vn =
1 Then

2(rn + 1)2 1
Un

2n2 (1 + ) 2

Therefore,
1
lim. lim
2(1+ )*
1
,#0
2

Hence, both ln, and >Un converge or diverge together.

Here, Un
== diverges. Therefore, the given series
n
also diverges.

ser
5. To find the nth termnof the given series it is easier if we omit the first term of the
not affect
Omitting a finite number of terms at the beginning of the series will
convergence/divergence of a series. So, consider the series
11 22 33 44
22 44 +

n
N
=n and that of D
= n +1.
Let un Then the degree of
(n+1)n-+1 "
<br>

Let = Then

+
(n I)"|

[n (1+ )"!
722+1

nt1 (1+**
1

(1+)+1
1 1

(1+y" (1+)
1 1
lim lim (1+ H)" (1+4)
1 1 1

1+0
=÷#0
e

Therefore, un and n converge or diverge together.

Here: Un = =
diverges. Hence the seriesUn also diverges.

1
Let un Let U Then
(a + n)P(6 + n)9
1
+ n)
(a n)P(b+ 1

nP
(+1) (+1)*
1

+1) (+1)"
1
lim
(0+1)P(0+ 1)9 =l#0

U, converge or divergetogether.
Hence, both, and

Here, Un =
1
Converges if +q>l and diverge
p if p +
g<1. Therefore, the
nptg p
gIven series>un converges if +g> l and diverges if +9Sl.
p
<br>

64 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

2.7.2 Ratio Test

Let n
be a serics with positive ternms and let

p= lim

a) Ifp <l, the series converges.

b) If p>1, or
p= 0, the series diverges

p
c) If =1, the test fails.

Problen:Test the convergence of the series (using Ratio Test)

n!27
1.
S n
m=1

2.
4 4-7 4-7-10
3 3-5 3-5-7

1
3 1·3 1·3-5
36
+
3-6.9

4. 1+
2 14
3 27 –2
2m 4 1 t..., >0

5.

6.
n=1 ch + 1

Solution:
<br>

Sequences and Series 65

7n!2?2
Then un+1 (2 + 1)!2-+1
1. Let un= Then
(n + 1)+l
(n + 1)!272-+1
(n + 1)t1
(n+ 1)·2'n"
+
(n+1)(n 1)n
[since: (n + 1)! = nl(rn + 1)]
1
=2:

2
(1+)"
1
lim =2 lim
(1+)"
1 2
= 2. =<1,

since 2
<e<3. Therefore, bythe ratio test, the given series converges.

un= 4.7-
2. Let
10...(3r 1)
Then
3-5-5:7...(2rn +1)
+ + 4)
4·7-10...(3rn 1)(3rn

3-5-5-7...(2rn+ 1)(2n +3)

4,7, 10,... 3,5,7,..

Here: a= 4, d=3 Here: a=3, d= 2

=a+ (- 1)d tn = a+ (- 1)d

tn
=4+ (n- 1)(3) =3+(n- 1)(2)
3n + 1 = 2n +1

Therefore,
3n + 4
2n +3
(3+ ) n

n
(2+)
3 +0 3
>1
lim 2
2+0
<br>

66 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

Hence, by the ratiotest, the given series diverges.

|3-5...(2n- )
3. Let = Then
36.9...3.
1:3-5.. .(2n – 1)(2n
+
+
1)
-. Hence,
3)
3-6-9...3n(3n
Untl 2r + 1

3n + 3
n
(2+)
n (3+ 3)
Unt1 20 2
lim 3
<1
3+0
Hence, by the Ratio test, the given series converges.

27 2
2nt12
4. Let U zn-1, Then Unt1 = 2n+1 -T". Hence
27 +1 41
n+12 2" + 1
2n+1 + 1 (2n - 2).n-1
2n+1 (1–2
2n+1
2r (1+
2n+1 (1+ n+I) 27
(1-n)
lim
(1-0) (1+0)
(1+ 0) (1–0)
Therefore, by ratio test:
(i) if z<1, thenun Converges.
(ii) if s > 1,
thenun diverges.
(iii) if z=1, the test fails.
When C= 1,

2 –2
2
+1
-
2"((1
2 (1 + )
<br>

Sequences and Series 67

lim u. 1-0
X

Sun diverges when a = 1.

n+1 r.
5. Let = Then ut1 =
(n + 1)2 + 1-a+1, Hence

n²+1
(n+ 1)+1
n(1+) n (1+)
|n (1+)]'+1
(1+) n'(1+)
n? (1+)+1
(1+) n²(1+
n²(1+)++
lim Untl
(1+0)(1 +0)
(1+0)2 +0

Therefore, by ratio test,

(1) if z
<1, thenUy converges

(i1) if z > 1, then un diverges.

(ii) if = 1, the test fails.

1
When I=1, Un Let Un = Then
n2+1

n' +1
1
n² (1+)
1

lim 1+0 =1#0

>un and Un converge or diverge together.
Therefore,
z
1
is divergent. Hence,un,
is divergent, if =1.
Here, Un =)
<br>

68 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

6. Let un Then hy+1 = a:141 - 1

Hence

z(z" + 1)

a:-+1 1 cTtl +1

Case (i): Let ()

<*<1. Then, we
know that lim c" = 0. Therefore, from (1)

a(0+ 1) =¢ <1
lim 0
+1
n
COnverges.

Case (ii): Let

z>1. Then lim =0. Therefore,

lim Ur = lim
1

= lim
1+0 I0
n
diverges.
1
Case (iii): Let a= 1. Then un Therefore,
1+1
1
lim un 0
2
un diverges.

2.7.3 Root Test

Let )n be a series with positive terms and let

p= lim (u)'/
(a) If p<1, the series converges.
p
(b) If >1, the series diverges.
(c) If p= 1, the test fails.
Problem:Examine the convergence of the series:
3n + 5
(a)
m=2 2n 1
(b)
-
7=1 n(n + 1)]"
<br>

Sequences and Series 69

Solution:
+5
(a) Let ln Then

3n + 5 1/n
2n -1l

3n +5 n (3+ 5)
2n - 1 n
(2-1)
3 +0
lim un =
3
2-0 2 >1
+ by the root test, the series

3n +5\ diverges
2 2
2rn -7
1
(b) Let un Then
[In(n + 1)"
1

|In(n + 1)]n In(n + 1)

u/= lim
In(n + 1) =0 <1
lim

by the root test, the series

1
Converges
1 1
log(z + 1)]"

Z.8 “Alternating Series: Absolute and Conditional

Convergence"

Z9Tan = aj -d t ag - aa +... is an alternating series if each a, > 0, since terms

alternate between positive and negative.

<br>

70 Ready Reckoner for Matriccs and Calculus

Alternative Series 'Iest: (ILeibnitz:'s Test)

The alternating serics >( D"a with , > 0, for each n, converges if

and

(ii) lin d) = ()

Problenm: Examine the convergence of the following alternating series: (using Leibni:
Test)

1 1 1

1.
1-;+-it
2

2. 0
<p<1
n=1

3.
1+ 1+2 1+23
1 1 1
4.
1.2 3.4 5
.6 7.8

3 4 5
5.
2-5t3 4
+

1 1
1
6.
23 g3(l +2) + 8(+2+3) -(1 +2+3+ 4) +...
Solution:
1
1 1
1. Let Uy, = >0. Then up = Untl and lim un = lim = 0. Hence, b

Leibnitz's test,the alternating series 1 . 1S

9t,t 3
Convergent.

1
2.. Let uy = Then < 1, since p >
(n + 1)
(1+)
Hence, unt < u.
Further, each u, > 0. We have, lim u, = lim
1
=0, since
p >

Therefore, by Leibnitz's test, the given alternating series converges.

<br>

Sequences and Series 71

3. Un >0, foT each l, since 0

<æl.
1+."

Furthet,
14- -+1

+
a" (1 t)– aut(1+ ¢")
(1+¢") (1+ a+1)
a2n+1
(1+ ¢") (1 + z+1)
a"(1-)
>0 (since 0 < « < 1)
(1+ ¢) (1+ ¢+)

Finally,
0
lm un = lim =0,
1+0
since: 0<e<Kl lim =0.

Thus, we have shown that, all conditions of Leibnitz's theorem are satisfied. Therefore,
Uy COnverges.

1 1
4. Let >0. Then, each un > 0
and unt1
Un (2rn + 1)(2rn + 2)
(2n- 1) 27
. . .
1 1,3,5,7, .. ,2n -1 n=0
- 1)2rn
.

(2n 2,4, 6, 8, ,2n n=0

Further, lim Un = lim (2n - 1)2n = 0. Therefore, by the Leibnitz's test, the given

alternating series converges.

n+ 2 n
+1 2, 3,4, ...,n+ 1

5. Let Uy
= >0. Then un+1 = 1,2, 3,.. ,n
n+1
But, = 1
= lim 1+)=1+0 #0
lim u, = lin
Hence, the given alternating series diverges.
<br>

and Calculus
72 Ready Reckoner for Matrices

6. Let
+ n)
D3+2 +3+...
n(n + 1)
(7n + 1)3 2

>0, for each n

2(n + 1)2

Further,
n+1 < 2(n + 1)2
2(n + 2)2

and
lim un = lim 2(n + lim )2 =0
1)2 n-o 2n2 (1 +)"
given alternating series converges.
Therefore, by the Leibnitz's test the

2.9 Absolute convergence

A
series Un U + u
t... is said to converges absolutely if the series
1

1
lunl=lul+ luz t...
-M8
uy is said to diverge absolutely
Converges. Series > if
1
lunldiverges.

Result:

If the series >ln Converges absolutely, then the series converge.

2.9.1 Conditional convergence:

series is said to be conditionally convergent if it converges and diverges absolutely
A

Problem:Test for absolute and conditional convergence of the following series of postu
and negative terms:
1 1 1

1. 22 52 62 72T
<br>

Sequences and Series 73

2.
N=l

3.

COS 7T
4.

5.
n=1
2 - 1

1 1
6.
93
a3(1 +2)+(1+2 + 3)
-(1 +2+3+ +... 4)

Solution:

1
1. 1
92 32
+ 42
+
as:
Consider the series obtained by taking absolute value of each term
1
1 1
1+ 22
+ 32 42 52 t...

converges absolutely (and therefore the

a convergent series. Hence, the given series
given series converges)

(-1)"g"
2. Test the convergence of the series
n=1 n+1
Solution:

The given series is

(-1)"an
n=l
+1 n

n=1

n=1
n
+1
=l
<br>

Matrices and Calculus

74 Ready Reckoner for

Then
Let an =

Consider the series n+1

n
+2
1+

(1+5

(1+)
1+

Case 1: Let z<1. Then

HloN

+
an+1 lim
lim 2
1+

1+0)

Therefore, by the Ratio test, an converges.

n=l

ie., un converges. i.e., >

n=l
n converges absolutely.9e snogavnco
n=1

Case 2: Let z
=1. Then a = t.
Case 2(i): Let z= 1. Then:
1

n t1 2 3 4
n=1 n=

an alternating series. Let u, =(-1)" b,,. Then b,, =

We have:
n
t1
(i) each b, >0
1 1

(ii) bnt1 = = b, and

n
+2
n
+1
<br>

lolsD bas 2oiisSequences and Series 75

(ii) lim bn = lim 0. Thus all conditions of Leibnitz's

test are satisfied.
S
Hence, Un COnverges.
n=1

Case2(ii): Let =-1. Then

-1"
n=1 n=1

(-1)2n
n

n=1
+1
1

n=1
n
+1
1
Let Un = Then Un= S, 1 diverges. Now
n=1

lim = lim -vetolozds eogovnos

= lim
n(1+ n

1
= lim
(1+)
1

1+0 =1#0
converge or diverge together.
Therefore, by the limit comparison test >u, and
Un

But), is divergent. Hence, un is divergent.

n=1

3. t..=
V3 V4 n=1 n=l

where Un (-1)n-'" Then

<br>

76 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

Let dn
|" Therefore,
n=1 n=l Vn Vn
Vn

Vn

1
/1+
Case 1: Let z < 1. Then
1

lim
Un+1
lim
·lz| = |z|<1
1
1+

Hence, by the ratio test, the series un converges, if < 1. i.e., The given serie

Un converges absolutely if <1. zl

Case 2: Let z
=1. Then z = t1.

(-1)n-1 1
Case 2(i): Let s= 1. Then > un = = E(-1)-'bn, where b, =
n=l n=l Vn n=1
0, for each n.
1 1

bn+1 = < = bn and

Vn+1 lim b, =0
Therefore, by the Leibnitz's test the given series converges x
if =1.

Case 2(ii): Let a = -1. Then

iM:
m=1 n=1
Vn

m=l
<br>

2ulole b o
Sequences and Series 77

n=1
1

We know that by p-test the series S

diverges and hence the series u, diverges
z = -1. nl/2
if n=1

COS NT
4.

Consider the series obtained by taking absolute 1

value of each term as
1
Note that converges. Therefore, by the comparison test the series
1
n=1 n?
converges.
Hence, the given series converges absolutely.

(-1)n-1
5. Let un = 2n 1 Then
1

2n - 1

1 1 1
n
diverges. Therefore, by the comparison test
Note that
- and
- 1
2n
=
1

un| diverges.
n=1 2n

=l
2n -1 n=1
Let
iMe (-1)-1
2n - -X)"-'ans
1
m=1
n=l
1
where >0, and
2n-1
1
lim a, =0
2n
+ 1
2n -1
wo
Therefore, bythe Leibnitz's test the alternating series Un Converges.co
n=1

Hence, the given series converges conditionally.

0. Consider the series obtained by taking absolute value of each
term as

23
1
+1+2)+ 43(1 +2+3) +...
<br>

78 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

Let
+
D3 2+3+.
.. + n)
(n
Then,
n(n+ 1)

(n + 1)2 2

2(n + 1)2

Let bn = -.
1
Then,

eeat bn 2(n+ 1)2ovno

n?
2n2
()
1

Therefore,
n
p= lim
1

lim 2
2
2(1+)
and p > 0.
p
is finite

Therefore, by Limit comparison test,the series obtained by taking absolute

value of ead
term of thegiven series diverges, since
bn=)÷=
1
b, is divergent.
Now, consider the given alternating
series C(-1)"tn, Wherear vd stoi9
+2+3+...+n)
n(n + 1)
(n+1j3 2 2(n + 1)2
<br>

DUDeD has ousSequences and Series 79

Then un > Untl for each n and

lim
2(n + 1)2 lim
2n2
()
1

= lim
2n

Therefore, the given alternating series converges.

