Table of Contents

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Section Page #

1. Introduction 1

2. Basic Design 3

3. Malfunction Behavior/Diagnostic Methodology 21

4. Process and Mechanical Effects 37

5. Information Required 41

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INTRODUCTION

Reciprocating compressors, pumps, and engines are the most prevalent

form of machinery in the world today. Industries such as onshore and offshore
gas production, gas transmission, chemical processing, crude material refining,
and power generation depend on reciprocating compressors for their unique
capabilities. A “recip” (pronounced REE – sip), as it is often called, is a
machine that compresses gas with the reciprocating (back and forth) motion of
a piston inside a cylinder (see figure 1). A “recip” is also known as a positive
displacement compressor because the piston displaces the gas to compress it
directly. On the other hand, centrifugal compressors impart velocity to a gas
that is in turn converted to pressure. A reciprocating compressor offers several
advantages that make it the correct choice for many applications: low initial
cost, high compression ratios, variable loading without surge, flexible design
configurations, uncomplicated installation, and efficiency. However,
reciprocating compressors in most applications demand more maintenance
dollars and time than their centrifugal counterparts. This dilemma has created
a strong demand for quality solutions to maintain reciprocating machinery.
Traditional maintenance methods involve a certain degree of
guesswork. Often, parts are not sufficiently expended upon replacement or
even more serious is the damage that a machine experiences when service is
not timely. This practice results in waste or unplanned emergency shutdowns
that can be very costly to a company. Conversely, Bently Nevada provides a
proven system that effectively monitors the condition of a compressor to both
eliminate damage to and maximize the life of compressor parts. The Bently
Nevada monitoring and maintenance systems allow a plant to schedule
shutdowns, maximize part life, and save money.
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Figure 1--Full section view of reciprocating compressor (the crosshead, connecting rod, and
crankshaft are not shown here).

The following section will describe the basic components and operation
of a reciprocating compressor. Furthermore, it will cover wear and
malfunction behavior, process and mechanical effects, and diagnostic
methodology. By the end of this section, you should have the basic
information necessary to effectively understand and monitor a reciprocating
compressor.

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BASIC DESIGN

The specific design of a reciprocating compressor can vary greatly

depending on the company and model. Its basic operation allows much
flexibility in terms of size, relative component orientation, and complexity
without a sacrifice in efficiency. Despite the variety of available designs,
several basic components are common to all styles (refer to figures 1 and 2).

I. Basic Components

Figure 2--Horizontal balance-opposed compressor

1. Frame
The frame consists of all static parts on the machine. These include the
supports, cylinders, heads, distance pieces, crosshead guides, crankcase,
bolting, and even the foundation which all function together to direct the
transfer of power from the crankshaft to the compressed gas. Regardless of
the type of prime mover used to rotate the crankshaft, the very nature of a
reciprocating compressor lends itself to vibration. Consider its name; perhaps
the only difference between reciprocation and vibration is the amplitude and
frequency of the back and forth motion and the context in which the words are

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used. Because of their tendency to vibrate, reciprocating compressors are

usually designed so that the cylinders are separated by 180° about the
crankshaft (horizontal balance-opposed). All reciprocating weights such as the
pistons, crossheads, and connecting rods are balanced by components of equal
weight. By building “recips” in this manner, the majority of vibration forces
cancel out. In addition, the various constituents of the frame are engineered to
be heavy and rigid to minimize vibration and maximize power transfer. Even
the foundation is essential in attenuating vibration; a rule of thumb is that the
foundation should weigh at least five times what the machine weighs.

2. Crankshaft
The crankshaft is powered by a prime mover such as a motor, turbine,
or reciprocating internal combustion engine. The crankshaft is the first
principal element in the basic compressor mechanism. A flywheel is usually
mounted to the crankshaft to attenuate the torsional forces in the system.
Although the crankshaft is generally not the main source of malfunction in a
reciprocating compressor, it can be monitored by Proximitor probes and a
Keyphasor transducer. Furthermore, the crankshaft bearings usually last at
least three years before needing replacement but monitoring is often used to
detect malfunction and premature wear.

