Operational Amplifiers &

Linear IC’s
Subject Code: 18EE46
 Module 1
A. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Introduction, Block diagram representation of a typical Op-amp, schematic symbol,

characteristics of an Op-amp, ideal op-amp, equivalent circuit, ideal voltage
transfer curve, open loop configuration, differential amplifier, inverting & non –
inverting amplifier, Op-amp with negative feedback(excluding derivations).

B. GENERAL LINEAR APPLICATIONS

A.C. amplifier, summing, scaling & averaging amplifier, inverting and non-inverting
configuration, Instrumentation amplifier.
 Introduction:
• Operational Amplifiers are one of the basic building blocks of Analogue
Electronic Circuits.
• The operational amplifier is a direct-coupled high gain amplifier usable from 0
Hz to over 1MHz to which feedback is added to control its overall response
characteristic i.e. gain and bandwidth.
• An ideal operational amplifier is a 8-terminal device that consists of two high
impedance inputs,
i. An Inverting input marked with a negative sign, ("-") and
ii. A Non-inverting input marked with a positive plus sign ("+").
• The amplified output signal of an Operational Amplifier is the difference
between the two signals being applied to the two inputs.
• Op-amps (amplifiers/buffers in general) are drawn as a triangle in a circuit
schematic
• There are two inputs
• Inverting and Non-inverting
• And One output
• Also power connections (note no explicit ground)

divot on pin-1 end

V+

2 7
inverting input  6
output
non-inverting input +
3 4

V

4
History:
• 1941: A vacuum tube op amp by John R Ragazzine
• 1947: An op amp with an explicit non-inverting input.
• 1949: A chopper-stabilized op amp.
• 1953: A commercially available op amp
• 1961: A discrete IC op amp.
• 1962: An op amp in a potted module.
• In 1963, Bob Widlar at Fairchild Semiconductor made an op-amp
on a single integrated circuit(Monolithic IC). μA709
• A bipolar transistor operational amplifier is the μA741 integrated
circuit designed in 1968 by David Fullagar at Fairchild
Semiconductor.
• Some other opamp are LM324, LM339, LM258, LM358, CA3130,
LM4871, AD620, IC6283, JRC4558, TL081, LF351N, MC33171N
Introduction to μA741:
• μA741 is a general purpose Operational
Amplifiers IC.
• μA741 has eight (8) pins.
• Details of IC are shown in the table given below
μA741 Opamp IC PINs
PIN No PIN Name
1 Offset Null - 1
2 Inverting input Terminal
3 Non -inverting input Terminal
4 Negative Power Supply (-VEE= -12V)
5 Not Connected
6 Output Terminal
7 Positive Power Supply (+VCC= +12V)
8 Offset Null - 2
Introduction to μA741:
μA741 op-amp features and specifications
1. Supply Voltage: ±12V
2. Differential Input Voltage: ±15V
3. CMRR: 90dB
4. Differential voltage amplification: 200V/mv
5. Supply Current: 1.5mA
6. Available in 8-Pin PDIP,SOIC and VSSOP
packages
Equivalent to IC μA741 is : CA3140
Applications of opamp:
• Audio- and video-frequency pre-amplifiers and buffers
• Differential amplifiers
• Differentiators and integrators
• Filters
• Precision rectifiers
• Precision peak detectors
• Voltage and current regulators
• Analog calculators
• Analog-to-digital converters
• Digital-to-analog converters
• Voltage clamping
• Oscillators and waveform generators
• Clipper
• Clamper (dc inserter or restorer)
• LOG and ANTILOG amplifiers
• The output signal from Opamp is a differential signal between the two inputs
• The input stage of an Operational Amplifier is a differential amplifier as shown
below.
• The circuit shows a generalized form of a differential
amplifier with two inputs marked V1 and V2.
• The two identical transistors TR1 and TR2 are both biased
at the same operating point with their emitters connected
together and returned to the common rail, -VEE by way of
resistor RE.
• The circuit operates from a dual supply +VCC and -VEE which ensures a constant
supply.
• As the two base inputs are out of phase with each other, the output voltage,
VOUT, is the difference between the two input signals. So, as the forward bias of
transistor TR1 is increased, the forward bias of transistor TR2 is reduced and vice
versa.
• Then if the two transistors are perfectly matched, the current flowing through
the common emitter resistor, RE will remain constant.
Block diagrammatic Representation of Opamp:
Block diagrammatic Representation of Opamp:
• OPAMP is basically a differential amp i.e., it will amplify the voltage which is
differentially present between its i/p terminals.
1. Input stage
2. Intermediate stage
3. Level- shifting stage
4. Output stage
Input Stage:
 Dual inputs, Balanced o/p Diff. Amplifier
 The input stage should have the following characteristics:
 High input resistance (typ. 10M ohm)
 Low input bias current (typ. 0.5 micro Amp.)
 Small input offset voltage (typ. 10 mV)
 Small input offset current (typ. 0.2 mA)
 High CMRR (typ. 70 dB)
 High Open-loop voltage gain
• It Provides Most voltage gain of Op-Amp and input resistance of Op-Amp
Block diagrammatic Representation of Opamp:
2. Intermediate Stage:
• Dual i/p, Unbalanced o/p Diff Amplifier
• Drives the o/p of 1st stage
• Direct coupling
• DC voltage well above ground level
• Increases the overall gain of op-amp
3. Level Translator (or) Shifting Stage:
• DC voltage level is shifted to zero w.r.t ground
• It is the emitter follower with constant current source
Block diagrammatic Representation of Opamp:
4. Output Stage:
• Increases o/p voltage swing
• Raises current supply capability of Op-Amp
• Low Resistance
• Complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier
It should have following characteristics:
• Large output voltage swing capability
• Large output voltage swing capability
• Low output resistance
• Short circuit protection Dual inputs, Balanced o/p Diff. Amplifier
 Block diagrammatic Representation of Opamp:

