Faculty of Engineering

Cairo University – Credit Hours System

Spring-2022
EPMN302

EPMN302 Summary
Contents
Lecture 1 ................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Theory ................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Lecture 2 ................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Theory ................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Calculations ........................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Lecture 3 ................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Calculations ........................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Lecture 4 .............................................................................................................................................................................. 10
Calculations ...................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Lecture 5 .............................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Lecture 6 .............................................................................................................................................................................. 15
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................................. 15
Calculations ...................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Lecture 7 .............................................................................................................................................................................. 16
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................................. 16
Calculations ...................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Lecture 8 .............................................................................................................................................................................. 19
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................................. 19
Calculations ...................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Lecture 9 .............................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Calculations ...................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Lecture 10 ............................................................................................................................................................................ 23
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Calculations ...................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Lecture 11 ............................................................................................................................................................................ 27
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Calculations ...................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Lecture 12 ............................................................................................................................................................................ 29
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................................. 29
Calculations ...................................................................................................................................................................... 30

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Lecture 1
Theory
Electricity carry-over
Power plant -> Step up transformer -> High voltage transmission line -> Step down transformer (substation) ->
Step down transformer -> Buildings

Electrical power system in formed of

• Generation
• Transmission
• Distribution

Challenges facing the power industry

• Increase in population
• Increase in power demand
• High living standards
• Scarcity of conventional energy resources and using renewable energy
• Use of power electronic devices
• Risk of electricity & blackouts

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Lecture 2
Theory
Law of Conservation of Energy and Sign Convention
• Positive Sign: means power is absorbed by the element
• Negative Sign: means power is delivered by the element
• The total power delivered to a circuit is equal to the total power absorbed.

Calculations
Impedance
Z = R + j XL – j Xc (Ohms)

Z: Impedance, R: Resistance

XL = ωL, XC = 1/(ωC)

Single Phase Power

Active power: P = VI * cos(φ)

Reactive power: Q = VI * sin(φ)

Apparent power: S = P + j Q (vector)

Power Factor
φ: angle between current and voltage (Θv - Θi)

Power factor

• Pf = cos(φ)
• Pf = R/Z (scalar)
• Pf = P/S (scalar)

Note

• A resistive circuit has a unity power factor (Pf = 1)

• A purely capacitive circuit has a zero power factor (PF = 0); Current leads Voltage
• A purely inductive circuit has a zero power factor (PF = 0); Voltage leads Current

Leading Lagging
Nature of load in electrical circuit Capacitive Inductive
Reactive component Negative Positive
Current/Voltage relationship Current leads voltage Current lags voltage
Φ (Θv - Θi) Negative Positive

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Lecture 3
Calculations
Three phase voltage configurations
Balanced three phase voltage sources have the same magnitude and equal phase shift of 120°

There are 2 combinations

1. Positive sequence
• abc
• Anticlockwise
2. Negative sequence
• acb
• Clockwise

𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = √3 ∗ 𝑉𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒∠ + 30°

Three phase load configurations

Balanced three phase load connections have phase impedances that are equal in both phase and magnitude

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Three phase system configurations
• Balanced Y-Y system connection

Single phase representation

• Balanced Y-Δ system connection

Single phase representation

In the equivalent circuit of a single phase, the impedance of the Δ connected load is divided by 3.
ZLΥ = ZΔ /3

• Balanced Δ currents

𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = √3 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒∠ − 30°

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 1. In case of Υ connection, the phase and line currents are the same.
2. In case of Δ connection:
• The line voltage is equal to the phase voltage (same).
• The line current magnitude is equal to sqrt (3) multiplied by the magnitude of the phase current
and it lags the phase current by 30°.
• Balanced Δ-Y system connection

Single phase representation

𝑉𝑎𝑏∠ − 30°
𝑉𝑎𝑛 = ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
√3

• Balanced Δ- Δ system connection

Change the delta source to Y by getting the phase voltage (Van) like the previous figure.
Change the delta load to Y by dividing the impedance by 3.