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3. Crosshead
The crosshead is a sliding element with only one degree of freedom (see
figure 3). It is linked to the crankshaft through a connecting rod. The
connecting rod is free to rotate with the crankshaft at one end while it is
restricted to the motion of the crosshead at the opposite end. Thus, the rotation
of the crankshaft results in translation of the crosshead. A familiar example of
this type of linkage is found on steam locomotives where a piston drives a
shaft that turns the wheel. The main difference is that with the locomotive the
power is transferred from the piston to the wheel rather than from the
crankshaft to the piston. This simple type of linkage is nothing more than a
classic slider-crank mechanism.

Figure 3—Crosshead and connecting rod assembly

Theoretically, all of the rotational motion of the crankshaft is converted

to pure translational motion at the crosshead. However, there is also a vertical
component of force acting on the crosshead that causes it to move up and

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down within its riding clearance (see figure 4). In turn, this can cause the
piston to vibrate inside the cylinder.

Figure 4—Slider-crank dynamics

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4. Distance Piece
The distance piece has three main purposes. First, the distance piece is
part of the frame and acts as a support for the piston rod (see figure 1). A long
piston rod is desirable because it minimizes the vibration transferred from the
crosshead to the piston. In order to avoid buckling while in compression, the
distance piece supports this longer piston rod. In addition, the distance piece
functions as a container for any reactive process gas that escapes past the
pressure packing. The gas that is collected in the distance piece is purged and
vented to flare. If gas enters the crankcase and accumulates, a crankcase
explosion is possible. Finally, the distance piece captures the oil that leaks
from the lubricated pressure packing (a seal around the piston) to prevent it
from contaminating the crankcase oil which is of a different grade and
viscosity. The oil wiper packing on the distance piece keeps the oil inside the
distance piece until it is purged. The size of the distance piece depends on the
application. In general, the distance piece is more critical on machines with
higher working pressures that compress reactive gases.

5. Pressure Packing
As mentioned, the pressure packing is a seal around the piston. It is
made from materials such as polytetrafluoroethylene (TFE) or bronze. It may
be lubricated or non-lubricated, and cooled or non-cooled. Generally, either
the distance piece or the pressure packing is nitrogen purged. Higher working
pressures require more rings of pressure packing. Usually the rod drop probe
(see figure 25 in section entitled “Diagnostic Methodology”) is mounted close
to the pressure packing, inside the distance piece.

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6. Cylinder
The cylinder is the housing in which the piston reciprocates to compress
gas. Gas enters and exits the cylinder through compressor valves located at
each end. The cylinder’s interior surface is protected through the proper use of
lubrication and/or by rider bands on the piston. Rider bands (also known as
wear bands) support the weight of the piston inside the cylinder.
The cylinder can be unloaded partially or completely through unloaders
found at the head of the cylinder (see figure 5) and inside the valve assembly.
Unloaders can be operated manually or automatically.

Figure 5—Unloaders at cylinder heads

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7. Piston/Piston-Rod
The piston is the component that moves inside the cylinder to compress
gs. In most applications its exterior surface is lined with rider bands which are
simply wear surfaces to protect the cylinder wall. Since the piston is supported
by the rider bands, the piston rings (seals) do not experience excessive wear.
However, hyper-compressors (discharge pressures ranging from 40,000 to
60,000 psi) do not have rider bands. Instead, hyper-compressors combine the
piston, piston rod, and rider bands into one part called the plunger. This is
usually made from 4142 steel plated with tungsten carbide. It connects
directly to an auxiliary crosshead (see figure 6). Part of the piston rod on
lower pressure machines may also be plated with tungsten carbide in the
region of the pressure packing.

Auxiliary Crosshead

Main Crosshead

Push Rod
Tie Rod

Cylinder

Figure 6—Typical hyper-compressor configuration

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8. Compressor Valves
The valves of a reciprocating compressor are disk and poppet valves
and function as an inlet, an exit, or a barrier for gas (see figure 7). During the
intake stroke, gas enters the cylinder through the suction valves. Then, as the
compression stroke begins all valves close and the gas is compressed in the
decreasing volume of the cylinder. Next, the gas escapes through the
discharge valve and is stored in a cylinder or immediately put to use. Finally,
all valves close and the remaining gas in the compression cylinder expands
until intake begins again.

Figure 7—HPS valve developed by Worthington has superior gas flow characteristics and
high efficiency.