The various stages in the block diagrammatic representation of a multi-stage

operational amplifier are
1. Input stage
2. Intermediate stage
3. Level- shifting stage
4. Output stage
Block diagrammatic Representation of Opamp:
• OPAMP is basically a differential amp i.e., it will amplify the voltage which is
differentially present between its i/p terminals.
1. Input stage: The i/p stage is a dual i/p, balanced o/p differential amp. The 2 i/p
are inverting and non- inverting i/p terminals. This stage provides most of the
voltage gain of the OP-AMP and decides the value of i/p resistance Ri.
2. Intermediate stage: This is usually another differential amp. The i/p stage
drives the stage. The stage is a dual –i/p unbalanced o/p differentiated amp.
3. Level- shifting stage: Due to direct coupling used between the 1st 2 stages,
the i/p of level shifting stage is an amplified signal with some non – zero dc
level. Level shifting stage is used to bring dc level to zero volts with respect to
gnd.
4. Output stage: This stage is normally a complementary o/p stage. It increases
the magnitude of voltage and raises the current supplying capability of OP-
AMP. It also ensures that the o/p resistance of OPAMP is low.
Schematic Symbol
Internal Circuitry of 741 opamp:
Basic Definitions:
• Open loop voltage gain-It is the differential gain of an OP-AMP in the
open loop mode of operation.
• Input resistance-It is defined as the equivalent resistance which can be
measured at either at inverting or non- inverting terminal with the
other terminal connected to ground.
• Output resistance-It is the resistance measured by looking into the
output terminal of OP-AMP, with the input source short circuited.
• Bandwidth-It is the range over which all signal frequencies are
amplified almost equally.
• Common mode rejection ratio-It is defined as the ratio of differential
gain to common mode gain.
Basic Definitions:
• Slew rate-It is defined as the maximum rate of change of output
∆𝑉𝑂
voltage per unit time. 𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑉/μ𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡
• Power supply rejection ratio-It is the change in an OP-AMPs input
offset voltage caused by variation in the supply voltage.
• Input offset voltage-It is the voltage that must be applied between the
two terminals of an opamp to null the output.
• Input bias current-It is the average of the currents flowing into the two
𝐼1 +𝐼2
input terminal of the OP-AMP. 𝐼𝑏 =
2
• Input offset current- It is the algebraic difference between the currents
flowing into the inverting and non-inverting terminal of OP-AMP.
Ideal op amp characteristics
𝑉𝑂𝑢𝑡
1. Infinite open-loop gain A =
𝑉𝑖𝑛