We have proved above that the series
obtained by taking absolute value of
each term of this alternating series diverges. There
fore, the given series converges conditionally.

2.10 Two Mark Questions

and Answerso
1. Examine the convergence of the sequence
|2n 1, n=1
+

Solution:
Let an Then
2n + 1

lim a= lim
no 2n +
1 909g19vnoD sru snirasa
= lim
no 2+ 1/n) oulo2
1
bas
2+0 2

sequence {an} isconvergent.

Vk +1 Vk
2. Show that) 1

k=1
Solution:
0
Let ak
Vk2 + k
Then,
Vk Vk+1 Vk
Vk +1
ak = Vk+IVk Vk+IVk Vk+IVk
<br>

80 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

Vk
- Vk + 1

...
Let s = at a) + ak. Then
1
1 1

Vk+1
1

=1– Vk +1
g
Therefore,oeenosie stsyo
(,1 -1-0=1dboc
lim
koo s lim1oN
=
ko0 s
Hence, the sequence s}R Converges to l.

converges to EMow ore

Thus, the series ap
1.benoe9uO
k=1
X

That is, =
a 1

k=1
Vk+1 Vk obslo2
=1
k=1
Vk² + k

3k
3. Examine the convergence of the series 2k + 4

k=1
k7- k3
+2
Solution:
3k 2k' + 4
Let ak 1
and let by
k7- kö
+2
Then,
3k3 2k2+ 4
bk X
k(3-+)nupa
k7- k3 +2 1

lim 3-0 +0 3
bk 1-0 0

Therefore, by the limit comparison

gether.
test,
a and > b; Convergenoulo2
or diverge
)b =) s Convergent, by p-test (as p > 1). Hence,
)as is also converge
<br>

bsoo Sequences and Series 81

4. Examine the convergence of the sequence

27n +

Solution:
1Jl
Note that
. 1 1
lim =
lim oulo2
no 2n +1 2+ 1/) no 2
+0 2

Therefore, the odd-numbered subsequence [1 3 2-1 -

An
l3'7'*"
converges to 1/2 and the even-numbered subsequence
[-2 -4 -2n
converges to
5 9 4n +1' -1/2,obs otvdl9e
We know that if a sequence converges to L, then its subsequences are all converge
and converge to L only.
Hence, the given sequence diverges.
noulo2
5
so find its sum.
Determine whether the series 4k Converges, and if
5.
k=0
Solution:
5 5
Consider the given series + 5
4
+ 42
+...
1

This is a geometric series with

common ratio r =
4
sum is
Hence the given series converges and its
5 5 20
1-r 1- 3/4 3

series)oile novig sdt oolersslh

(Here 'a denotes the first term of the
k² + k +3
tells you about the series
O. Apply the divergence test and state what it 2k2 +1

Solution: notulo2
= k+ ++3
k
Let ak 1
Then
2k2

(2+) bis
o

1+0+0 = 19diue
lim
ko0
a =
2+0 20
<br>

82 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

By the divergence test, the given series diverges

IM: 1

convergence of the series otolo

7. Use ratio test to examine the k!
k=1

Solution: 1
Uk+1
k!
Let uk = Then (k +
1)! k+1
1
Uk+1
lim
koo Uk
lim
k+o k
+1 =0=PotV
Since p<l by the ratiotest the given series converges.

8. Test for the convergence of the series gkio ot g19Vn0 bas

k=l
Solution:
Let a = Then,ol bas3V00
k+1 k
3k+1 3k

Further,

lim ak = im
koo k+o
9onsH
= lim
ko 3 ln 3
by L. Hospital rules
=0.

Therefore, the given alternating series Converges.sb 19)

3k
k=1

9. Examine the convergence of the sequence

n=l
Solution: nobulo2
1
Note that lim =0
1 1 1

va
Odd-numbered subsequence approaching to 0 through positive
I35
ues and even numbered -1 -1 -1 to 0
subsequenceapproaching throug

negative values.
<br>

obnsol Sequences and Series 83

(-1)"+1
Therefore, lim 0

So, the given sequence converges to 0.

10. Determine whether the series >3251-k Converges and if so find its sum.
k=1
Solution:
k

5*
k=1 k=1

5
k=1

9
A geometric series with common ratio >1,
Hence, the given geometric series diverges.
1
11. Examine the convergence of the series
9k +6
k=1
Solution:
1 1

Let ak = and b = Then

9k +6
1
k
bk 9k + 6 1 K
(9 +) nonelo2

finite and non-zero Therefore, by the limit comparison test

1
lim
9+0 9?
converge or
a
and b
both diverge together.

1
diverges
k=l

Therefore,) = is also divergent.

9k + 6
k=1 k=l
4k onlbeoo drod stolszsfT
Dio
l2. Test for the convergence of
k=1
2dol
Solution:
4k 4k+1
Let uk k2 Then uk+1 = (k+ 1)2*
<br>

84 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

Therefore,
4k+1
Uk+1
(k +
1)2
P(1+)
lim Uk+1oo4 0)2 =4>
Uk (1+
onulo
Therefore, by the ratio test, the given series diverges

IM:
13. Examine the convergence of the series
100
k=1

Solution:
k
Let ak Then
100

k
(a;)'/k lim (a)"= o
100
Therefore, by the root test the given series diverges.
nouloe
14. Examine the convergence of the series)(-1)k+l-k
k=1
Solution:
The given series is an alternating series
1
Let a;=e-k=
Thenenosbs
ak+1
(since 2<e<3)
ektk
and
1

koo
lim a = lim
ko ek
= 0
Therefore, both conditions of Liebnitz's test are satisfied. Hence, alternat
the given
ing series converges.

15. Find the limit of the sequence

<br>

Solution:

lim
-form)
lim
1
,by L. Hospital
n0 en rule
=0
The limit of
the given sequence is zero.
16 Find the rational number represented by the decimal 0.784784784...
Solution:
The given decimal number is

=0.784784784..
784 784 784
+
103 106

This is a geometric services with common ratio r and first term

103
784
a =
103
1
Since r= <1, the geometric series converges to the sum given by
1000
784 784
1000 1000 784
S 1
1
999 999
1-r 1000 1000

3k
17. Test for convergence of k!
k=1
Solution:
3k+1
3k Therefore,
Let u = k!
Then uk+1(k +
1)! oiolo2
3k+1 k! 3
Wk+1
(k +
1)! 3* k+1
Uk+1
lim =0 <1
k+o0 Uk

The given series is convergent.

3k +- 2
18. Examine the convergence of the series eriesk
k=l
<br>

86 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

Solution:
.

Let ak Then
2k-1
(an)'/k 3k+2 K(3 +)
2k - 1
K(2-)
340 3
lim 2
koo 2-0
By root test, the given series diverges.
19. Show that lim n/n=1
Solution:
o
is an indeterminant form.

Let y = n'/n. Then ln y = -ln(n)

In(n) form)
lim ln y = lim
n
= lim 1/n by L. Hospital rule
0

ln( lim y) = 0, by the composite function theorem.

y =
lim e=1
lim n/n = 1

20. Show that the series cOs k

k2
converges olod
k=1
Solution:
We have,
COs k 1

2Vkl
and is a
convergent p-series with p = 2.
k=1

Therefore, by the comparison test, the series cOs k

converges. ris
k2
<br>

obon esiH Sequences and Series 87

COs k
That is the series ) converges absolutelyoco
nill 8s
k=1

COs k
Hence, the series) k2
converges.
k=1

kr as
21. Classify the series sin absolutely convergent, conditionally convergent, or
2
k=1
divergent.
Solution:
IM: kn 377 5m
sin = sin + sin T + sin + sin 27T + sin + sin 3T
2 2 2 2
k=1
77
+ sin
2

=1+0– 1+0+1+0-1+...
=1-1+1-1+.
a divergent series
1 1
22. Show by direct summation of n terms that the series + +... is
1.2 2-3 3-4
convergent
Solution:
Let
1 1 1 1
+ +
t...***n(n +1)
Sn
12 2-3 3-4

-(i-)+
+

(1) +.+
n
+1

Then
lim s,=l-0=1
hence the given series is convergent.
ne Sequence fs,} and
<br>

88 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

prove that the series

23. Using comparison test
1

2 3
+ +...
13 35 5-7
is divergent.

Solution:
nth term of the given series is given by

(2n - 1)(2n + 1)
Then
11
(4n2 -1)4n2 4n
1
Vn with
an>b,, bn= is divergent
n=l m=1

Therefore, by the comparison test the series - 1)(2n + is also

(2rn 1)
n=1 n=Fl
divergent.

24. Test the convergence of the series

k=1
Solution:
k+1
Let uy =k Then, uk+ = (k+ 1)

Therefore,

Uk+1 (k+ 1) (4)k+1

k+1 (4)

K(1+)
()
Wk+1
lim = (1+0(;)-<I
(1

the given series converges, by ratio test.

25. Test the convergence of the series

<br>

b
Sequences and Series 89

Solution:
a
Let ak = Then, each 0 and

Qk+1
k+1
and
1
lim a; = lim =0)
koo ko k
Therefore, by the alternating series test, the given alternating series converges.
<br>

90 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

noulo
<br>

UNIT 4

Functions of Several variables

41 Partial Differentiation
a
itis function of two variables a and y, its partial derivatives are
functions fz or
8f defined by

.
and f, (or)

af =fele, y) = (7+h,y)-f(r,y) and

a lim
h-+0
- f(a, y)
af =fyle,y) = ,y
lim f(*,y +h) f(z,y)
Oy h0

Rule for differentiating partially the function z = f(u, y);

1. To find frs regard y as a constant and differentiate f(,y) with respect to

respect to y
2. To find f. regard cas a constant and differentiate f(,y) with
Problems:
1)
J(z,y) = g' + ay3 -212, find fr(2, 1) and f, (2,
Solution:
+ 2(2)(1) = 16
Jzlz,y) = 342 +2ry3 f(2, 1) =3(2)
1) = 3(2)(1) – 4(1) =8
Jyl,y) = 3y2 -4, f(2,
4.2
Iligher Order Partial Derivatives:

Ôy

fuy
<br>

132 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

Problems:
1. Calculate frrus if f(r. y. :) = sin(3a: + y2)

Solution:

f:= + yz); fyz =1. cos(3z + yz) + yl-zsin(3a +yz)l

y cos(3.

= cos(3 + yz) -yz sin(3z t yz);

-
Sry: = -3 sin(3a + yz) yz.3 cos(3a + yz);
frays = -3.3 cos(3t + y2) -3yz-3 sin(3 + yz)]
fazy: = 9yz sin(3a + yz) – 9 cos(3z + yz)

2. Verify that the function u(z, t) = sin(z - at) satisfies the wave equation

Solution:
u

Ot -acos(z - at); -altasin(r- at)]

=-a sin( - at) (1)

= cos(z - at) =- sin( – at)

=- -
sin(z at) (2)

From (1) and (2), a2

at2

3. If z = +0y. f(ax - ba), show that b

+aay = 2abz.
Solution:

aetyf(as – by) +entoy f'(ax- by) a

dy
= bewtbW f(ax - y) + etby f' (ax – by) (–b)

Oy
= ube-+by f(aæ - by)
abeatoo. f'(ax – by)
+

+ abea+by ·f(az – by) - abetoy.

f'(aæ – by)
= 2abe+uy. f(aæ – =
by) 2abz
<br>

Functions of Several
variables 133
If u= e}/*, find the value of

Solution:

Oyoz = |le" +
yze"y
=1·ey+ yzey +
zyze"y 4 yze"y" + yaz· yze""]
=e1+ æzy + Tyz +
Tzy +
yz
ey(1 + 3ryz + cy)

5,
If u= log( +y t z-3cyz), show that +
2
-9
Oy
(z+y+z)
Solution:

2
+ +
y y + +

+
Su u
ôy ôy
+
u +
Oul
(1)
Ôy
U = log(z
+
y+z- 3ryz)
1(3¢- 3yz)

3(2 -yz)

Similarly,

3(y- zz)
and
u
3(z–y)
3ryz
Hence,

Ou 3(z"-yz+y+?-y)
3(22
yz - zæ)
(z +y + z)(* + ytzy-
<br>

Matrices and Calculus

134 Ready Reckoner for

Thus:
-
3 - (:
+y +
-3
z)

-3 -3 -3
+
( +y -+ z)2 (y +z + r)2 (z + +y)2
-9
(z +y t z)2

Ou
tan + tan z), prove that
y sin 2.c = 2
6. If u = log(tan z+

Solution:
1
sec a
tan + tan + tan Y z
1
2sin COS cos 2 tanT
sin 2.
tan x + tan y + tan z tan t + tan y + tan z
2 tanC
sin 2a
tan a tan y + tan z
2 tan T 2 tany
tan t tan + tan2 y
tan + tan y + tan z
2 tan z
tan + tan y + tan z
2(tan c + tan y + tan z)
(tan x + tany + tan z)
=2

u = fr) and r = '+y'+, prove that au - 2

7. If
fr(r) + f")

Solution:
72=22+y+
Qu
=fr)
<br>

Functions of Several variables 135

=f').
Or

r)-f')+"(o)
1

2(r)
Similarl,

f')_(r) +
f"(r) and

f'(r)
,3)+f(r)
M
au 3f' (r) O+y+) +(+y°+ )
r2
3f'(r)_ ()+

0+f"(r)

4.3 Partial Differentiation of Implicit Functions

1. Find and if z is defined implicitly as a function of z and y by the equation
Ôy

Solution:

differentiate implicitly w.r.t z by treating

y as a constant, to get:
To find

3z2Oz
3z2 +0+ + 6yz(1) + 6æy =0

2ay) = -B( + 2y2z)

at a2 + 2yz
Ou (z2+ 22y)
Similarly, (y + 2za)
Ôy (a'+ 2yz)
<br>

Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

136 Ready

If .:ry k. a cOnstant show that at : =y= 2,

2.

=-(r log ex)1

Solution:
y
treated as function of z and
a
: is
y = k, we get
Taking ln on both sides of

c loga + y logy + z log z

= log k.