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The cylinder can be unloaded partially or completely through unloaders

found at the head of the cylinder (see figure 5) and in the valve assembly (see
figure 8). They are available in direct acting (normally closed) and reverse
acting (normally open) designs. Unloaders can be operated manually or
automatically.

Figure 8—Reverse acting cylinder unloader

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II. Configurations
Reciprocating compressors offer many different configurations to suit
the demands of industry. First, they are available in low to high pressure, or
extremely high-pressure (hyper-compressor) designs. Next, they can be
lubricated or non-lubricated. If they are non-lubricated, generally the reason is
that the process gas is sensitive to oil contamination. In this case, the rider
bands on the piston would be made of a low-friction material such as Teflon.
In addition, “recips” come in single or double-acting configurations. Double-
acting simply means that the piston compresses gas in both directions of travel.
Furthermore, reciprocating compressors can be single or multiple stage. In
multiple stage compression, the gas is compressed in stages until it reaches the
desired pressure. To increase efficiency the gas is often cooled between each
stage. In still another compressor configuration, multiple gas streams enter the
various cylinders. Finally, reciprocating compressors come with two to ten
cylinders per machine. Cylinders usually come in multiples of two because
most are horizontal balance-opposed to cancel vibration forces.

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III. Compressor Cycle

When the basic components of a compressor function in proper order,
gas is compressed according to design. The sequence of events in a
reciprocating machine compression cycle is (assuming the cylinder is already
“loaded” with air): compression, discharge, expansion, intake.

1. Compression
Figure 9 shows a basic single-acting compressor cylinder with the
piston fully extended and the cylinder full of air. The position of the piston
inside the cylinder corresponds to point 1 one on the P-V diagram. This is the
point where the compression stroke begins. The lower line that corresponds to
P1 on the diagram is the inlet pressure. This is the pressure at the suction valve
during the intake stroke. The upper line that corresponds to P2 is the receiver
pressure. This is the pressure inside the receiving pressure vessel. The area
between the origin (or zero pressure and volume) and the beginning of the
stroke that is contained by P1 and P2 is the clearance volume. This is the
volume left in the cylinder when the piston has reached the extent of its throw.
It is the difference between the total cylinder volume and the piston
displacement.

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P2 RECEIVER PRESSURE

INLET PRESSURE
P1 1

STROKE

DISCHARGE

INLET

Figure 9—P-V diagram (indicator card) of compressor cylinder

Figure 10—P-V diagram of a compressor cylinder

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As the piston moves toward the valves (which are closed) the volume of
gas is reduced and the pressure increases until it exceeds the receiver pressure.
The P-V diagram of figure 11 shows the pressure and volume changes
(compression) from point 1 to point 2.

RECEIVER PRESSURE
P2
2

INLET PRESSURE
P1 1

STROKE

DISCHARGE

INLET

Figure 11—Compression stroke (point 1 to point 2)

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2. Discharge
This stroke corresponds to the line from point 2 to point 3 on the P-V
diagram in figure 12. When the pressure in the cylinder is just greater than the
pressure in the receiving vessel, the discharge valves open. Then, the
compressed gas exits the cylinder and enters the pressure vessel. Although the
volume inside the cylinder continues to decrease during this stroke, the
pressure remains constant because the discharge valves are open.

RECEIVER PRESSURE
P2
3 2

INLET PRESSURE
P1 1

STROKE

DISCHARGE

INLET

Figure 12—Discharge stroke (cylinder pressure ≥ receiver pressure Þ valves open)

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3. Expansion
When the piston reaches the end of its throw and changes direction, the
volume in the cylinder begins to increase (see figure 13). As the volume
increases, the pressure decreases. This causes the valves to close. Then, as the
piston moves toward the starting position the gas that remains in the clearance
volume expands. As the gas expands, its pressure approaches the inlet
pressure or P1. This stroke corresponds to the path between points 3 and 4 on
the P-V diagram. Note that the piston has only partially returned to the
starting point when the pressure inside the cylinder reaches the inlet pressure.

RECEIVER PRESSURE
P2
3 2

4 INLET PRESSURE
P1 1

STROKE

DISCHARGE

INLET

Figure 13—Expansion stroke (gas in clearance volume expands)

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4. Intake
This is the final portion of the compressor cycle and is represented on
the indicator card of figure 14 as the line from point 4 to point 1. After the
pressure inside the cylinder reaches the inlet pressure, the motion of the piston
creates a partial vacuum that causes the inlet valves to open. Then, more gas
enters the expanding cylinder volume until the piston reaches the starting
point. Then, at point 1 the valves close and compression begins.