2. Infinite input impedance Zin, so zero input current drawn.

3. Zero Output Impedance Zout.
4. Infinite Slew Rate
5. Infinite Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
6. Infinite Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR)
7. Zero Input offset voltage
8. Infinite Output voltage range
9. Infinite bandwidth.
Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve
• The ideal op-amp produces the output proportional to the difference between the two
input voltages.
• The graphical representation of this statement gives the voltage transfer curve. It is the
graph of output voltage Vo(plotted) against the input Voltage vd assuming gain
as constant. This graph is called transfer characteristics of the op-amp.
• The output voltage cannot exceed the positive and negative saturation voltages.
• These saturation voltages are specified for given values of supply voltages.
• This means that the output voltage is directly proportional to the input difference
voltage only until it reaches the saturation voltages and thereafter the output voltage
remains constant.
• Thus curve is called an ideal voltage transfer curve, ideal because output offset voltage
is assumed to be zero.
• If the curve is drawn to scale, the curve would be almost vertical because of very large
values of Ad.
Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve
Configurations of Opamp:
1. Open Loop Configuration -No feedback from output to input.
2. Closed Loop Configuration –There is a Feedback from output to
input.
a) Positive Feedback
b) Negative Feedback
CONFIGURATION OF OP-AMP
Open loop configuration
• In open loop configuration , there is no feedback from output to input.
• The differential signal present between the inputs will be amplified by it’s open
loop gain.(Av=2×105)
• Therefore even for very small magnitude of differential voltage output will reach
positive or negative saturation
• The internal op-amp formula is:
Vout = gain(V+  V) V 
Vout
• So if V+ is greater than V, the output goes positive V+ +

• If V is greater than V+, the output goes negative

Why is OP-AMP not used as an amplifier in the open loop configuration?
• Due to very open loop gain, distortion is introduced in the amplified output
signal.
• The open loop gain does not remain constant but varies with temperature and
power supply as well due to mass production technique.
• The bandwidth of an OP-AMP is very small almost equal to zero.
• For this reason the open loop OP-AMP is not used in practice as an amplifier
CONFIGURATION OF OP-AMP
Closed loop configuration
• In closed loop configuration , a feedback is introduced, i.e. a part of
output is fed back to the input.
• The feedback can be of the following two types:
1. Positive feedback/regenerative feedback
2. Negative feedback/degenerative feedback
Positive feedback:
• If the feedback signal and the input signal are in phase with each other then it is
called as the positive feedback.
• It is used in application such as oscillators and schmitt trigger or regenerative
comparators.
CONFIGURATION OF OP-AMP
Closed loop configuration
Negative feedback:
• If the signal fed back to the input and the original input signal are 180° out of
phase, then it is called as the negative feedback.
• In application of op amp as an amplifier, the negative feedback is used.
Advantages of negative feedback
• It stabilizes gain
• Reduces the distortion
• Increases the bandwidth
• Reduces the effect of variations in temperature and supply voltage on the output
of op amp
• The only disadvantage of negative feedback is low gain
Concept of virtual short
• According to virtual short concept, the potential difference between the two
input terminals of an op amp is almost zero.
• In other words both the terminals are approximately at the same potential.
• The input impedance of an OP-AMP is ideally infinite. Hence current flowing from
one input terminal to the other will be zero.
• Thus the voltage drop across Ri will be zero and both the terminals will be at the
same potential.
• Means they are virtually shorted to each other
Concept of Virtual Ground
• If one of the terminal of OP-AMP is connected to ground then due to the virtual
short existing between the other input terminal, the other terminal is said to be
at ground potential.
Zero input current
• As the input resistance of the ideal OP-AMP is infinite, the current flowing into
it’s input terminal is zero.
• Even for the practical OP-AMPs, Rin=2MΩ which is very large. Hence for all the
practical purposes we assume that the input current of an OP-AMP is zero.
Features of IC 741
• No frequency compensation required
• Short circuit protection
• Offset voltage null
• Large common mode and differential voltage ranges
• No latch ups
Differential Amplifiers:
• The differential amplifier amplifies the voltage difference present on its inverting
and non-inverting inputs.
• A differential amplifier is an analog circuit with two inputs (V1 and V2) and one
output (V0) in which the output is ideally proportional to the difference between
the two voltages. i.e., 𝑉𝑂 = 𝐴𝑑 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
Differential Amplifiers:
• By connecting each input in turn to 0 V ground we
can use superposition theorem to solve for the output
voltage Vout.

When resistors, R1 = R2 and R3 = R4, the above equation for the differential amplifier can
be simplified to the following expression
http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp17/index.html#
Inverting & Non-Inverting Amplifiers:
Basic Non Inverting Amplifier Circuit Basic Inverting Amplifier Circuit

http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp17/index.html#
Opamp with Negative Feedback:
Basic Non Inverting Amplifier Circuit Basic Inverting Amplifier Circuit

http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp17/index.html#