æ:
Differentiating partially w.r.t.
1

a+log
a
1+0+- + log z =0

1+ log z) = -(1+ log æ)

-(1+logæ) (1)
(1+ log z)

Similarly,
-(1+ logy) (2)
(1+ log z)
Differentiating (2) partially w.r.t. a:

(1+ log z)(0) - (1 + log y) (

(1+ log z)?
1+ logy -(1+log a)
z(1+ log z)2 by (1)
(1+ log z)
When S
=y= Z,

(1+ logz) -1 -1
a(1+ log z)3 x(1+ log ¢) (loge + log)
log eæ =-(æ log ex)

3
Rind all the second order partial derivatives = tan-!
of 2
1–Yy
Solution:
2= tan-1 +y (1)
1
<br>

Functions of Several variables

137

Put z = tan A
and y = tan B in (1), Therefore
tan A tan B
tau tan (tan(A + B)) =
=

1- tan tan B A A+ B
= tanI T+ tan -1
1 1
-2a -24y
1+22 ay
l
1+ y2 (1+)2' oy (1 +y
=0=

4.4 Homogeneous Functions and Euler's Theorem

A function f(a,y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in a and y if, f(z, y) =

Euler's Theorem: If f(¢, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in z and y then

0f Of (1)
ôy =nf

Proof:
Sng-1 and
f(u,y) = z

=
a'p2))=
Therefore,
af = nzy
= nf

Corollary:
æ:
(i) Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t.
(2)
1.+ag2taroy
y:
Differentiating (1) partially w.rt.
Of (3)
+1. +y =n ay
Oy
<br>

Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

138 Ready

+ 2:y
9f]

+ y' T.nf

af-(n
+ 29Acay +y = (n-n)f
= n(n- 1)f

(ii) From (2),

Of
'Oxoy (n-1)

(ii) From (3),

af = (n-1)
ôy

(iv) If z Of,+ yof p(u), then a

f
= d(u) [o'(u) -1]
Oy
+ 2*y
axðy
Problems:
1. Verify Euler's theorem for the function u = log

Solution:
u is a homogeneous
function of degree 0 in z and u. Therefore, to verify Eulers
theorem, we prove that

Ou.
Oy =0.u =0
u= log (a +y')- log æ – log y

2.: 2y 1

and
Oy a+y² 3/
Su 2a2 2y
-1+ -1
a'+y'
2(2+
-2 = 2-2= 0
Euler's theorem is verified.
<br>

Functions of Several variables 139

tan prove that

2. It u sin

Solutior:
u
is a homOgCNCOUs (unction of degree 0 in : and y. Therefore, by Euler's theorem

0.u = )

3. If u = log prove that a =3

Solution:
x y, z
of degree 3
in and
+
y²+z? e is
a homogeneous function

by Euler's theorem, +y ay =3e4

ôu
+ ye Oy
,Ou 3e
az
Ou 3

u 1
prove that (1) Ac
–tan U

4. If sin 2

,au sin u cOs 2u

+ 2ry9xy +y? 4 cosu

Solution: u
where f= sin
(i) sinu = f(u,y)=

+ ty t(æ +y)
ty) = ta =tPf(a,u)
f(tr, Vta + yty Vi(VatD)
a, y
homogeneous function of degree 1/2 in
f is a

by Euler's theorem,

Osin u Osin u
sin u
Oy 2
1

sin %
<br>

Calculus
140 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and

u. Therefore,
Divide throughout by cos

tan u = h(u)
2

(ii) We kuow tlhat

+ 29grôy = (u) [ou) - 1]

1
-sec u
=,tan u

|2
1

l sin u 1

2 cos U 2 cos u -1
1 1 - 2 cos u
sin
2 cos uL 2 cos² u
sin u sin cos 2u
u
1

4 cos u -(-cos 2u) = 4 cos² u

1 1
log z – log y , u
Ju + 2u
5. If u = + prove that z + ==
0

Solution:

u(ta, ty) =
1 log(ta/ty) 1
Pg2 y t2a2 + t2y2 2uz, y)
u isa homogeneous
function of degree -2 in c,y
u
y + 2u =0

4.5 Total Diferentiation:

When f is a function of twO or more
independent variables, to get the
tion of f, we allow one of partial differenua
the independent variables to vary
as constants;
whereas in total differentiation and keep the other variable
all independent variables are allowed to Val

1. Let z= f(,y) and let z = g

(t) and y = h(t). Then z is also a
We have function of t oy

A , y+ A
z=f(+ A y) -f (,y)
f(+ A T,y+ A y)-f(, y+ A y)
At
At A y At
<br>

Functions of Several variables 141

Allowing At 0f da: 0f ly the total derivative of z with respect to

dt Oy dt
t.

When : is function of two variables u and u; and if u and v are functions of two
a

other variables and y, then we obtain z as a function of two variables a and y.

Inthis case total differentiation of z is meaningless. We can find only & y by
using the following formulas

az Qu
+

+
Oy u ôy vy
4.5.1 Differentiation of Implicit functions:
z and y. Then df = 0, which implies
Let f (, y) = 0 be a given implicit function in
8f dr + -dy = 0.
-

oy
0f 0f dy
ôyda
=0

dy ()
da (%)

Problems:
1. Find
ds
Solution:
Let f = gy +
y
-1. Then,
dy (1)
da (3)
f=a +y-1
= y ay +y Iny (2)

(3)
<br>

Ready Reckoner for

Matrices and Calculus
142

Using (2) and (3) in (1),

dy
da

+ =0
2. If = fy-.-.
u
-y), prove that y
Solution:

Take y-=p, z – 2 =4, -y=r. Then,

w=f(y
- z,
z- T- T, y) w= j(p, g, r)

Therefore,
Ow op dw ar
+
w
Ow
(0) + (-1) + (1)
w

+ Or (1)

Similarly,

Oy (2)
ôp Ôr

az (3)

(1) + (2) + (3) > +

ar + =0

3. If u
prove that a
=f »

+ =0

Solution:

Take = P, =4. Then,

u =
U= f (p, 4, r)
<br>

Functions of Several variables 143

Therefore,
Ou Or
Öp Oa:

1
)
u
(0) +
Ou
Or

y ôp
u (1)
y ôp

Similarly,

Ou y ou (2)
ay z g y op
(3)
y ôu
- Ou
(1) + (2)+ (3) + y op
y p
=0

4. Given the transformation u = cos y&u

e = e
sin y and that f is a function of u and
v
and also of s and y, prove that (u' + u) +
u2

Solution:

u=e cos y e
cosY =U

=-e sin y
= -U

U= esin'y >
e
sin y=V

= e
cOS Y = 2U

f is a function of u, v
and also of , y

Of Ou
+

u
(u) +
<br>

144 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

af
Qu
(1)

au (2)

Therefore,

-(" tr)() ,
by (2) and (1)

Of af] Of
= U

u
+t y
=ul1. Of
u +0 +1:
u Jvu
+ 2uv f
du uv Ou (3)

Now,

8f du Of v
du oy
Of
(-u) + (u)
0f
y (4)

u (5)
Therefore,

Oy ay \ay
=(-u + 0f by (5) and (4)

=-U

0f +(-v)
u +1.
OuðyT
0f u vu +0.
-2uv
(6)
<br>

Functions of Several variables 145

(5) +
(6) +y + u

= ( +) Su2
+

5. If : is a function of x
and y
where z= e"+e &y=eu-e, prove that

Solution:

C = e+e =e.
Ou
ôy
-e"
u
z is a function of a, y and 2, y are functions of u, v
az ôy
Ôyôu

Qu
(e") +
Ôy
(-e")
e -U (1)

Further,
8z 0y

(-e )+
y (-e")
e (2)
y
te-u Oy
Oa Oy

(e"+e")- oy (e--e")
<br>

Matrices andCalculus
146 Ready Reckoner for

6. If u
(.' )r(). hen find
2" xdy

Solution:
: a homogeneous function of degree
1 in z, y
is
=(-)f(
by Euler's theorem,
(1)

Differentiate (1) partially w.I.t. c:

1
+0. ôy

+ 9gx0y
+ 9grôy =0 (2)
u
Z X
(2) ?! = 0 (3)

Differentiate (1) partially w.rt y:

0. +1: +
Oy ay
+ =0 (4)

y x (4) cy
=0 (5)

(3) + (5) + 2*y

=0

7. If u = f(+ 2yz, y' + 2zz), show

that

(-z) t(- z) +
(2–-yr)=(=0.
Solution:
=
Let p
u'+ 2yz and =y+ 2za. Then
q
u
=f (p, )
<br>

Functions of Several variables 147

Therefore,

= S, (2a) + 5,(22)

Similarly.

+
fp (2z) fa (2y)
Ôy
= fp(2y) + fa (2a)

Therefore,

LHS =
(y-cz)
Ju (22 u + (2-
+(a-zy); y)
Ou.
az

,
+
zf) + (2-zy)2(zf, yf) + (z- y)2(yfp af)
+
= (y- z) 2(*fp +
- zy) + y
=2{ (y- az) +z ( (2- ay)]
t
[z - zy) + * (-
(y-z) + y (a² ry)] fa}
= 2fp(zy'-'z +a'z-y +y- zy')
+2fo(y'z - z'+'y - y'z+ -ay)
= 2{f,(0) + f(0)}= 2{0} = 0.

1u 1u 1u
- 42, 4z - 2c), then find +
If = f(2r -3u. 3y 4 Oz
u
8. 2 Oæ 3 Oy

Solution:

Let p = 2 -3y, q= 3y -4z, r= 4z- 2a. Then

u=fp,4,r).

Therefore,
0f op
+ 0f

·
(2) + L(o)+-2)
-2
<br>

Matrices and Calculus

148 Ready Reckoner for

(-3) +
(3)
+(0)
(0f and
-3 op +3=3
f or
+

0f
Op
(0) + -4)+4)
=4
Or

Hence,
1u
+
1 u 1u
2 Oz 3 Oy 4 az
1
+ ôp
1
+ 4

0f of + Of
ôp ar
=0.

4.6 Taylor's series expansion of a function of Two variables

4.6.1 Taylor's series expansion of a

function of one variable:

If f(z) and all its derivatives are finite

and continuous, then

f(ath) = f (a) + a)+ 2) (a) +

3! f" (a) +....
<br>

Functions of Several variables 149

Taulor's series expansion of a function of two variables

If f(a. v) and all its partial derivatives are finite and continuous, then
2
= f(a, + *f(a,
fla +1h.b+ k) b)
b)
(h f(a, b) + + k-

Oy/ 2! ay
3
1 ...
3!
h +k
Oy
f(a, b) +

That is

(h' feala, + 2h k fey(a, b) + fyy(a, b))

k
(h fala, b) + f,la, b)) +
b)

fla+ h.b+ *) =f(a, b) + k

1! 2!
...(1)
+ 3h² k frzyla, b) + 3h k² fayy(a, b) + k fyyy(a, b)) +
1

+ 3! (h° faaza, b)

Corollary (1): Taylor's series expansion of f(a,u) about (a.b):

f(a,y) = f[(a + (z- a), b + (y- )]

and k=y- b, which implies
= fla+ h, b+ h, where h=-a
1 + (y -b) f,(a, b))
y) = f(a, b) + i((a- a) fe(a, b)
f(z,
- -
(o - a)' frala, b) + 2( a)(yb) fryla,
1 b) + (y ) fuula, b) )
+ 2!
+ 3(z - a) (y- +3(z – a)(y- b)' Jayy(a,
b)
b)
1
a)° fannla,
b)
b)
frzyla,
+(o-
3!
+(y - b)° fyyy(a, b))+...2)

of f(.y) about (0,0):

Corollary (2): Taylor's series expansion
Taking a=0 and b= 0 in (2)

f(0, 0) + f(0,0))
y
J(e, y) = f(0,0) +(
+ fuy(0,0))
fas(0, 0) + 2ry fuy0,0) y°
(0, 0) + 3 y' Sayy(0,0) +y° fyy (0, 0)) + ...(3)
(0,0) + 3r´y fezy
1
+: ( faaa

Problems:
u powers of a and y as far as the term of the third degree.
I. Expand e cOs in
<br>

150 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

Solution:
Powers of r and y means the expansion about (0, 0).

Hence, rom (3),

== fo.0)
f (0, + lf.0,0) + vf,(0, + f (0,0) ++ 2ryf-y(0, 0)
0)
fu.y) +
1!
0)]
+y'fuy(0,
1

+aSa(0, 0) + 3ayfer, (0, 0) + 3ry fryy (0,0) + y°Sny (0, 0)] +... (1)
3!

f=e cos y
f(0,0) = e cos 0 = 1
fa =e" cos y fa(0, 0) = 1; f, = -e siny f(0,0) =0
Jan =e" cOs y faa(0, 0) = 1; fey = siny -e
fry(0, 0) = 0;
Jyy =-e" cosy fu(0,0) =-1
fezr = e cosy frrn(0, 0) = 1; Jey -e" sin y fezy(0, 0) = 0
fryy -e cosy feyy(0, 0) = -1; fypy = e sin y fuuu(0,0) =0
Therefore, from (1),

e cos y 1
=1+z(1) +
y(0)] +
2!
[*(1) + 2ry(0) + y°(-1)
1
+ (1) + 3¢"y(0) +
3ay'(-1) +y°(0)] +...
1
1
=1++,7-y) +
(a-3ay) +...

2. Find the Taylor's series expansion

of ay + 2ry +3cu in powers ana
(y- 1) upto the third powers. of (z +2)

Solution:
We need to expand
about the point (-2,1) = (a, b). From (2),
f(z,u) = f(-2,1) +
¡(+2)f(-2,1) + (y - 1)f(-2, 1)] +
2!
[( +
2)°Tar(-2,1) + 2(2 +2)(y - 1)fey(-2,1) + (y -1)²Fy(-2,1)
1
+ 2)
Fras(-2,1) + 3(* + 2)
3fl(a
(y - 1)
fræy(-2, 1) +
3(* + 2)(y -1)²
feul-2, 1) + (y – 1)°Syyy-2, 1)] + ...
(1)
<br>

Functions of Several variables 151

f(z,y) = a“y' + 2ay + 3ry' f(-2, 1) = (-2)'(1) + 2(-2) (1) + 3(-2)(1)

-
=4+ 6=6 8

fr =2ry + 4ry-+3y fe(-2, 1) =-9

fy =2a*y + 2r* + 6ay fy(-2, 1) = 4
-
frr=2y + 4y frn(-2, 1) = 2+ 4= 6
fay= Ary + 4x + 6y fey(-2, 1) = -8-8+6=-10
fuu = 2ar+6x fuul-2, 1) = 8- 12 = -4

4y + 4 fary(-2, 1) = 8
=

feuy = 4r +6
0
- foyy(-2, 1) =-2
Jyyy

Hence, from (1),

1 1
2ay + 3ry=6+[-9( 4(y – 1)]
+
a"y' + 2) +
+ 2!
[6(z + 2) - 20( + 2)(y -1) – 4(y - 1)] +
1
24( +
2)°(y - 1) -6(z + 2)(y - 1)| +.
3!