RECEIVER PRESSURE
P2
3 2

4 INLET PRESSURE
P1 1

STROKE

DISCHARGE

INLET

Figure 14—Intake stroke

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IV. Theoretical Compression Cycles

During each revolution of the crankshaft, the basic compressor cycle
takes place in the order previously given: compression, discharge, expansion,
intake. The efficiency of the compressor cycle is influenced by numerous
factors such as clearance volume, inlet pressure, receiver pressure, valve
performance, piston-cylinder leakage, nature of gas, temperature, etc.
Furthermore, the efficiency of a compressor is improved by adding multiple
compression stages with intercooling between each. Doing this causes the
actual compressor cycle to fall somewhere between two theoretical cycles (see
figure 15):

1. Adiabatic Compression occurs when all the heat generated by compression

is retained in the gas (no heat transfer so temperature increases).

2. Isothermal Compression occurs when the temperature of the gas is kept

constant during compression with heat removal devices (temperature is
constant because of heat transfer).

Gas is compressed adiabatically (actually, there is some heat transfer) in

the first stage of a multistage compressor. Then, between the first stage and
the second stage heat is removed from the gas or in other words, the gas is
intercooled. Intercoolers between stages bring the process closer to
isothermal, reducing the horsepower required to compress the gas to a given
pressure. Then, the gas continues to be compressed isothermally until it
reaches the desired pressure. Multiple stages can be added to bring the gas to
very high pressure in the most efficient manner.

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P Adiabatic compression

Power saved by intercooling

2nd
Stage
Isothermal compression
1st Stage

Figure 15—P-V diagram of a compressor cycle with two stages and intercooling.

The following losses also affect efficiency:

• Spring force in valves
• “Sticktion” (valve friction)
• Valve plate inertia
• Pressure drop through valve
• Leakage past rings
• Packing leakage

Of course, many other factors could also affect the performance of the
compressor. For example, wear and malfunction affect not only efficiency but
also proper function and safety. Wear and malfunction behavior must be
understood to effectively monitor and maintain reciprocating machinery.

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MALFUNCTION BEHAVIOR and DIAGNOSTIC METHODOLOGY

There are many different sources of possible malfunction in a

reciprocating compressor. Some arise from normal wear while others result
from improper loading, lubrication or alignment. The piston rings, rider
bands, and pressure packing act as wear surfaces and must be replaced at
regular intervals. The compressor cylinder, piston rod, and valves are not
intentional wear surfaces but should also be serviced or replaced at regular
intervals (see figure 16).

COMPONENT MAINTENANCE INTERVAL

compressor valves 6 mos.
piston rod packing 9 mos.
piston ring 9 mos.
wear bands 2 yrs.
piston rods 3 yrs.
compressor cylinder 5 yrs.

Figure 16—Standard intervals of preventative maintenance based on worst conditions (this

is a guideline only and is not meant for every application).

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The compressor valves, piston rod packing, and the piston ring together
require about 90% of the maintenance dollars for a reciprocating compressor.
While there are many components in a reciprocating compressor system that
can cause malfunction, these three require the most money and are among the
most important to monitor. The following section will cover typical
malfunction behavior of all the components on a reciprocating compressor
along with the most effective diagnostic methodology for each.

Compressor Valves: These are the single largest maintenance item on a

reciprocating compressor. Dirt or other foreign material in the gas stream can
cause the valves to fail. If the valves fail to retract, substantial damage to the
piston can result. Furthermore, broken pieces that fall from the valves can
damage the cylinder lining. If valves are improperly lubricated (either too
much or too little) they will fail. In addition, if liquid enters the cylinder it
may break down the lubrication causing the valves to wear out rapidly. Also,
broken valve plates allow the gas to leak. Finally, pulsation can cause the
valves to fail especially if the pulsation is high amplitude and/or if the exciting
frequency matches the natural frequency of the spring-valve system. Faulty
valves allow compressed gas to reenter the cylinder to be compressed again.
This causes the valve temperature to increase. Defective valves result in
reduced efficiency and less output, or even worse, they can cause substantial
damage to the machine.