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Unbalanced load Configurations

1. Y-connection (4 – wire)

Power calculations

S = P +JQ
2. Y-connection (3 – wire)

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 3. Delta connection

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑎𝑏 − 𝐼𝑐𝑎
𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑏𝑐 − 𝐼𝑎𝑏
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑐𝑎 − 𝐼𝑏𝑐

Unbalanced system configurations

1. Y -Y
(4 – wire)
Get the Van, Vbn, and Vcn and if given then skip this step.
Solve the single-phase representation 3 times for each impedance Za, Zb, and Zc.
Vn is always = 0.
In = Ia + Ib + Ic

(3 – wire)
Convert Y load to Δ
Calculate Iab, Ibc, and Ica by dividing the line to line volt by every impedance
Calculate then Ia, Ib, and Ic from Iab, Ibc, and Ica
If there’s a transmission line impedance add it to the load then convert to Δ and divide the
line volt by the phase impedance and get the phase currents then from it get the line
currents by KCL.
2. Δ- Y
If there’s a transmission line impedance add the transmission line impedance to the phase
impedance then convert Y to Δ and divide the line volt by the phase impedance and get the
phase currents then from it get the line currents by KCL.
3. Δ- Δ
If there’s a transmission line impedance convert Δ load to Y then add the transmission line
impedance to the phase impedance then return the load to Δ and solve.
If there’s no impedance divide the line volt by the phase impedance and get the phase
currents then from it get the line currents by KCL.

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Lecture 4
Calculations
Three phase power calculations

𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑃 = √3 ∗ 𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∗ 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∗ cos(𝜑) 𝑊

𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝑄 = √3 ∗ 𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∗ 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∗ sin(𝜑) 𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝐀𝐩𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫: S = P + jQ = 3 ∗ 𝑉𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∗ 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = √3 ∗ 𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∗ 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝐴

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Lecture 5
Theory
Basic requirements of a transmission – distribution system
• Provide the power that consumers always need
• Maintain a stable and nominal voltage that doesn’t vary by more than +10% or -10%
• Maintain a stable frequency that doesn’t vary by more than +0.1 -0.1 Hz
• Supply energy in an acceptable price
• Meet standards of safety
• Respect environmental standards

The design criteria of transmission lines

• The amount of active power it transmits
• The power transmission efficiency (Active power losses calculated)
• The current carrying capacity of the line
• The permissible voltage drops
• The distance over which the power must be carried
• The cost of the power line
• The short-circuit level
• Aesthetics and environmental considerations
• Ease of installation and right-of-way
• Expected load growth and load forecasting

Components of a HVTL
1. Conductors
• They are always bare (not covered with insulating materials similar to underground cables)
• Stranded copper conductors or Aluminum conductor steel reinforced (ACSR) are used, and ACSR
are usually preferred as they result in lighter and more economical lines.
• When the line is long the conductor has to be spliced, the process of connecting 2 end terminals of
line conductors, and special care should be taken to ensure that the joints have low resistance and
high mechanical strength.
2. Insulators
• They support and anchor conductors and insulate them from the ground
• They’re usually made of porcelain, also glass and other synthetic materials are used
• From an electrical point of view insulators must
1. Offer high resistance to surface leakage currents (to increase leakage path, hence the
leakage resistance, insulators are molded with wave-like folds)
2. Be sufficiently thick to prevent breakdown under the HV stresses they must withstand
• From a mechanical point of view insulators must be strong enough to withstand the dynamic pull
and weight of the conductors
3. Supporting Structures
• For voltages below 70 KV, single wooden poles could be used

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 • For very high voltages, steel towers are used
• The spacing between conductors must be sufficient to prevent arc-over under windy conditions
• The spacing must be increased as the distance between the towers and line voltage increases

Why are transmission line conductors are usually stranded?

• As stranding provides flexibility for large cross-sectional area conductors and reduces skin effect
• Stranding with steel gives higher tensile strength than the ordinary all aluminum conductors (AAC), which
has less tensile strength

Spiraling: Alternate layers of wire of a stranded conductor, they are spiraled in opposite directions.

Why use the spiraling method on a transmission line?

• To prevent unwinding, and to make the outer radius of one (inside) layer coincide with the inner radius of
the next (outside) layer

Line sag: The vertical distance between the straight line joining the points of support and the lowest point of the
conductor. The tighter the, the smaller the sag will be.