3. Findthe Taylor's series expansion of e sin y near the point (-1, n/4) upto the third
degree terms.

Solution:

-1,b = .
4
From (2),

f(u, y) =f(-1, a/4) + [(o+1)fa(-1, a/4) + (y - n/4) fy(-1, n/4)]

+ 2(* + 1)(y - n/4) fay(-1, n/4)

1
+ 1)° faa(-1, n/4)

+(y- a/4)"yy(-1, T/4)]

+,l(z+
1

1)°Jeen(-1, n/4) + 3(* + 1)(y - n/4)

Jaay(-1, m/4) + 3(2 + 1)(y – /4)° fayy(-1,n/4)
+(y /4)° fyyy(-l, m/4)] + -
...
(1)
<br>

Calculus
152 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and

1 1
1
f(r.y) =sin
y
f(-1, n/4) =e-l
=esin 4 7
e v2 ev2
fr = sin y 1
fa(-1, /4) = ev2
fra = siuy 1

S(-1, n/4) = ev2

fru = e
cOsy
1
fuy =-e sin y
fea(-1, 7/4) =
=-e cos y
ev2
frzz

fay(-1, 7/4) = 1 1

ev2
fyyl-1, 7/4) = -1
ev2
1
frry = e
cosy faze(-1, /4) =
ev2
fæyy =-e sin y
1
fuuy = -e cos y fzay(-1, m/4) =
ev2
Jayy(-1, 7m/4) = -1
ev2
fyyy(-1,T/4)z = -1
ev2
Hence, from (1)

1
e siny =
te+1) +
(u-)}+ 1
2!
(e+1 + 2X*+1)
1
(-)-(-)
(o+1'+3a+ 1)°(u
3!
-)-3(z + 1)
(-)
2

4
Rind the Taylor's series
expansion of ¢ near the point (1 ) unto the second dege
terms.

Solution:
<br>

Functions of Several variables 153

By Taylor's series,

f(r, y) = f(1,1) + 1
(- 1)fe(1, 1) + (y -- 1)f,(1, 1)]l
1!
1

(-1)fe(1, 1) + 2(* – 1)(y- 1)fey(1, 1) + (y -

1)°f(1, 1))+ ... (1)

f(r,y) =2 f(1, = 1' =1

1)
Ja = yy-1
f(1,1) =1·1° = 1

frz = y(y - 1)¢ -2

S(1,1) =1' log1=0, since log 1 =0
frz(1, 1)
=1(1- 1)1- =0
Jyy =elog z)² fyy(1, 1) = 1'(log 1)² =0
1
fry =y¢log e+a'. fay(1, 1)=1·1. log 1 +
1=1

Therefore, from(1),

a'=1+ (z - 1)+2(
2!
- 1)(y
–1)(1)) + ...
=1+ ( – 1)+ ( - 1)(y - 1) + ...

5. Using Taylor's series verify that log(1 + +y) = (a+ y)-(+ y) +( + y)³

Solution:

Taylor's series expansion about (0,0) is

f(z, y) = f(0, 0) + (fa(0,0) + yf(0,0)])

1
+ fea(0, 0) + 2ayfey (0, 0) + y"fyp(0, 0)] +
2!
1

an (0, 0) + 3æ°vfrey (0,0) + 3ay' eyy (0, 0) + y°yun(0, 0)] t... (1)

Let
<br>

Calculus
154 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and

fr.u)= log(1+ t) log(1+ 0 + 0) = log

1 =0
S0,0) =
f.(0,0) = S(0,0) = =1
+0+0
1
-1
fas(0, 0) = = Sey(0,0)
-1
Jyy (0, 0)
=140+02 =-1
y)
(l+*

-1
Jyy(1+z+y)?
-1
fry =
(1+z+ y)?
frn (0, 0) = fery(0, 0) = fryy (0, 0)
2
+
= fyuy (0, 0)
(1+ y)3
2 2

(1+a+t y)3 (1+0+ 0)3

2 = 2
fryy +
(1+z y)
2
(1+ z+y)
Therefore, From (1)

log(1 + *
+y)=0+(1)
1!
1
+a a2)
+
v(1)]+
2!
1

--
+ 3r°y(2) + 3zy (2) + y°(2)]
2*y - y|
3!
= (a+y)
-(+y) +(+u)°
6. Expand elr(1+y) in powers of z and y up to the third degree terms.
Solution:
Let f(,y)= eIn(1 +
y). Then,

f(u,y) = f(0,0) + 1! | f(0, 0) +y f(0, 0)]+

1

2!
[afe(0, 0) + 2*y fay (0, 0) +
yiw(0, 0)]!
3! f(0, 0) + 3a"y feay (0, 0)
+3ay'fryy(0,0)+ y
fnu(0 0)
<br>

Functions of Several variables 155

+
f(0,0) =en(1) = (1)(0)=0
y)
|f=e*ln(1
e
lu(1 + ) f.(0,0) = n(1) =0
e
S,(0, 0) =1
I+y 1+0
frr=e In(1 +y) fra(0,0) = e In(1) =0
1
Jry = fay (0, 0) =0. =1(1) = 1

1+9 1+0
. -1 fy(0,0) =
Jyy =e
(1+ y)2 e°=-1
Jrzx = e
ln(1 t y) feay(0,0) =en(1) =0
1+y Jary(0,0) =e0 =1
1+0
fayy
e
(1+y)2
-1

2
feyy (0,0)
e= =
=-1
=
fyuy
(1+y)3
fuuy(0,0) e=2
Therefore, from (1)

e* In(1 + u)
=y+a2ry - v']+ 31
1

3a"y -
1
3ay + 2y°] + ..
7. Find the Taylors series expansion of f(a, y) = /1+¢+y² in powers of
z–l and y
upto second degree terms.

Solution:
f(a, y) – f(1,0) + [(- 1)f(1,0) + vf,(1, 0)]
1!

+ ..
1

[(-1)°f(1, 0)
+ 2(z- 1)y fay(1,0) + y'
fy(1, 0)]
(1)
2!

f=(1+z+y')'/2
+o+y)(2y)

fyy = (1 +o+)(1) +y ) (1+ *+y')(2)

= (1+* + y)- y(1 + +y) )3/2
f(1,0) = (1 + 1+0)/2 =2'/2 = V2
(1+1+0):1/2 =
1 1 1
fe(1,0) =
2 V2 2/2
 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and
<br>

56

0) = (+10) --3/2 - A(2)9/2

-1
Sll.0) 0, frnI,

4(2/2) 8V2

Jry(l.0)= 0, fu(1, 0) = (1 +1+0)72– 0=

Theretore, from (1),

f(r.y) = V2+ 1))

2V2
(

+5(-1)+2(
8/2
+ 2(*-
+t..
1)y(0) + y

-= V2+,(-1); - 11

2V2 16/2
(z
2/t..
1) + 2

8. Obtainthe Taylor'sseries expansion of a + y + ay² in terms of powers of a

-1 and
y-2 up to third degree terms.

Solution:
J(,y) = a +y' +
ry'.
Then f(1, 2) =
1' +28 +1-22 = 13 and

fr = 342 +y' f(1, 2) = 3(1) +

22=7
fy = 3y' + 2ry ,(1,2) = 3(2) + 2(1)(2) = 16
Jus = 6u frs(1,2)= 6(1) =6
Jry =2y fry(1, 2) =
2(2) = 4
Juy = 6y + 24:
Ju(1, 2) =6(2) + 2(1) = 14
==
fres(1,2) 6

Sray = 0 Jsay(1,2) = 0

fryy = 2 fuyy(1, 2) =2
Syuy(1, 2) = 6
Jyyy =6
<br>

Functions of Several variables

157

By Taylor's series,
„
fr.) -fa, a)fa(a, b) +(y - b),(a,
+

b)
l(- b))

l- a)²Seala, b) + 2* - a)(y - fay(a, b) b)

+ (y - b)°wla, b)]
+ (z– a)'faaz(a, b) + 3(* – - b) faey(a, b)
a)(y
+ 3(* – a)(y – b)"feyy(a, b) + (y – b)°fyp (a, b)] + ...

where a =1, b= 2.

f(a, y) = 13+7(-1) + 16(y - 2)]+ 6(-1)2

+(*-1)(y - 2) +
14 (y- 2)] +
1

glo-1)3
+
s(-1)'(y - 2) + B(y - 2)]+
..
4.7 Jacobians
a(u,v)
The Jacobian of u,v with respect to a and y is given by where
a(,y) Uy

ôu
and uy Oy
etc.
Uy
gven by Ou,v, w)
The Jacobian of u, v, w with respect to z, Y, Z is
(,y, 2)
Wr Wy

4.7.I Properties of Jacobian:

1. When u and v are functions of T and
lu,v) (z, v)
a. u)a(u,v)
1
gs

Z. If u and v are functions of a and y and if z and y are functions of r and 8 then
O(u,) a(u, v) , y)
a(r,0) a(,y)'` (r, 0)
v, =
J. II u, v, w are functionally dependent functions of 2, y, z (i.e, if f(u, w) 0), then
O(u,u, w)
O(,y,z)
v
+. II the variables z and are transformed into the variables and by the transfor
u
u

a(u, v) and y = ylu,v), then dædy = |J dudu where J

= O(,y)
mations T= a(u, v)"
<br>

158 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

Problems:
O(, y) alr,0)_ =1
1. If r =rcos8. y=rsin verify that
ar,0) az,)
Solution:
r,y) cOs -r sin
O(r,0) sin r cos
=r cos2 0+r sin=r(1) =r
,y
T=T COS =rsin r= 2+y&o = tan
Hence,

2r 2
>
ôr
a(r,0) 2r Oy = 20
1
-y
m2
1+y²/c? +y'
+y 1

Oy 1+y²/2
1

(@)-:
aa? + y)
r2
Therefore,

(z,y) O(r, 0) 1
a(r, 0) (a,y) =rx
=1

2. If z=rsin cos , y
=rsin sin , z=r cos find a(z,y, z)
Solution: (r,0, p)

(u,y, z) sin cos r cos cos p -r sin

sin sinp r cos sin p
O(r,0, p) sin p rsin cos
cOs 0
-T Sin0
= -rsinb sin
p-r sin“ sin –r cos p
-r sin cos p-r sin“ 0 cos – T cos p
sin pl
cos
=2 sin 0 sin p (sin“0 + cos“ l
0) + r sin cos o
=p² sin sin
O +
rs sin cos =
r sin
(sin
(sin 0+ cos 0)
+ cos
)=r'sin
<br>

Functions of Several variables 159

2 If u =2.ry. ' =*- y, T

COs 0, y
=rsin 9, find (u, v)
O(r,0)
Solution:
O(u.r) O(u.v) (æ, y) 2y 2
cOs
or.0) O(r,0) 20 -2y sin r COs

=(-4y'- 4*) r (cos*0 + sin" 0) =

-4 (2 +y)r(1) = -4(r) () = -4r

Oy1.y2,y3)
4. Find if y1 y2 =
y3

Solution:
Ôyi Oyi -T2T3

O(y1,y2, Y3) Oy2 Oy2 y2

O(1, T2, T3) T2
ay3 -T1T2

1
-I2T3 -1 1 1
1
-1 1
1
-1
-T1@2

=-1(1 -1) – 1(-1- =0+2+2=4

+
1) +1(1 1)

y,
8(*, z)
5. If z +
y+z=u,y +z = uu, z = uvw, ind
(u, v, w)
Solution:

1-V
O(,y, z) v(1 w) - u(1- w)
a(u, v, uw)
<br>

Matrices and Calculus

160 Ready Reckoner for

-1

- pw -+ fw)} = uv(1-+ )
=uv{(1 - )(1- u) + 1(u
+

=u.
following functions are functionally dependent. If so find also th
6. Examine if the
funetional relationship:

(a) u = sin +
sin-u, v=TV/1-y'
+
yv1- a'
(b) u =y+z, v=T
+
22, W=I -4yz - 2y
u
2ry
(c) U=

Solution:
1 1

(a)
a(u,v) V1-2
8(z,y) 2ry -2xy
V1-y2 +v1-a2
2/1- r2 2/1 -y
TY
=0
VI-(1-y) 1- y)
Hence, u and v are functionally dependent.
Further,

u= sin z +
siny = sinv1-y² +
= sin
yv1–2
Sin u= U

(b)
u
Oy
au,v,w) 0 1 1

al,y, z) 1
43
-4z – 4y -4y
y
= -1(-4y –
42)
+1(-4z– 4y) =0
Hence, u, v and w are functionally dependent
<br>

Functions of Several
variables 161
Further,

V-W=X+ 22- (a-4yz –

= 2y2
2y)
+ 4yz + 22
= 2(y + 2yz +
2)
= 2(y + z)= 2u

(z? +y)(2r)
(c) u ==
-(a-y) (2r)
(22 + y?)2

2( + y
-+y) 4zy?
(' + y')2 (a2 +y2)2

(z? +y²)(-2y) - (a?-y)(2)

Oy (a2 + y')2 2y (-e?-- a+)
(¢? + y2)2
-4ay
(z2 + y²)²
(a?+y)2y - 2ry(2r)2r'y +2y-4ay_2y- 2ry
+
(z? y')2 (a? + y)2
2y(y²-?)
(¢² +y²)2
(a² +y)(2r) – 2ary(2y) 2a –2ry' 2z(22-y)
oy (a2 + y)2

Therefore,

4ry' -42y
a(u, v) (z2 + y)2
O(z, y) (a'-y) 2
(?-y)
(22 + y?)2
&ay(a²- y) 8a?y(a?-y) v

(a2 + y2)4 =0u and

(z2+ y)4
are functionally dependent.

Further,
(2?-)
+
4z²y? (a +)
+
y²= =1
<br>

Calculus
162 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and

Maxinna and Minima of Functions of

Two Variables
4.8
a
A function f(r. u) is said to have relative
maximum at (0, b) if J(a, 6) > f(a+h,b4
for all small values of and &:. h.

A function f(r. u) is said to have relative minimum

a at (a, b), if f(a, b) < f(a+h. haA
for all small values of h and k.
a is called its extreme value.
A maximum or a minimum value of function

a u)
t.8.I Working Rule to Find The Extreme Values of Function f(,
1. Find 0f and Of
y
2. Solve the equations
Of af =0 and
0
simultaneously. Let the solutions be (a, b),
oy
(c, d), etc (such points are called stationary points of f(, )).

3. For each solution in step (2), find the values of A = B= C= and

A= AC- B2,

4. (a) If A>0and if A
(or C) < 0 for the solution (a, b), then f(z,u) has a maximum
value at (a, b).
(b) If A>0 and if A
(or C) >0 for the solution (a, b), then f(z, y) has a minimum
value at (a, b)
(c) If A<0for the solution (a, b) then f(z, y) has neither maximum nor minimm.
In this case the point (a, b) is called a saddle point of the function.
(d) If =0, the case is doubtful.