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COMPONENT % of Total Maintenance Cost

compressor valves 50%
piston rod packing 20%
piston ring 20%
wear bands 7%
piston rods 2%
compressor cylinder 1%

Figure 17—Percent of total maintenance cost by component (this is a guideline only;

figures will be different in every application).

Since leaking valves become hotter than properly functioning valves,

temperature monitoring can be used to identify defective valves. However, the
normal temperature of the valves can vary with load, gas stream, and ambient
temperature. Therefore, differential temperature between similar valves
provides an early and reliable indication of a defective valve. The Bently
Nevada 3300/75 32 Channel Temperature Monitor sequentially scans all of the
points and can be set to display differential or average temperatures (see figure
18). This information can then be trended with Data Manager 2000® or
similar software. Over time, changes in temperature at a certain valve indicate
malfunction (see figure 19). Therefore, instead of guessing which valve is
broken, or changing all the valves, the defective valve is identified and easily
replaced from outside the cylinder.

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Figure 18--Front panel of the 32 Channel Temperature Monitor.

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Morris Plant
Line #2 Primary Compressor
Point: Temp T4, Stg4A RTD #3
100 Deg F / Div
800

600

400

200 Valve Temp.

Change After Repairs

0
11/21/95 12/05/95
11/28/95 12/12/95

This is a suction valve.

Figure 19--Valve temperature trending indicates malfunction.

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Piston Rod Packing: Its primary malfunction behavior is leakage. If there are
not enough packing rings to withstand the pressure in the cylinder then leakage
occurs. Also, debris in the gas stream can enter the packing area and rapidly
wear the seals. Occasionally the packing hold down studs can back out and
cause the packing to become loose or disconnected. Failures in the packing
cause the compressor to operate inefficiently or even stop functioning
altogether.
Any unexpected changes in pressure in the discharge line of the
compressor that are not due to valve malfunction or rider band wear are most
likely caused by packing failure. Furthermore, if a trend of rod movement
shows excessive displacement, the packing has most likely come loose (see
figure 20).

Figure 20--Rod movement from loose pressure packing.

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Piston Rings: Eventually piston rings wear out and leak or break. This occurs
because of improper lubrication, debris in the cylinder, or excessive rider band
wear. Failures in the piston rings cause the compressor to operate inefficiently
or even stop functioning altogether.
When piston rings wear out or break, the piston is unable to compress
gas effectively. The piston rings are probably defective if the discharge
pressure is lower than normal and it is not due to valve malfunction or pressure
packing problems. Broken piston rings can also be identified by looking at the
vibration waveform (ac component) from the rod drop probe. The waveform
usually has small amplitude (less than 10 mils/pp) and is sinusoidal. However,
when piston rings are broken or damaged the waveform will have spikes or
other high amplitude behavior (see figures 21 and 22). Note: the irregular
vibration waveform may also indicate clearance problems in the crosshead or
cylinder end. Always gather all possible information before making
conclusions.

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Figure 21--Rod drop proximity probe unfiltered waveform with normal shape.

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Figure 22--Rod drop proximity probe unfiltered waveform with spikes.

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Wear Bands: When wear bands (rider bands) wear too thin or break, the
compressor suffers serious damage. If the cylinder is non-lubricated, as in oil
sensitive processes, the rider bands are the only protection against contact
between the piston and the cylinder wall. If the cylinder is protected by
lubrication, as usually is the case in chemical plants and refineries, the rider
bands do not usually experience much wear. Nevertheless, if the lubrication
system fails, contact between the piston and cylinder can occur and cause
substantial damage to the cylinder lining and to the machine. Even if the
cylinder and piston are not damaged, the piston ring, which is the seal between
the piston and the cylinder will wear excessively and leak or break.
Worn or damaged wear bands can result in substantial damage to the
cylinder lining, piston, and the machine. Fortunately, the condition of wear
bands is easily determined. Since the wear bands cannot be monitored
directly, an alternative approach is used. The amount of rider band wear is
proportional to the distance that the piston rod drops in the region beneath the
proximity probe. By similar triangles the actual rider band wear can be
determined if the rod drop beneath the probe and the geometry of the machine
are known (see figure 23).