Weather effect
1. Stringing of line in the winter
• The sag mustn’t be too big, otherwise the wire will stretch more during the summer hear, with the
result that the clearance to ground may no longer be safe
2. Stringing of line in the summer
• The sag mustn’t be too small, otherwise the wire contracts in winter and becomes extremely tight
as to snap.
3. Wind and sleet
• Add more to the tractive force on the line, which may also cause the line to break.

Galloping lines
• If a coating of sleet is deposited on a line during windy conditions, the line may begin to oscillate.

• Under certain conditions, the oscillations may become so large that the line is seen to gallop.

• Galloping Lines can produce short-circuits between phases or snap the conductors.

• To eliminate this problem, the line is sometimes equipped with special mechanical weights, to dampen the
oscillations or to prevent them from building up.

HVDC
• A technology for transmitting electricity across long distances with minimum losses.

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Right-of-way
• A single HVDC line with 2 conductor bundles has less environmental impact than a double circuit AC line
with 6 conductor bundles. It requires less space and has less visual impact.

HVDC vs HVAC transmission

HVAC transmission has some limitations related to

• Transmission capacity
• Distance constraints
• Impossibility of directly connecting 2 asynchronous AC power networks

HVDC total losses are lower than HVAC transmission losses.

HVDC transmission line costs less than HVAC line for the same transmission capacity.

HVDC terminal stations are more expensive because of the conversion from AC to DC, and DC to AC.

Over break-even distance (critical distance) which is approximately 600-800 km, the HVDC alternative will always
provide the lowest cost.

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Comparison between HVDC and HVAC transmission
HVDC transmission system HVAC transmission system
Losses Low losses High losses due to skin effect and
corona discharge
Voltage regulation and control High voltage regulation and control Low voltage regulation and control
ability ability ability
Transmitted power Transmits more power over a Transmits less power compared to
longer distance HVDC
Needed insulation Less insulation is needed More insulation is needed
Reliability High reliability Low reliability
Asynchronous interconnection Possible Not possible
Line cost Low due to fewer conductors High
Towers Towers are cheaper, simple, and Towers are bigger compared to
narrow HVDC

Disadvantages of HVDC
• HVDC link is still complicated in its design
• High initial cost because of rectifiers, inverters, filters...etc.
• Circuit breakers, converters, and AC filters are expensive especially for small distance transmission
• Injection of undesirable harmonics to the network due to the use of power electronic devices
• Lack of reactive power even though the power factor is improved with HVDC

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Lecture 6
Theory
Temperature Effect on Resistance

The temperature of -234.5°C is called the Inferred Absolute Temperature (IAT) of copper. Inferred means deduced
or concluded. Different conducting materials have different IATs.

Annealed and Hard-Drawn Metals

Annealing: is a heat treatment metallurgical process that alters the properties of the material.

Annealed Copper: is heating the copper and allowing it to cool down slowly.

• This process increases its ductility, lowers its hardness, and improves its electrical conductivity
• Annealed copper is softened by heating
• The conductor becomes more malleable (soft), flexible, and easier to reshape
• Soft annealed copper has improved electrical conductivity over hard-drawn copper

Hard-Drawn Copper: When copper is cold-worked or formed, it becomes work hardened or strain hardened.

• Copper conductors go through a considerable amount of work hardening until the required conductor
dimension is achieved
• Hard-drawn copper has been mechanically stretched when cold causing its hardness to increase
• Hard-drawn copper has more hardness but less electrical conductivity than soft annealed copper

Frequency Effect on Resistance (Rac)

Uniform distribution of current throughout the cross-section of a conductor exists only for direct current.

As the frequency of alternating current increases, the non-uniformity of current distribution becomes more
pronounced.

An increase in frequency causes non-uniform current density. This phenomenon is called Skin Effect.

In a circular conductor, the current density usually increases from the interior towards the surface.

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The increase in resistance caused by skin effect, also known as the correction factor, can be calculated for round
wires and solid material, and curves of Rac/Rdc are available for these simple conductors.