Problems:
1. Examine the extreme values of
f(,y) = a+y-32 – 12y + 20
Solution:

f(u, y) = s+y°- 3:s – 12y + 20.

fr= 34 -3, Sy = 3y- 12, = 6z, fæy = 0, fuy =
Jæ
f 6y
=0 and f = 0
3#
-3=0 and 3, 12 = 0

I= tl and = £2 y 3= 3: 3y =

Stationary points are: (1,2),

(-1,2), (1, -2), (-1, -2)
<br>

Functions of Several variables 163

At (1,2):

Jre = 6() = 6= A, B = fry = 0,

- C= fun=6(2) = 12
A= AC =
B' 72> and0
0. A

Hence f has a min at (1,2)

Minimum. value of f(æ,y) is = 1 + 28 -3(1) - 12(2) + 20 = 2
At (-1,2):
A=-6.B = 0,C= 12. :. A=AC - B
=-72 <0. Hence (-1,2) is a saddle point.
At (1, -2):
4= 6, B = 0,C=-12. .:. AC - B² = A =-72 < 0. Hence (1,-2) is a saddle point.
At (-1, -2):
A=-6, B = 0,
C=-12. Therefore A = AC - B
=72> 0.
A=-6 <0. Hence (-1, -2) is a max. point. Thus the maximum value of f(z,y) =
-1– 8+3+24+ 20 = 38.
2. Examine the function z+ y -3acy for maxima and minima
Solution:
f(a,y)= a° +y-3azy fo = 3a' –3ay, f=3y- 3az.
Stationary points are given by: fe = 0 and fy =0
34 -3ay = and 3y-3aT = 0> = ay andy= ac
0

2
ax z= a'z z(a°- a) =0T= 0, a.

C =0 y= 0; = a Y =a
Therefore, the stationary points are: (0, 0) and (a,a).
=
faa = 6T, Jay = -3a, Jny 6y.

= - B?
fyC= Sun A AC Nature of Max./ Minmum
Stationary A= fraB= the point values
points
-9a² <0 Saddle
(0,0) -3a
point
(a, a) 6a > 0 -3a 6a 270 > 0 Minimum Min.
value -a8
with a>0
(a, a) 6a < 0)
-3a 6a 274 >0 Max. Max.
with
value = -a3
a<0
<br>

164 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

3. Find the extreme values of

f(:, y) =ry(12- #-9)
Solution:

f(r. y)=y(12 ---y)= 12:°y- y-'y

= 241°y -2y -3ay2
fr= 36::y-42°y-3u, f, = 24z 2-60'y
Sre = 72ry'- 12:'y' 6:ry', fym

fey = 72a"y - 8°y – 9zy'.

Stationary points are given by: fr =0 and fy =0

36¢y' - 42°y- 32°y = 0 and 24'y – 2*y - 3z°y =0
e'y (36– 48 – 3y) = 0and ay(24- 2* - 3y)
=0
=0, y = 0, 36 = 4z + 3y and a = 0, y=0, 24= 2z +
3y

(1) (2) (3) (4)

C=0, T = 0, y=0, C= 0
y =0 2æ +
3y=24 24 = 2a + 3y 36 = 4c + 3y
i.e., (0,0) (0,8) (12,0) (0,12)

(5) y=0, 4z + 3y = 36 36 = 4
+3y
(9,0)0) 24 = 2a +
3/ (6,4)
A= fez - B'
Stationary B= fay C= fyy A= AC
Nature of Maximum/
points the point Min.values
(0,0) -3a -9a' <0 Saddle
point
(0,0), (0,8) o (or)
(12,0),(0,12)
Further
0 24(12)°-2(12)4 0 investigations
(9,0) (or)
required
24(9)-2(9)4
(6,4) -16 x 6°<0 -8 x
63 -12 x 63
6°(192 - 64) Max. 6 x
4 x (2)
= 128 x 6
>0 = 6912
point

4. Test for an extreme of

the function f(, y) =a+y2– y-1
Solution:

f(z,y) = g+y -y-1

-
fr= 41 2r, Sy =
4- 2y, faa = 12* –
2, fru =0, fy = 2
12y

Stationary points are: f# = 0, S, =0

2a =0 &
4y- 2y = 0
2(2- 1) =0. 2(22
<br>

Functions of Several variables

165

= 0, : =# 1
V2' y=0, y
=# V2
1
1
(0,0), (0, ± 1

At (0,0):
-). B = 0.C=-2or AC B2 = 4 >
0
a Max.
0A.l0 (0.0) is point.
A max. value of f is = -1
At (0.
1, 2). A =-2, B = 0,C = 4.., A=-8 <0
Hence (0. #1/v2) are saddle points.
At A=1.B=0,C=
t12.0), -2... A= -8 <0.
Hence (tl/2.0) are saddle points.
At (=1 2. +1/ V2), A=4. B = 0,C= 4..:. A= 12 >0
1
1 1
Hence al1 4 points

give min. values.

1 1 1 1 3
Min value is = + -1=
) 2

3. Find the maximum and minimum values

of -Ty +y-22 +u
Solution:
fe = -y fy = -2+2y +1
f=z'- y +y- 2a +y
2 2,

fa =0& fu = 0
2
-y=2 &

U- 2y=1
42 -=1 23y
*=l,y
= 0

2-2y =1

.(1,0) is a stationary point

0&A =2>0
Jæg = 2, f = 2. fry =-1. .: A= AC-
B
=4-1=3>
is a minimum point of f(T, Y).
.(1,0)
<br>

Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

166 Ready

off(,)) is
Hence the min. value
:1 -0 -0- 2+0=-1
15:12 - 15y + 72 for extreme values.
u) = +3zu²-
6. (a) Examine f(x,
Solution:
f=a+3ay? - 15 ?- 15y
+ 72x
+
fe=34² 34- 30z 72, +

-
fy=6ry 30y
= 6z – 30, fru = 6y, fuy = 6T - 30
fn
f
f
15(4)2
of
of 40-15(6)?
432
288
value
value
values +
+
+0- -540
240
Maximum Minimum

0+72(4) 0+72(6)

--
Extreme

112 6 216 108

4
= 64 =
= = =
is is
minimum 0, a
maximum
sad
A< is point

a A (5,-1)
point
Nature
(4,0) 0) is saddle
(5,1) Since
(6, since

is is dle
f at f
at 0,

>0
B 0 =36 36
<0 36 <
0

- - 0
(6)(6)
AC > -36 -36
36 36 0
0 0

-6 6 0 0
= = =
fyy =
30 30 30
C= 30 –
– - -
6(4) 6(6) 6(5) 6(5)

fzy0
=
0 =6 -6
= =
B= 6(0) 6(0) 6(1) 6(-1)

<0 >0
0 0
fzz -6 6

=
= =
=
30=
30
30 30
A
– –
24- 6(5) 6(5)
6(6)

Points

Stationary
(4,0) 0) (5,-1)
1)
(6, (5,
<br>

Functions of Several variables

167

The stationary points are given by

fa =0 and fy = 0
32 +3y - 30z +72 = 0 (1)
and
6ry - 30y = 0 (2)
From (2), y - 5y =0
y(a- 5) =0>y =0 and z =5
When c=5, (1)

+
35)+3y–30(5) 72 =0
75+ 34 – 150+ 72 = 0
3y =3 y =1
y= £1.
When y=0, (1)

34 -30z + 72 = 0
1
-10z 24 = 0
–
(- 4)(T 6) =0
I= 4, 6

Therefore the stationary points are:

(4, 0), (6, 0), (5, 1); (5, -1)

.9 Lagrange's Multiplier Method

are required, subject to
Let u = f(,y.z) be the function whose extreme values
(1)
p(,y, z)
=0
= 0 and 0
necessary condition for the extreme values of u are =0,
y
11e

da + -dy + (2)

= -da + -dz = 0 (3)

p(,y, z) =0dp
<br>

168 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

(2) + \(3)

dz =0

Therefore
=0 (4

= 0 (S)
Oy Oy

(6)

since d.r,dy and dz are linearly independent,

Solving (1), (4), (5) and (6) we get the values of z, y, z, which give the extreme values
of f.
Note:

1. Lagrange's method does not specify whether the extreme values found out are max:
IIMum or minimum.

2. Alternatively by taking g = f+ Apand differentiating g partially with respect to x,

y, Z,
and equating to zero we get

=0,
ôg
af 0,
Oy y
dg 0f

Problems:
1. A rectangular box, open at the top, is to
have a volume 32
Find the dimensions of
the box, that requires the least material for Construction.
its
Solution:
Let z,y, z
denote the length, breadth and minimize
height of
the open bOx. Then
f=S æy + 2(yz + zæ)
<br>

Functions of Several variables 169

subject to

CYZ = 32 (I)
i.e., = TYZ – 32
By Lagrange's multiplier method,

Of Of 0f +
=0, Oy
=0, =0

y+22+ Ayz=0, a + 2z+ ATz =0, 2y + 2 +

Acy = 0

--
1
2
=-)
2 2
=)
1 2 - = -\+y=
+-= 2
+
2 2 3
=-)

-4
and z =

From (I),
-32
=32 =-1 )= -1¢=4,y
=
4, z= 2

3
x
The dimensions of the box that requires the
least material are: 4 x 4 2.

determine the max. capacity of a rectangular

2. Using Lagrange's multiplier method,
sq. m
tank, open at the top, if the
surface area is 108

Solution: Maximize: f= ryz

)
=
Subject to: zy+ 2y2 + 2zx 108
p = Ty + 2yz + 22T – 108
1.e.,

By Lagrange's multiplier method,

=0 (II)
af + =0, +
=0, Oy
Ôy 1 2
+
yz+ A(3y + 2z) = 0 -1 2

Tz + A( + 22) =0
&
y+ A(2y + 2æ) =0 2 2
-1
+
<br>

170 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

) = 2/y - 2/1
+
-1/ =2/y 2/r

ys -4)
.. y = -4)

z=-2A
Therefore, from (),

164 + 164+ 16= 108

48)= 108 = 108 >

48 4
3
2

I=6, y= 6, z=3.
Max. volume is =6 x 6 × 3 = 108m'

3. Find the ma
value of a"y" z, when T +y+ z= a (1)
Solution:
Let f = cy zP when =T+y+z-a
Then by lagrange's multiplier method,

mamyzP +=0 mr"y"z +

A=0
nc"ylP +d= 0 ¢"yzP
m
p"y"z+d=0 -Ay

Xy Xz X(æ +y+ ) Xa
m +
+p
=
I
pa
m +
tp
<br>

Functions of Several variables

171

Max. value is = (ma)"" (na)"(pa)

(m + n +p)m-tntp
ind the shortest and the longest distances from
the point (1, 2, -1)
to thesphere
Solutiot:
Let

i= (2 - 1)² + (y-2)2 t (z+ 1)2

K,y,z)
(1) j*i-24
Then: max. & min. (1,2,-1)

f== (-1)' +
(y-2) +
(z+ 1)
subject to:

+y+z=24 (2)
i.e., p = y'+2'-24.
+

Lagrange's multipliers equations are

1
2( - 1) +:\(2æ) =0 (1+ )=1¢ =
1+A
2
2(y - 2) y=
= 2
A(2y) =0
+
y(+1) A+1
2(z+ 1) +
A(2z)
=0 z(1+
2)
=-1 z= -1
1+

From (2),
1
6 = 24 = (1+ A)
4
1+)=t;
(1+ \)2
-1 -3
2' 2
-1
A= 2
2=2,
y
=4, z=-2
-3 -2, y = -4, = 2
2
A= N=

Extreme values of d are given by

V6 & d= V9 +
36
+
9= V54 =3V6
d= V12 + 22 + l=
3V6.
distances from (1, 2, -1) are respectively /6 and
the hrtest and the longest
<br>

172 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

parallelopiped inscribed inthe ellipsoid

5. Find the volume of the greatest rectangular
whose equation is 1. (1)

Solution:
Volume of the rectangular parallelopiped is given by

f=8ryz

Subject to:
2 -1=0
=
a2
+
LMES are:

2x
=0

22
=0and 8ry + A
=0
2Ag2 2Ay² 2\22
8ryz=

a2 2
=k ¢= ka', y= kb², ¿2= ke?
From (1), 3k=1 k= 3 C
V3 V3
Hence the greatest volume is
abc
=8
3/3,
6. The temperature T at any point (œ,y, z) in space is =
Find the highest temperature on the surface of
T Tyz', where c is a constal
the sphere a2+ y²+2=1 (1)
Solution:
Maximize T = cyz subject to =
¢ +y' +2-1
We have:
cyz' + A(2a) = 0 cryz' +
22)= 0
caz' + A(2y)= 0 cryz² + 2y' = 0
2caryz + \(2z) = 0
cæyz² + z = 0
obtained by multiplying respectively by x,y,z
cayz =-2Aæ“, cayz? =-2\y', cayz? - Az2
<br>

Functions of Several variables 173

2r\-2y'a= ==and z? =2
2
Therefore From (1),

Aa
=1a==
1 1
z =
4 tay=t;and V2

Max. temp. = C
)GOG C

-
Find the max. and min. of ¢ +t y+ z
subject to ax + by + cz=p
Solution:
f=+y+z & =
az +
by + cz -p

Lagrange's multiplier equations are:

Of 0f
+ =0, oy 0, +=0
Ôy
2 + (a) = 0, 2y + A(b) =0, 2z +
A(c) =0
-2 -2y -22
= A=

a2 + b2 +c2 a? + 62 + c2
ap bp Cp
Z=
a²+ 62+ c2
p°(a² + 6?+ ) p?
Hence an extreme value of f is =
(a? + 62 + c)2
Note:

f(u,y) = +y' +
(p- az- bz)2
C

aC- by - 2ap 2a2 2ab

÷ fr = 2 + 2
C
(-a) = 2r C
+
C C
262
Jy = 2y + 2
by
(-b) = 2y - 2bp
+
2ab
C

2a2 2ab 262

fuy = 2+ Juy +2
C C

Solving fe = 0&
f, = 0leads to a complication. So, we follow LM - method.
<br>

Matrices and Calculus

174 Ready Reckoner for

Solution: =0
Zrye+A(2) = 0,
A(1) = 0, #y(32) + A(3)
2z+ +
3Az = 0
= 3eys3Aæ =0, 3:yz +3Ay = 0, 31 yz^
3\.:=3À 3Az= = Y

=2

0U=
=

From (1), 2.: +3aC

6

Min value of ayz is =

=y= =z
6

9. Find minimum distance from the point (1,2, 0) to the Cone

the
='+y'.

Solution:

Let (z,y, z) be any point on the cone and let

d= V(z-12 + (y - 2)2 + z?

d= (¢- 1) + (y-
+
2) z?
f== (z-1)+(y -2)+?
Therefore, minimize
i=(*-1) + (y - 2)' +
?
subject to
(1)
Lagrange multipliers equations are

Of
=0. + =
y ôy =0, 0
Z(s- 1) + A(2) =0, -
2(y 2) + A(2y) = 0,
22 + A(-22) = 0
s(1+ ) =1, y(1+ ) =2,
1
2
1-=0
1+' =i+1
1 1
2
Therefore, a =
1+1 2
=1=1
<br>

Functions of Several variables 175

Hence, from (1).() 4-|-=0 12

=0

1 5 V5
=1+;==4 2
Therefore,
2
i-d=(;-1) +0-2)° +? 5
4
1 5 10 5
+1+ 4
4 42
V5
d=
V2

4.I0 Two Mark Questions and Answers

dy
1. Find
da
if u = tan-!
) where y = tan a

Solution:u= u
(z, y) > du= -da + ay -dy

du
dæ
Ou
+
Ôu dy
Oy dæ
2:x
+
1
1

1+ (/z?) ) 2 tan z secz

-y
+ tan csec 12+y'
|2z tan sec T
ul

du =
if u = sin (z +y') and
+ 4y 9
2.. Find
de
Solution:a + 44 = 9 on differentiating with respect to ,
dy dy -2x
2a + 8y- =0 4y
da dæ 8y

Öu = 2y cos(a +y)
u= sin(s² +
y') = 2a cos(² +y²) and

Thus du +
Ou dy 2ar cos(2² + y') + 2y cos (*² + y) = cOs( +
d Oy da 4y
3

2
cos(a + y)

3. If u = Telz, where y= 2a and z = sin , find du

da
<br>

Calculus
176 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and

Solution: du dy Ou dz
Öy da: 0z da
= e(z+2:z+s coS a) = e
(sin z+ 2: sin
z
tzcos
4+ae cOs
e+rei(2)

4. Find
du if
if
u
u=sin ) where T=e' and y= t
dt
Solution:
u
du Ju da dy -et cos 2t
We have + COS
dt ar dt Oy dt
1 2tx1 1 2tet7
COS
COs

()
5. If u = ay+ ay, where z = at' and y = 2at then find du
dt

Solution:
du u da + Su dy
dt Oz dt Oy dt
- (3a°y' + 2ary°) (2at) + (2a'y +3a'y') (2a)
= 2ary [t (3ry + 2y) + (3ay + 2a')|
=
2a.at.2at [t (6a t*+8at') + (2at + 6a )1
= 40° 6at + 8a +
= 4a't (8at + 14a
2at+ 6at]
= 4a't'2a't (4t +7
= 8a°t [4t +
7

6. Using value ofof du given

the definition of total derivative, find the value u=y- 4aa
=

at'. y =2at dt

Solution:
du u
Ox dt
da: uOy dy
dt dt
= -4a(2at) + 2y (2a) =
-8at+ 8a't=0
<br>

Functions of Several variables 177

g
[sing Euler's tlheorem, given u(t, y), a homogeneous function
of degree n, prove
that. ugrt 22yUay t y´lyy n(n- 1)u
Solution:By Euler's theorem
(1)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t a

TUgn t Us(1) + yury (2)

Differentiating (1) partially W..t y

TUry t yUyy t uy(1) = nuy (3)

Therefore, z x (2) +y x (3)

T"Uga t Tug t yUgy t ryuzy t yUyy t yuy= n(custyuy)

Iuza + 2ryugy t yUy t u = n.nu, by (1)
'uzn +
2ayugy +yyy = n(n- 1)u

8. Given u(z,y) =' tan ) find the value of aUzn t 2ryuzy t yUyy
Solution:u is a homogeneous function of degree 2 in a, y.

Therefore
yyy = (n- 2(2– 1)u = 2u
=
2ryury t 1)u
a Uga
t
u Qu Ou
9. Ifu = f(z -y,y-z, z- ), find +
ôy
+
q, r)
Solution:Let
z
-y=p, y-z= q,
-=T.
%
Then u
=f(p,
Of or
Therefore, +

(0) + OJ(-1) = &p r

ar
9f +
af 8J=0
Op

10. If z = u(1 v) and y=2uv, find the Jacobian

O (u, v)
<br>

Calculus
178 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and

Solution:
1- )
-U
-
O (u, v) 2v 2u
= 2u 2uv - 2uv = 2u
a
cos y= , (,y)
11. If.:=r 8, r'
sin then find
a(r,0)
Solution:
(a,v) COs -r sin
sin r cOs
=rcos +r sin0= r(1)=r

12. If u = +y and = uw find

Solution:u = T+y=I+vu

0= u-uv =
u(1- v). Thus =u(1- v) and y =
uU

Hence

Yu =u

13. If u= and v = find

Solution:We know that

o (,y) ô (u, v)
1 (1)
(u, v) ô (,y)
=
20
3
=1–4 -3
Hence, from (1),

= (æ,y)
a(u,v) (-3) 1
1
(2)
3
14. If u = 2cy, v=
1- y,=T COs
and y = r sin 0, find
<br>

Functions of Several variables 179

Solution:We know that

8(u, v)
(, y)
(1)
8(r.0)
3(u, v) 2y 2:c
(2)
3(,y)
-
2a -2,|-4(+y2)
O(1,y) cos 8 -T sin e =r(1) =T (3)
O(r,0) r cos
sin

Using (2) and (3) in (1),

(r cos + r
=
-4(¢ + y')(r) = -4r sin o]

=-4r.r(1) = -473

O (u, U, w)
15. If u, U, W are functions of independent variables z,y, z and if a 4 find the
(,y, z)
o (2u, 2v, 2w)
value of o (,y, z)
Solution:

o (2u, 2u, 2w) 2ue 2uy 2uz Uy a (u,v, w)

20y 20z = 2.2.2 =8 O
=
8(4) = 32
(,y, z) (a,y, z)
2wa 2wy 2wz Wr Uy Wz

2+y
16. If u= and
v
= 2 + 22
find a
2 (,y)
Solution:

Uy
- 2a2 + 223
Uy 2a2
23 2.c 2

17. State any three properties of Jacobians.

(u,v) o(, y)
Solution:If u and v are functions of x and y, then O(z,y) =1
'(u, v)
If u and v are functions of x and y and if x and y are functions of r and s, then
Ö(u, v) (,y) O(u,v)
O(,y)' (r, s) a(r, )
If u,yw are functionally dependent functions of three independent variables x, y, z,
then (u,v, w)
=0
O ,y,
z)
<br>

Calculus
180 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and

18. Prove that

)aknly f(r cos0, rsin 0)rdrdo
|/fr, -|/ (1)

Solution:We have = ? COs0, y

=rsin0. We know that
0 sin
drdy = drde, where
,) COs -7
=r cos +r sin =r
(r,0) sin

Hence, from (1), f(, y) drdy = f(r cos 0, r sin )rdrdo

19. Write down the Tailor's series expansion of f(a + h,y+ k)in a series of
(i) Powers of h and k
(ii) Powers of x and y.
Solution:
() f(z+h,y +
k) = f(z,y) +
1!
1
+*(,y)
oy +

(ü) f(+ h, y + k) = f(h, k) + af(h, k) of (h, k)

+y
Oy
20. Write down the Tailor's series expansions of y) near
f(, the point (a, b)
,

Solution:f(, y) = f(a, b) af(a, b) -b)(a,

b)
+
((-a) + (y
Taking a=b= 0, we get Maclaurins series of f(T, y).

21. Find the stationary points of

+ y-
f=¢- Ty 2
+ y.
Solution: = 2a -y-2, f =-T + 2y + 1
ay
Stationary points are given by =0,
Oy
=0

2x y-2=0, -T +
2y
+1=0
Solving, we get y =0, = 1 Hence (1,0) is a
stationary point.
22. Find the stationary points of
the function f = a+y- 12æy
Solution:f, =342 12y, Jy = 2y- 12:
Stationary points are given by J = = 0. Therefore,
0, Jy

- 4y = 0 (1)
y=6a (2)
<br>

Functions of Several variables 181

Using (2) in (1), a – 24æ = 0

T= 0, T
= 24. C=0 y=0 = y=
and 24 144.
Hence, (0,0) and (24,144) are stationary
points.
23. Write the sufficient conditions for
f(¢, y) to have
(i) maximum value (ii) minimum value (iii) a saddle point at, (a,
b)
8Pf(a,b) 8f(a,b) af(a, b)
Solution:Let A = B= C= -
and A = AC B'.
Then

(a)A>0 and or C negative, f(,y)

A
is maximum at (a, b)

(b) A> 0 and A or positive f(2,y) C

is minimum at (a, b)

(c) A<0 = (a,b) is a saddle point of f (z, y)

<br>

182 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

<br>

UNIT 5

Ordinary Differential Equations

5.I Linear Differential Equations of Second and Higher Order with

Constant Coefficients
The general form of a linear differential equation with constant coeficients is of the form

dy
dan dan-1 +... tany (1)

where ao 0, a1,
,
an are functions of e.
, respectively then (1) takes the
If D, D², D" denote the operators da da2: dæn
form
(anD ajDr- +... + an
)y=X (2)
Let f(D)= doD" + ajD+...
+ an. Then (2) becomes f(Du =X (3)
When X=0, (3) f(D)y =0 (4)
(4) is called the homogeneous part of (3)
n
Let y = be a general solution of (4) containing arbitrary
u constants. Let y = v be
no arbitrary constants. Then y = utv is the
the particular solution of (3) containing
(C.F) and v is called the
general solution of (3). u is called the complementary function
particular integral (PI) of the solution of (3).

5.1.I Complementary Functions:

+ (5)
Consider a second degree equation (D' + aD b)y =0
Let y = em be a trial solution of (5). Then
Dy = meme and Dy = m²ema, Hence (5)
+ am -t b= 0, (6)
Decomes m'emz + ameme + bem = 0
m

as equation (A.E) Therefore, to find the A.E replace D by m in the

Known the auxiliary
nomogeneous part of a differential equation.
Let the roots of (6) be m1, Tn2 Then:
<br>

Matrices and Calculus

184 Ready Reckoner for
Complementary Function
Nature of the IO0ts a0d 12 1
Aem* + Bervzs
distinct
M
and m, are real and (As + B)er
and 2 are real and cqual
(n1 = m2 = n) + B sin Ba)
B
2. M1
en(A cOs
3. iß

5.1.2 Working Rule to find P.I

By
1
we mean that, it is the inverse
operator of
f(D). Hence f(D)OX= X
j(D)
Rule 1:
Let \ = et, where a is a constant. Then
1 1
PI=
-ean, if f(a) 0
f(a)
If f(a) = 0, then (D - a)" is a factor of f(D)
Let f(D)= (D- a)"o(D), where o(a) 0. Then

1 1
P.I= a
fD) (D- oD)
1

(or) When f(a) = 0

1
P.I=
fD)
-ea
(D) e, if f'(a) 0

If f' (a) = 0, then

P.I=
f"(D)-e2
Otherwise,continue as above.
Rule 2:
Let X = sin ag or cos aT, Where a is a constant.
Then
1 1 1
-X= D2) Sin
a
sin az,
(D2)* if o-a) 0
1

(D2) COS aE (-a2)

COs 0T,
if d(-a)#0
If d(-a)² = 0, then D' + a is a factor of f(D). Hence
o(D²) = (D² + a')(D)
Therefore,
1 1

sin aæ
p(D')(D2 + a2) sin ax =
1
d(D2) sin ac
b(-a2)D² + a²
<br>

Ordinary Differential Equations 185

where 1 1

2
siu a
da = 2a
COS aI
2
Similarly
1 1
COS = COS aT
d
= sin as
(D2) b(-a?) 2 b(-a?) 2a
In general f(D) need not be of the form (D²). In this case, replace by D", -', D
by
-aD. D
by (-a etc so. that f(D) assumes the form pD +q. Then

P.I=
1
sin aæ
1 pD -q sin ax
sin ax
f(D) pD +q (pD- )(pD+ )

pD -q (pD- q)
-
(p²D2 g?) sin a
sin ax

pD sin ac – g sin az ap coS aC q sin aæ

-(p°a? + q²)
Similarly,
1 ap sin aC tq COS aT
COS aT
T(D)
Rule 3:

Let X = ", where m is a positive integer.

Let y = agz" + aj+ ...

+ am be the particular integral of f(D)y = gn
+
f(D)(a02"
+
aje'm+... am)=m (1)
,
From (1), we can get the values of ao, a1,*** am.

Rule 4:
Let X = ean (z), where V(c) is of the form sin Br, cos Br or g" (where m is a positive
integer). Then,particular integral.

SD)
1
=fDeV
1
(a) =
e. 1

f(D+ a)
V (æ)

V(z) can be calculated either by using Rule (2) or Rule (3)

f(D + a)
Rule 5:

Let X = zMV(a), where V(z) = sin Ba or cos Bc.