Calculations
Mile mi 1 mi 1.609 km 5280 ft 1/1000
Kilometer km in
Foot Ft 1 ft 12 in
Inch in 1 cmil 5.057* 10^(-4)
Circular cmil mm^2
mil

DC resistance of a conductor

Temperature Effect on Resistance

Lecture 7
Theory
When the conductors of a three-phase line aren’t spaced equilaterally, the flux linkages and inductances aren’t the
same. This results in different inductances in each phase, an unbalanced circuit.
Balance can be restored by rotating positions of conductors at regular intervals along the line.

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Transposition: Exchanging the position of the conductors at regular intervals along the line, so that each
conductor occupies the original position of every other conductor over an equal distance.

Advantages Disadvantages
Results in each conductor having the same average Frequently changing positions of conductors weakens
inductance over the whole cycle the supportive structure, which increases the cost of
the system
Results in balance of the capacitance of the line
It equalizes the mutual inductance and capacitance
between the lines

Calculations
Internal inductance
1 𝐻
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ∗ 10−7 ; 𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒕: 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
2 𝑚

Single phase 2 – wire line

𝐷 𝐻
𝐿𝑥 = 2 ∗ 10−7 ∗ ln ( ) ; 𝒓𝒙′ = 𝒓𝒙 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟖𝟖
𝑟𝑥 ′ 𝑚
D: Spacing, r: Radius
𝐻
𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐿𝑥 + 𝐿𝑦
𝑚
Special case
𝐷 𝐻
𝐼𝑓 𝑟𝑥 = 𝑟𝑦 → 𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 4 ∗ 10−7 ∗ ln ( )
𝑟′ 𝑚

Three-phase
1. Equilateral spacing
𝐷 𝐻
𝐿𝑎 = 2 ∗ 10−7 ∗ ln ( )
𝑟′ 𝑚

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 2. Unsymmetrical spacing
𝐷𝑒𝑞 𝐻 𝟑
𝐿𝑎 = 2 ∗ 10−7 ∗ ln ( ) ; 𝑫𝒆𝒒 = √𝑫𝟏𝟐 ∗ 𝑫𝟐𝟑 ∗ 𝑫𝟑𝟏, 𝑫𝒔 = 𝒓′ 𝒐𝒓 𝑮𝑴𝑹 (𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒂𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕)
𝐷𝑠 𝑚

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Lecture 8
Theory
Stranded conductors come under the general classification of composite conductors.
Composite conductors: conductors composed of 2 or more elements, strands or filaments, which are electrically
in parallel.
Bundled conductors are a special case of composite conductors, where m = n.

Bundled conductors
At Extra-High Voltages (EHV), corona with its resultant power loss and particularly its interference with
communication lines is excessive if the circuit has only one conductor per phase.
This phenomenon and its effect are reduced considerably by having two or more conductors per phase in close
proximity compared with the spacing between phases.
Such a transmission line is said to be composed of bundled conductors. The bundle consists of two, three, or four
conductors.
The current will not divide exactly between the conductors of the bundle unless there is a transposition of the
conductors within the bundle, but the difference is of no practical importance, and the GMD method is accurate for
calculations.
The second important advantage of bundling is the reduced transmission line reactance. The reduction of
reactance results from the increased GMR of the bundle.
Increasing the number of conductors in a bundle reduces the effects of corona and reduces the reactance.

Calculations
Bundled conductors
1. Single-phase bundled conductors

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 2. Three-phase bundled conductors
𝐷𝑒𝑞 𝐻
𝐿𝑎 = 2 ∗ 10−7 ∗ ln ( )
𝐷𝑠𝑙 𝑚
• 2 – conductor
𝐷𝑠𝑙 = √𝑟′ ∗ 𝑑
• 3 – conductor
3
𝐷𝑠𝑙 = √𝑟 ′ ∗ 𝑑2

• 4 – conductor
4
𝐷𝑠𝑙 = 1.091 ∗ √𝑟 ′ ∗ 𝑑3

Note

• It can either be r’ (solid conductor) or the GMR (stranded conductor) from the datasheet
• D is the spacing between each bundle
• D is the spacing between each conductor in a bundle
• r is the radius of the conductor

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Lecture 9
Theory

What are the considered assumptions?