<br>

for Matrices and Calculus

186 Ready Reckoner
1

" sin Bx
integral =
Then, particular

=Inag.part of
1

= Imag.part of ee f(D + i8)

",
by Rule (4)
eFDAi
NOw, apply Rule (3). Replacing Imaginary
part by real part we get the PI if vo)
Ruule 6:
Let I be any function of a. Then
1
1
- m1)(D- m2).(D
m

P.I= f(D) = -
(D mn)
A1 A2 ... An
-\p-m) (D - m2) + +
(D - mn) X

1
e-me X da.
where X= emæ
D- m

Problems
Higher order linear differential equations with constant coefficients:

1. Solve: (D² – 3D + 2)y = 2e + 2 cos(2t)

Solution:
Consider (D –3D+ 2)y =0
A.E. is
m²- 3m +2 =0 (m-1) (m –
2)=0m = 1,2
+
C.F= Aer Bez
1
P.I, = 2e
D2 -3D +2
=2)-3 e?
(substituting D = 1, the coefficient multiply ti
of 2, denominator getS zero. So,
numerator by z and differentiate
the denominator w.r.t. D)

= 2a
"2(1) – 3
2% e

-1
Te =-2æe
Pl = D2-3DL2 COs 2
<br>

Ordinary Differential Equations 187

-4-3D +92cos 2*
1 2 1 2-3D cos 2z
=2 Cos 2x=
-2 -3D -12
+
3D 2-3D
3D) -2(2 cos cos 2x)
=-22-
4– 9D2
2
-3D
4– 9(-4)
-2 (2 cos 2r - 3[-2 sin 2r) =2(cos 2z + 3 sin 2r)]
4 + 36 40
4 1
(cos 2r + 3 sin 2¢) = (cos 2 3 sin 2¢)
40 10
1
Hence, y= Ae+ Be- 2xe" (cos 2z + 3 sin 2æ)
10

2. Solve: (D² +3D + 2)y = sin z + 2'+ 2a+7

Solution:
Consider (D' +
3D + 2)y =0
A.E. is m2 + 3m + 2 = 0 (m + 1) (m +
2) =0m=-1,-2
C.F = Ae+ Be-2a

1 1

PI = D² +3D + 2 2 7 cos 2z
1 1

2 D2 +3D + 2
-( -4+3D + 2
COs 2.c

1– cos 2¢
sin ¢
2
1
H|
HIN
1 1 3D + 2 1 1
H|N

COs 2¢ COs 2æ
4 2 3D–2 3D +2 2
1 1
cos 22
1
H| 3D + 2 2
COs 2x
9D2– 4

1 13D cos 2
+ 2 cos 2ac
4 2 9(-4) -4
cos 2z]
+ 2(40) [3(-sin 2¢) + 2
4
1 2
+(cos
+
2 - 3 sin 2r)
1

=;+ncos 20 -
1
3 sin 2
4 80 4 40
1
Plh = -(a+2ae +7)
D2 +3D + 2
<br>

l88 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

+ 2a +7)
2|1+(+

= (z + 2* +7)
- 2
1 (9 +
3D
2 ( +
3D \
2
(a + 2x+7)
D2 3D 9D2
+ 2a + 7)
-|--(+:22T
2
+2r +7-(2)-(2r-+2) +)
(Since D +7) = 2x +2
+
( 2z
D'( + 2 + 7) = 2)

15
+2x +
7-1-3x -
3+ )=-zt
Hence,

1
y= + Be -2c
2
++(cos 1
15\
Be
+-z+
Ae

4 2r–3
an (cos 2z
-3sin 2r)
sin 2t)
2 2

3. Solve: (D² +4)y = cos

Solution:
Consider (D' +
4)y=0
A.E. is m² + 4
m = ±2i = 0t 2i
=0m =-4
CF =e(Acos 2x + B sin 2x) = A cos 2 + B sin 2

1
cos
P.I=
D2 +4
1 1
3
cos 3z +
D2 +44 D2 + 44
1 3 1
COs 3% 4
cos2-3 cos T

COs 3æ +
4-9+4 4-1+ 4 4cos C= cos 3æ + 3 cos T
-1 cos 1 3
20
3æ tcos
4
T
cos° z= 4 COs 3
+cOs
4
C

y=C.F+ PIy=A cos 2x

1 1
+ B sin 2æ COs 3æ +
20 4
<br>

Ordinary Differential Equations 189

4. Solve: (D + 4D +3)y = 6e-2a sin z sin 2

Solution:
Consider (D' + +
4D 3)y=0
A.E. is n
+ 4m+3=0 (m +1)(m +
3) =0 m=-1, -3
C.F=Ae 4
Be-3a
-2 sin, c sin 2x = e-Z
-oos(r
1
+
2a) - cos(a- 2a)]

e -2a
1
3¢ - cOsa
2
2a cos T - cos 3

e -2 cos 3z
2
1
Pl = -22
COS T
D' + 4D +32
1
1
2.c
2 (D- 2)2+ 4(D- 2) +3 COS T

1
-2

1
D2
1
-
4D+ 4 + 4D - 8+3 COS T
-2c
2 D2 -1
1 1
1
-2
-1 –1
COS T = -2c COS
C
4
1 1

Plz = D² + 4D e -2c cos

3c
+32
1
-2x
(D- 2)2+4(D - 2) +3
Cos 3z
1 1
-2
D2– 4D 4+4D -8+3 + COs 3¢
1
-2
=-e2 D2
COs 3¢
–1
1
-2x
COs 3c
2 -9 -1
1
e -2x cOs 3

20
Hence,

y= Ae+ Be-8a -2a

COS T + 20°cos 3e
<br>

Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

190 Ready

1
Be-3 6 -2a: COs 3z
= Ae 5
1

= Ae + Be-3 -2a COS T - 5

COs 3z

5. Solve: (D' – 2D + 1)y = 8xe sin a

Solution:
Consider (D² – 2D + 1)y = 0

A.E is m²- 2n + 1
=0 (m
- 1) (m - 1)
=0m =1,1
C.F= (Ar + B)e"
1

P.I=
D2 - 2D+1-8ze sinz
1

(D- 1)2
1
=8e D2

1 1

DDS1n t = 8et
8e
T sin z da
8e
(-cos z) - (1)(- sin )]

D -T cOS + sin a

= 8e [-{z(sin z)
(1)(– cos z)} – cos æ)
..
= 8e-T Sin a cos T cos ¢ - -
y= (Ax + B)e"- 8e(T sin z =-8e"(a sin z + cos
2 T)

+ 2 cos ¢)
6. Solve: (D² + ay = cosh az
Solution:
Consider D' +
a=0
A
R. is m² +
a=0 =-a mn
=tia =0±ia
C.F =
e(A cos aæ + B
sin aæ) =Acos aC + B
sin aæ
P.I=
D2 4+ 2.Cosh aC

D2 + a
<br>

Ordinary Differential Equations 191

D2 +
a22
1
1 1
2 a2 2
(-a)2 + a2

1 1

2 2a2 2 2,2e

2a2
1

2
)
1
2a2
cosh a

Thus,
1
y= Acos a.x t B sin ac + cosh ax
2a2

5.2 Method of Variation of Parameters

The procedure to solve second order differential equations f (D)y = X by the method
of variation of parameters, is possible provided the homogeneous part f(D)y 0 can -
be solved by earlier methods. Consider the following second order linear differential
equation:
d'y + Ny = X (1)
da2 dæ

Consider the homogeneous part of (1), namely

dy dy
+ Ny = 0
+M (2)
da2 da

Let y= Afi + Bf (3)

be the general solution of (2), where A and B are arbitrary constants (parameters). In
particular, y = f and y = f are solutions of (2). Hence,

J + Mf + Ni = 0 and (4)

f + Mf + Nf =0 (5)

æ. Treat (3) as a solution of (1).

Now, vary the parameters A and B as functions of
Differentiating (3) with respect to æ:

y= A'fi + Af + B'f + Bf (6)

Choose A and B so that =

A'fi+ B'f2 0 (7)
<br>

192 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

Then (6) reduced to

y'= Af+ B (8)

Differentiating (8) with respect to :

y= Af + Af + B,+ B
(9)

Since (3) is a solution of (1),using (3),(8) and (9) in (1),

Af + + B, + Bf," + M(Af + Bf) + N(Afi + Bf2) = X

Af

A(f"+ Mf + Nf) + B(f)" + Mfh + Nfa) + Aff + Bf, = X

A(0) + B(0) + A'f + B'E= X, using (4) and (5)
+
Af B'f, =X (10)

Solving (7) and (10) forA' and B' we have:

x (7)
f Aff, + B'faf, =0
f2 x (10)Aff +
Bf,f2= Xf2
A= -Xf. -(11) B'= Xfi (12)

Integrating (11) and (12) with respect to z:

-Xf2 Xf1
-dz + c1 and B =
ff - ff2 da + c2
A= P+c and B = Q+ c2

Using these values in (3),

y= (P+ ci)fi + (Q+ c2) f2, where

-Xf2 -da
P=|7 and Q = Xfi
de
y= cfi + c2f2 + Pfi +Qf2, the required solution.

I- Problems on Method of Variation of Parameters:

1. Solve: 2"y + 8y = tan 2a:, using the
dar2 method of variation of parameters.
Solution:
Note: coefficient of dy should always be 1.
da2
<br>

Ordinary Differential Equations 193

Divide throughout by 2. Therefore,

dy
+ 4y = tan 2
da2
d'y
Consider: + 4y = 0

A. E. is m²+4=0

m' =-4 m=t-4= t2i

m= 0± 2i = atiß form.

C.F=e (Acos Bz + B sin Bæ)

= e'(Acos 2x + B sin 2x)
= cos 2a + B sin 2a
A

Here: fi = cos 2¢, f = sin 2 .

Allowing the parameters tovary, we get the general solution in the form
y= c1f1 + czf2 + Pfi + Qf2 (1)

where
P=|:ff -Xfa
- fefi da and Q= Xfi
f1f - faf
da
1
Here: X= 7 tan 2z.
2

Now,

ff- f2ft = cos 2a(2 cos 2æ) - sin 2*(-2 sin 2x)
= 2 cos 2x + 2 sin 2

= 2(cos 2 + 2 sin 2¢)

= 2(1)
=2

Therefore,
tun ? sin 22
tan
-Xf 2

P=J -de= 2
de
<br>

Matrices and Calculus

194 Ready Reckoner for

tan 2a sin 2z de

siu 2a: 2
d
sin
COs 2.:
2
sin
-da
COs 22
cos 2:
1 r1- da
4 cos 2a

-
1
cos 2

--/ cos 2,de

COs

see 2nde -
COs

cos 2rdr
2x
-da

=:
1
1
1G log(sec 2r + tan 2¢) – 2ar
sin 2

4 2
1
{log(sec 2az + tan 2r)- sin 2¢}
Xf1
da
tan 2a cos 2x
dæ
2
2
sin
cos 2a d.
COs 22

sin 2z da
4
1 1
Cos 2a
4 2
1
COs2.x
8
Hence, from (1),

y= C1COs 2T
t c2 sin 2a: +
llog(sec 2ar + tan 2 -
) sin 2*)
COs 2: +
8 cOs 2e) (sin 24)
= C1 COs Zæ + C2 Sin 2:
cos 22 log(sec
8 2: + tan 2c)
1
+,sin 2r cos 2æ sin 2æ cos 2x
<br>

Ordinary Differential Equations 195

= C1 COs 2.a: 4+ c2 sin 2:: cOs 2xln(scc 2r + tan 2r)

y
2. Solve, +y = coseC:, by using the method of variation of parameters.
Solution:
n =
A.E is m+1=)
m²=-1 ti= 0ti
Therefore,

C.F= e
(A cos z+ B sina)
= cos T
A
+ Bsin z

Here: fi = cosT and fa = sin T, X= COsec œ

Allowing the parameters to vary, we get the general solution in the form

y=c1fi t c2f2 +
Pfi + Q
(1)

where, P= | -Xf2 de and Q = | Xfi da

f1fz- fef
Now, fi f, - f2f = cos z cos T – sin z(– sin a)
= cos z + sin a=1
Hence:
-COsec C• Sinc
P= 1
da

-/-a
1
-sHTT da = -

COsec T•COS T
COS T
= log (sin a)
Q= da -de
1 sin z

Therefore, from (1)

:
: + c2 Sin a
.

y= C1 COS
+(-¢) cos & + log(sin a) sin
= C) cOs T + C2 Sin a – U COS W + sinx log(sin )

3. Solve:
dy dy
+ y = -,
using the method of variation of parameters.
da2 +2 da
Solution:
A.E is m² +
2m +1=0 (m+ 1)
=0 m=-1, -1
<br>

Calculus
196 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and

(real and equal). Therefore,

(Ax + B)e#= Aze " + Be

C.F=
Here: fi =xe and f =e;X=
Now, allowing the parameters to vary, we get the general solution in the form

y= 1f1 + c2f2 + Pfi + Qf2 (1)

Where
-Xf2 Xfi
P=| fif - ff da and Q = de

Now,

f2fi =se "(-e )-e (1.e ze )

ff-
-2 +ze,-2æ
e
=-Ce

Hence:

a2e dz
=
1 1
-e-2 z'e-2a
(e): da =
-2c
Ce-22 dz
= - da
-e-2
=- log
Therefore, from (1)

y= C1Te
+
Coe
1
-Te - log z e

= e
40e+coe e
logC
= cjze +
(C2 - 1)e-e log
=ec1T + C3
-1- logT
4. Solve: (D² + 1)y = sin z
by using method of variation
of parameters.
Solution:
A.E. is m' +
1= 0 m=-1 m = ti =0±1(i) = at iß form. Therefore,
C.F= e (A cos æ+ B sinæ)
= A cos & + B sin
:
<br>

Ordinary Differential Equations 197

as
Now, allowing the parameters to vary, we get the general solution
3y = c1fi + c2f2 + Pfi+ Qf2 (1)

where
P-J; -Xfa Xfi de
P=/ -bdr andQ= -dc

Now,
Jif -f2fi = cOs T COS - sin z(- sin z)= cos c + sin z=1
Therefore,

-T sin C
sin z z
sin dæ =
P= 1
dæ

cos
1- 2

2
1
sin 2
-()
2 2
1 1
Sin 2: cos 2x and
2 2 2
1
C Sin C: COS T
Q= 1
dr = sin 2x da
1 cOs 2x \ -
- sin 2
- (1)
2 2 4
1
COs 2¢ + sin 2z
2 4

Therefore, from (1),

1
C1 COS T C
Sinc -,sin 2 cos 2*
Y= 2 4
1
cos 2
t 7Sin 2 ) sin a

5.3 Linear Differential Equations with Variable Coefficients

Euler's Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations
The equation of the form
dy
dan- +... +
ln-1@ da
+ an3y
=X (*)
dgn
<br>

198 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

c, is caUled Eulers homnogeneoe

Whete d0, a1,.., ay are constants and X is function of
linear differential equation.
To solve such equations we proceed
as follows:

Put s = log.: (or) : = e.

Then:
dy 1
dy dy dz
dz da dz a
da

dy dy (1)
da dz
d
aDy= y, where = dz and D= da

Differentiating (1) with respect to T:

dy +1. dy
da2 dæ dæ
dy dy d dy\ dz
da dz dz da
d'y,+ dy d'y
da2 da dz2
dy d'y
da2 dz2
d'y dy
da? dz2 dz2 dz
'Dy = 0y - Oy = 0(0 - 1)y
Similarly,
aD°y = (0- 1)(0 - 2)y
In general,
a"D"y = 0(0 - 1)(0 - 2) (0 - (n-1))y
Using these in ("), the differential equation reduces into a
differential equation with cou
ctant coefficients and can be solved using
methods discussed earlier.

5.3.1 Legendre's Linear Differential Equations:

+ aj(az + b)2-1y
d:h- t... +
an-i(aæ + b) dy any =X ()
dan +

dac
<br>

Ordinary Differential Equations 199

Taking = log. z + b) (or) ax +b=

a:
e, (**) can be reduced into a linear differential
equation with constant coefficients.
Note:
(aa +
b) Dy = aly; (a + b)'D²y= a0(0–1)y; etc.

-
II Prolblems on Linear Diferential Equations with Variable Coefficients:

2xD- 4)y = z'+21log

–
1. Solve: ('D²
Solution:
Put z = log, z (or) = e. Then gD = 0(0- 1),
d
æD=0, where = 92
dz2 Therefore,
dz'
[O(0 - 1)- 28– 4]y =
e +
2z
- 4)y =e + 2z
(0-30
Consider: (02–30 - 4)y = 0. It's A.E is m²- 3m - 4= 0
(m4) (m 1) =0 m= 4,-1. Therefore,
+

C.F= Ae +
Bei= A(e) +
B(e)-= Az Ba-l
1 1 e22
-e2z
PI1 22 -3(2) –4
92-30- 4
-6 -6
1 1

Pl, = 36
-22
4
|-1
30
22
4 4
1 30
4
1+ 4 4

--f-o---)--(-)
4

B 1
log

.. y= C.F+ PI,
+
Ph= Aa
C 6 (g-)
2
log

2. Solve:
y 12 log &

da2 da
Solution:
<br>

200 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and Calculus

Multiply throughout by a?

2yda:2 dy= 12logc

0(0- 1)y +0y = 122

(since: : = logæ (or) a = e* D = 0(0- 1)

CD =9
d
where 0 = and 2 dz2*
dz
y = 12e*; consider 92y =0. A.E. is m² =0 m=0,0
C.F= (Az +
B)e'= Az + B,
1 1222\
P.I=(12z) = A
2
1
= 623
= 223
(6') 3
.. + B) + 2(log)°
y=(A log

3. Solve:g-3æ +
4y = log
Solution:
0(0 - 1) – 36 +4y = e. 2, Where z = log, c

(0- + 4) y = e z
40
Consider: (02 – 40 + 4) y=0. A.E is m² – 4m + 4- 0
(m- 2)
(m- 2) =0 m= 2,2 = C.F= (Az +
B)e2

P.I= 02 – 40 ;e 1

+4 (0+ 2)2 -- 4(0 +

2) +4
1
02 + 40 +4-40-8+ 4 922

dz
6

Hence:
<br>

Ordinary Differential Equations 201

y=C.F + P.I= (Az + B)e* +

6
= (A log a + B)a? 4(log a)3
6

4. Solve: 2. 'y dy
+ 4y =
de2 da ' sin(log t)

Solution:

(aD' -aD +4) y =¢"sin(log a)

(0(0-1) – 0+4] y =esin z

(0- 20 + 4)y = e sinz

Consider: (0 – 20 + 4) y =0. A.E is m² 2m 4 =0 +

m= 2t v4-16 2±-12 2+2i/3 =1±iv3

2 2
.:.
CF =eA cos V3z + B
sin v32
1
P.I= 92 - 20 +4 -e sin z=e2 (0+2) - 2(0 + 2) sin z 1

+4
1 1
sin z = ezz z
92 +
40
+4– 28 -4+ 4 92 + 26 +4 sin
1
= e2z 1 (3- 20)
sin z z
-1+260 +4 3+ 28 (3- 20) Sin
20) ez
=e2z (3-
9-4(-J)(Sm z - 2
z cos z)
402 Sin
9-
(3 sin z - cos )
2

13
y= C.F+ P.I=zAcos(V3 log a) + B
sin(V3 log a)|

+ [3 sin(log æ) - 2 cos(log æ)]

13

cos z,
5)y =
+

5. Solve: (a2D2+3¢D cos(log c) 0(0- 1) +30 5)y=e²

(02+ 20 + 5)y = cos

e z
where z= log,z
<br>

Matrices and Calculus

202 Ready Reckoner for

5 =0
m² + 2rn
4
A.E. is
Consider: (02+ 20 4 5) / =0
-2+ /4- 20 -2±i4 =-1± i(2) = atiß
2 2
Bz) = e|A cos 2z + Bsin 2-1
CF= ¢
(A cosBz + B sin
Pl= cos2=e (0+1)2 + 2(0 1) +5 COSZ
-e +

92- 20 +5
COS 2 = e.
1 -COSZ
92 + 40+8 -1 + 40 + 8

40 (7- 40)
= e
1 7- COS Z= COS Z•
e

(49- 1692)
7+ 40 7-40
40] cos e 2

=e -7– |7 cosz 4(– sin z)]

49 16(-1) 65
e² (7 cos z + 4 sin z)
.. y=a 65
A
cos(2 loga) + B sin 2(log z)]
+ (7 cos(log ) + 4 sin(log a)]
65

1
6. Solve: (a'D' +
4zD +2)y = +

Solution:

+ 42 dy
1

da2
+
2y = a+
dæ
0(0- 1)y + 40y + 2y = ez + where z= log
(0 + 30 + 2)y= ez
te-2z
A.E is
n² +3m +2=0 (m + 1)(m +
2) m =-1,
=0 -2
.:. CF = Ae + Be-2z

PI, = 92 4+
e2z
30
Py =
1
+222 +3(2) +2 12
92
e -22
4 30 20 e
+3e =-ze-2
.. y= Ae +
Be-2x
+
+3 2(-2) +3°
<br>

Ordinary Differential Equations 203

- Aæ + Ba-2 +
12
A
(B. log ) +

12

7. Solve: (3z +
2)2. dy ++ 2) dy 36y = 3a' +
4z +1
da? da

Solution:

Put z = log. (3¢ +2) (or) e

=3z + 2
1

3¢ = e -2=(e' 2)

Further
2)2dy2
(3
+2)
dy
=30y, (3z +: 3P0 (0 - 1) y,
da da?
where
d
=
dz' dz2

Therefore, (1) - 90 (0 -1)y+ 3 (30y) – 36y =

3(;(e-2 +
4;(e-2) +1)
36)yy=
-90– 36)
(98-99 +90- =e- 4e +4)
3

(98- 36)y=(e*- 4e² + 4 + 4e² - 8+3)

1

(0- 4)y = (e-1)

A.E is
m

–4 0
m

=4 m= t2
+

C.F= Ae +
Be2= A(3z
+
2)+ B(3a 2)

1
P.I= 92 - 4 27
(e?i-er)
1

27 92 2 -4
2720
e2z + 2)° log (3z
1

2til-li(3r +2)|
7
<br>

and Calculus
204 Ready Reckoner for Matrices

Hence,
1
(3a + 2)' log (3z + 2) +1
y= A(3z + 2)' + B(3z +2)-+ 108

5.4 Two Mark Questions and Answers

of the differential equation (D- 4D+3) y =0
1. Find the complementary function
Solution:
Auxiliary equation is m² 4m
+ 3
=0 (mn- 1) (m-3) = 0
m= 1, 3, Hence CF = Ae + Bešz

y
2. Find the CF of the Differential equation (D + 4) =0
Solution:
Auxiliary equation is m44= m = t21
0
.
Hence, CF = (A cos 2a + Bsin 2¢) = A cos 2 + B sin
eU 2

3. Find the complementary functionof (D + 8)y =0

Solution:
Auxiliary equation is
m
+8 =0 (m + 2) (m² - 2rn + 4) =0
m =-2, 1± v3i

Hence, CF= Ae 2
4e (B cos V3a + B sin /3z)
4. Find the Complementary function of (D - 2D' + D²) y =0
Solution:
AE is (m-2m +
m²) =0, m² (m² 2m + 1) - =0
m=0,0, 1, 1. Hence,
CF =(Ar + B) + (æ + D) e

5. Find the CF of (D' +1)y =0

Solution:
AE is (² + 1)" =0 m= ti, ti
Hence, CF = (Az + B) Cos T +
(Ce + D) sin ¢
6. Findthe CF of (D -
3D' +3D 1) y = 0 -
Solution:
<br>

Ordinary Differential Equations 205

AE is(-3n +
31n -- 1)
=0 (m- 1)
=0
1n=1,1, 1. Hence, CF = (A 4
Bx +
C) e

7. Find the CF of (D - 2D² + 1) y

=0
Solutio:
AE is(m-1)“ = 0, m ±1, +1 =

Hence, CF = (AT + B) e + (Ca + D)e-a

8. Find the CF of (D² + y

2D-1) =0
Solution:
AE is m² 2m - 1=0
-2+ 4+4 -2+2V2_1±V2)
2 2 2

m=-1 + /2, -1- /2

Hence, CF = Ae-l+v2) + Bei-V)

9. Find the CF of (D - 1)y = cosh a

Solution:
AE
is (mn- 1) =0 m²=1,-1 m=±l, ti
Hence, CF = Ae" + Be- + (C cos T + D sinz).

1 a
=
10. Find the particular integral of PI (D-1j32 cosh
Solution:
1
PI= coshæ
13
(D-
2
1 e+e-2
(D- 1)
6

11. Find the PI of (D² + a)y =bcos ax + c sinaæ

<br>

206 Ready Reckoner for Matrices and alculus

Solution:
1

-bcos az + csin aT
Pl= (D2 + a?) (D² + a?)
ba
sin aæ t .) 2a
c
COS aT
2a

2a
(b sin aT -c cOs aT)

12. Find the PI of (D² + 4D + 4) y=ce2a

Solution:
1

PI= D2 + 4D
1
-2.
=e + 4
(D- 2)+4 (D- 2)
1
D22:

13. Find the PI of (D – 3) = ze-2r

Solution:

PI= 3)2e
(D-
1
-2
=e
(D-2- 3)2*
1

er2a
(D- 5)?
1
=e -2
25(1 )
1 -2
e2a: D -2x
2D
25 5 25 1+
=e
-2a: +;
25

14. Find the PI of (D + 1)y = e cos a

<br>

Ordinary Differential Equations 207

Solution:

P= cos
(0+1)2
=ecos z, (by replacing D by D – 1)

-e cOs T, since:
D2
COS T =
1

D
(sin z) =- cos
15. Find the PI of (D + 4D +5)3y = e -2 COS T

Solution:
1
PI= (D2 -2æ COS
+ T
4D +5)
1
2z by replacing D by D -2
(D - 2)2
e cOs T,
+
4(D- 2) + 5)
1
er22 – 4D 4+4D - 8+5
+
COS T
D2

COS T
D2 +1
sin a
2

1
16. Find a formula for y = f(z)
a
D-
Solution:

Let y
1
a-f(z).
Then (D - a)y = f() dy ay = j(æ)
D- da
This is a linear differential equation with P = -a, Q = f()

-/(ac
c
yed= | (Qe am) da +

17. Find the PI of (D² - 2D+ 2) y= e

cosT
 for Matrices lll
<br>

208 Ready Reckoner

Solution:
-e COS T
Pl= (D2 - 2D +2) 1
COS T
+ 1) + 2)

((D+ 1)2- 2(D

D2 + - +2
2D+1-2D 2
COS I

1
COS T
D² +1
sin
2

18. Find the PI of (3D'– 4D+ 5)y = 3e"

Solution:

PI= (3D2 – 4D45Be

1
e2a
3 -
"3(2)2 4(2) + 5

=3

e2
3

19. Solve z'y'y +y = 0

Solution:
c'y-cy +y= 0 is a second order differential equation
with variable coefnele
Taking z = log or a = e

a'y = (0-0) y, y =y
Hence,

(02 - 0)y - y +y = 0, 0 = d ,
=
0
(0- 20+1)y = 0 dz dz2

AE is -
n' +l=0 > m =1,1
2m
Therefore, y = (Az +
B)e= (Alogæ+ B):
<br>

Ordinary Differential Equations 209

20, Reduce the equation (¢D²+*D+1)y = log * in to an ordinary differential equation

with constant coefficients.

Solution:

Taking z= logt or a = e,

eDy = y; D'y = (0- 0)y, where = d

dz' dz2

Hence, the given D.E becomes (0– ++1)y =z (0+1)y = z

21. Reduce the D.E (3a + y

5)?
da2
dy
+ 2(3z +5)+7y = 0 in to a D.E with constant
da
coefficients.

Solution:

Taking z = log(3z +5) (or) e' =3z +5

dy = + 5)29 = 9(0)(0 -1)y
(3a + 5) =3 30y and (3æ
da dz da
Hence, the given equation reduces to

90(0- 1)y + 2(30y) +7y = 0

(98- 90 + 60 47)y =0
(98 -30 + 7)y =0

22. Solve the equation z°y" +3ay' + y+y=0.

Solution:

Taking z = log or z = e,
c'y" = 0(0- 1)(0 - 2)y, xy" = 0(0 - 1)y and ay = @y

Hence, the given equation reduces to

0(0- 1)(0 – 2)y + 30(0 - 1)y Oy+y =0

+

(o3 - 30 + 20 + 30 -30 +0+ 1)y = 0

(0 + 1)y = 0
<br>

Matrices and Calculus

Ready Reckoner for
210

(m + 1)(m²
- m + 1) =0
A.E is
m
+1 =0 .V3
= 1t 1-4
1
2 2
0
=-1, 2
V3 V3
y =
Ae*+ ei(B cosz+Csin 2
-z)
V3 V3
A
+ya(B cos log a + Csin log æ)
2 2

+
n(n+ 1)y = 0.
23. Solve the equations a²y"– 2nry
Solution:
Taking z = logz or z = e², cy' = 0y and y= 0(0-1)y
Hence, the given equation reduces to

0(0- 1)y- 2nby + n(n+ 1y =0

+ +
8- (2n 1)0 n(n+ 1)y =0
+
(e- n][e- (n 1)]y =0
Therefore, A.E is (m- n)m - (n+1)]=0
mE n, n
1

Hence, y= Aez +
Belntl)z = Ac7 + Brn+1
24. Solve for z the equations a-y =t.....1) and y' = 1...2)
Solution:
-y=t-y =1 3
(2) + (3)

da =
dt2 =2 2t + A
dt
I= t+At + B

= 2t + A
Hence, from
(1), y =1
Thus, z= -t=2t+A-t =t+A
t+At + B and y
=t + A
Z5. Ify= u(z)and y = u(a)u() are
solutions of
the equation
y+ p(¢)y +
g(æ)y =0
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Ordinary Differential Equations

211

write down the first order equation satisfied by v(¢).

Solution:
y=u is a solution of (1)

u't p(¢)u +
g(z)u = 0 (2)
Y=UU
y= uv+ u'

Hence, from (1)

uv+ 2u'o' +uv'+p(¢) [u'u + u]+ g(¢)uv =0

fu' +p(a)u + g(z)uv + 2u'o'+ p(*)uu' = 0
(0)v + o(2u + up(z)] = 0, by (2)
the first order equation satisfied by v.
o=0,