• Infinite cylindrical conductor

• Uniform change distribution over the surface of the conductor
• Distance between conductors is much greater than the radii of the conductors (to ensure radial electric
field lines)
• Internal electric field equals zero (perfect conductor)
If the line is supplied by a transformer having a grounded center tap, the voltage drop between each conductor and
the ground is half the voltage drop between the two conductors.
When 3 identical conductors of radius ‘r’ of three-phase line with equilateral spacing D

• Charge distribution on conductors is assumed to be uniform

• Ground is assumed to be far away to have negligible effect
In case of capacitance of three – phase line with unsymmetrical spacing, in a transposed line, the average
capacitance to neutral of any phase for the complete transposition cycle is the same as average capacitance to
neutral of any other phase.

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Calculations
𝑉𝑥𝑦
𝑉𝑥𝑛 =
2
1. Single phase 2 – wire
𝛱𝜀 𝐹 𝛱𝜀 𝐹
𝐶𝑥𝑦 = (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒); 𝑖𝑓 𝑟𝑥 = 𝑟𝑦 → 𝐶𝑥𝑦 = (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)
𝐷 𝐷
ln ( )𝑚 ln ( 𝑟 ) 𝑚
√𝑟𝑥 ∗ 𝑟𝑦

𝐴
𝐼𝑐ℎ = 𝑗𝜔 ∗ 𝐶𝑎𝑏 ∗ 𝑉𝑎𝑏
𝑚

𝑉𝑥𝑦 2
𝑄𝑐 = = 𝑤 ∗ 𝐶𝑥𝑦 ∗ 𝑉𝑥𝑦 2 𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝑋𝑐

2. Three – phase
• Symmetrical
2𝛱𝜀 𝐹
𝐶𝑎𝑛 = 𝐶𝑥𝑛 = 𝐶𝑦𝑛 = 2 ∗ 𝐶𝑥𝑦 = (𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙)
𝐷 𝑚
ln ( )
𝑟

𝐴
𝐼𝑐ℎ = 𝑗𝜔 ∗ 𝐶𝑛 ∗ 𝑉𝑎𝑛
𝑚

𝑉𝑎𝑛2
𝑄𝑐 = = 3 ∗ 𝑤 ∗ 𝐶𝑎𝑛 ∗ 𝑉𝑎𝑛2 𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝑋𝑐
• Unsymmetrical
Solid conductor
2𝛱𝜀 𝐹 𝟑
𝐶𝑎𝑛 = (𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙); 𝑫𝒆𝒒 = √𝑫𝟏𝟐 ∗ 𝑫𝟐𝟑 ∗ 𝑫𝟑𝟏
𝐷𝑒𝑞 𝑚
ln ( )
𝑟
Bundled conductor
2𝛱𝜀 𝐹
𝐶𝑎𝑛 = (𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙)
𝐷𝑒𝑞 𝑚
ln ( )
𝐷𝑠𝑐
• 2 – conductor
𝐷𝑠𝑐 = √𝑟 ∗ 𝑑
• 3 – conductor
3
𝐷𝑠𝑐 = √𝑟 ∗ 𝑑2

• 4 – conductor
4
𝐷𝑠𝑐 = 1.091 ∗ √𝑟 ∗ 𝑑3

𝑆
𝑌 = 𝑗 ∗ 2𝛱 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝐶𝑎𝑛 (𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙)
𝑚

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Lecture 10
Theory
Voltage regulation: is the rise in voltage at the receiving end, expressed in percent of full-load voltage, when full-
load at a specified power factor is removed, while the sending-end voltage is held constant.
Ferranti Effect: Is a phenomenon that describes the increase in voltage at the receiving end of a long TL when
compared with the voltage at the sending end.

• It’s more prevalent when the load is very small (light load), or in case of no – load (open circuit)
• It’s attributed to the charging current of the long line capacitance which acts as a source of reactive
power and leads to increasing the voltage at the receiving end

Calculations
Overhead transmission lines are classified according to their length
1. Short TL
• Length is <= 80 km (50 mi)

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 In the short TL no-load means Ir = 0, which means that Vs = Vr, therefore

2. Medium TL
80 km (50 mi) < Length < 240 km (150 mi)

• PI-Model

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 PROOF

• T-Model

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 PROOF

3. Long TL
• Length > 240 km (150 mi)
• Representation / modelling of long TLs takes the form of distributed parameters to maintain a high
degree of accuracy, although lumped parameters can be used for modelling of TL up to 320 km (200
mi) long

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Lecture 11
Theory
Power transmission lines operate at voltage levels where KV is the most convenient unit to express the voltage.
Because of the large amount of power transmitted, KW or MW for active power (P) and KVA or MVA for apparent
power (S) are the units commonly used. However, these quantities as well as amperes and ohms are often
expressed as a percent or per-unit of a base or reference value specified for each.
If a base voltage of 120 kV (KVBase = 120 kV) is chosen, voltages of 108, 120, and 126 KV become 0.90, 1.00, and
1.05 per-unit, or 90, 100, and 105 %, respectively. The ratio in percent is 100 times the value in per-unit. Hence,
the per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual quantity to its base. Both the percent and per-
unit methods of calculation are simpler and often more informative than the use of actual amperes, ohms, and
volts.
The per-unit method has an advantage over the percent method because the product of two quantities expressed
in per-unit is expressed in per-unit itself, but the product of two quantities expressed in percent must be divided
by 100 to obtain the result in percent.
Voltage, current, apparent power, and impedance are so related that the selection of base values for any two of
them determines the base values of the remaining two. If we specify the base values of current and voltage, then
the base values of impedance and KVA can be determined. The base impedance is that impedance which will have a
voltage drop across it equal to the base voltage when the current flowing in it is equal to the base current.

Single-Line Diagram and Per-Phase Impedance Circuit Diagram

A simplified diagram of an electric system is called a single-line or one-line diagram. It indicates by a single line and
standard symbols how the transmission lines and associated apparatus of an electric system (such as generators,
loads, …etc.) are connected. The purpose of the single-line diagram is to supply in a concise form the significant
information about the system.
This single-line diagram is for a simple power system formed of two generators, one grounded through a reactor
and one through a resistor. They are connected to a bus and through a step-up transformer to a transmission line.
Another generator, grounded through a reactor, is connected to a bus and through a stepdown transformer to the
opposite end of the transmission line. There is a load connected at each bus.

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Calculations

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Lecture 12
Theory
Three-phase systems are normally balanced; however, they are subject to balanced three-phase symmetrical fault.
Which is Three Lines to Ground (LLLG) fault, and unbalanced unsymmetrical (asymmetrical) faults, which are
Single Line to Ground (SLG), Double Line to Ground (DLG) and Line to Line (LL) faults.
One of the most powerful tools for dealing with unbalanced three-phase systems is the method of symmetrical
components. The symmetrical components method proves that an unbalanced system of n related phasors can be
resolved into n systems of balanced phasors called the symmetrical components of the original phasors. The n
phasors of each set of symmetrical components are equal in length, and the angles between adjacent phasors of the
set are equal.
Unsymmetrical faults generally cause unbalanced currents and voltages to exist in each of the phases. If the
currents and voltages are related by constant impedances, the system is said to be linear and the principle of
superposition applies. Voltage response of the linear system to the unbalanced currents can be determined by
considering the separate responses of the individual elements to the symmetrical components of the currents.
The system elements of interest are the machines, transformers, transmission lines, and loads connected in delta
or star. The equivalent circuits are called zero, positive and negative sequence circuits, are developed to reflect the
separate responses of the elements to each current component. Therefore, there are three equivalent circuits for
each element of the three-phase system.
By organizing the individual equivalent circuits into networks according to the interconnections of the elements,
the concept of three sequence networks is reached. Solving the sequence networks for the fault conditions gives
symmetrical current and voltage components which can be combined to reflect the effects of the original
unbalanced fault currents on the overall system. Analysis by symmetrical components is a powerful tool which
makes the calculation of unsymmetrical faults almost as easy as the calculation of three-phase faults.
1. Positive-Sequence Components: consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other
by 120º in phase, and having the same phase sequence as the original phasors.
2. Negative-Sequence Components: consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other
by 120º in phase, and having the phase sequence opposite to that of the original phasors.
3. Zero-Sequence Components: consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude and with zero phase
displacement from each other.

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Problem

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One conductor of a three-phase line is open. The current flowing to the delta-connected load through line a is 10 A.
With the current in line a as reference and assuming that line c is open, find the symmetrical components of the
line currents.

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