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PROBE POSITION PISTON

MIDPOINT

PROBE
VIEW
CL
PLANE

L1 L2 NEW

B1 ACTUAL RIDER
B2
BAND WEAR

WORN
PISTON ROD LENGTH

Figure 23--Rider band wear determined by similar triangles.

L1/B1 ∝ (L1 + L2)/B2

∴ B2 = ((L1 + L2)/L1)*B1, where B2 is the actual rider band wear.

The Bently Nevada 3300/80 and 81 6 Channel Rod Drop Monitors can
monitor rod drop and display the instantaneous or average wear of the rider
bands in mils or mm. To be able to display instantaneous information the
monitor must have a keyphasor signal and a trigger angle. The trigger angle
tells the monitor at what point in the stroke between 0° and 360° the monitor
should take the distance measurement. All rod drop monitors come
preprogrammed from the factory with a trigger angle of 240°. This angle can

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be changed to suit the needs of any application. However, the trigger angle
should always be at a point in the stroke where the dynamic effects of the
crosshead are minimal and where the piston rod is in tension.

Select A Proper Trigger Angle

Large
Change Minimum
Change
60% Load

90% Load

Poor Trigger Pulse Best

Figure 24—Select trigger angle where displacement is smallest at different loads.

Rod drop monitoring, if implemented correctly, will accurately

determine the amount of wear on the rider bands. However, if the probe is
mounted incorrectly, or inaccurate machine geometry is entered into the
monitor, it will not be very useful. The rod drop probe should be bracket
mounted to the inside of the packing box, as close to the piston as possible (see
figure 25). Stingers should not be used to mount proximity probes. The word
stinger has several different meanings. Here, it refers to a long threaded stud
used as an extension to mount the probe closer to the piston rod. This method
permits excessive vibration of the probe. For detailed instructions on the
proper set-up and configuration of this system, see the user’s manual.

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Figure 25--Probes mounted properly to packing case flange.

Piston Rods and Compressor Cylinders: When the surface of these

components becomes scored or pitted, the rider bands and the pressure packing
will wear out quickly. This may lead to inefficient operation or gas leakage.
Liquid carryover (slugging) will cause extensive damage to these components
and to the entire machine.
Rapid wear and frequent replacement of the rider bands and/or pressure
packing may indicate damage on the surface of these components, especially if
the gas is filtered and the lubrication system is operating correctly.
Furthermore, a cracked piston rod will be evident if rod drop displacement
(from dc gap voltage) increases non-linearly with increasing gas load. Finally,
liquid carryover can be detected with casing mounted vibration transducers
and with P-V analysis.

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Foundation, Supports, and Fasteners: Reciprocating machines require

larger foundations than centrifugal machines. They don’t handle supporting
structure degradation as well either. It was previously mentioned that a good
rule of thumb is to make the foundation at least 5X the weight of the machine.
Furthermore, a new foundation should be allowed to harden for at least 30
days before the machine is mounted, otherwise settling and misalignment will
occur. Misalignment also results from thermal expansion of the supports.
Operating a misaligned machine can lead to crankshaft damage or failure of
the crankshaft main bearing. Loose or improper supports and fasteners result
in excessive vibration of the entire machine.
Deteriorating foundation and loose fasteners and supports cause a
reciprocating compressor to vibrate excessively. This type of malfunction can
be detected with accelerometer and Velomitor® vibration transducers mounted
to the casing of the machine (see figure 26).

Figure 26-- Casing mounted vibration signal

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Main Bearings and Crankshaft: See section, Machinery Diagnostics

Review.

Piping: The piping can be a source of two major problems in a reciprocating

compressor system. First, piping experiencing thermal expansion can strain
the cylinders and consequently move the machine out of alignment. Second,
pulsation of pressure and flow in the piping can cause excessive vibration.
The easiest way to minimize these effects is to change the natural frequency of
the piping system by adding supports. In addition, a low-pass Hemholtz Filter
is commonly used. Other methods of controlling pulsation include minimizing
the number of elbows in the piping, adding bottles to act like capacitors, and
restricting the orifice to form canceling acoustic reflection. Bottles should be
as large as possible and accommodate easy liquid removal.
To protect the machine from damages due to pulsation, the piping and
bottles should be monitored. Velocity transducers are mounted at X and Y
locations at each end of the bottles and on the piping. Furthermore,
Each bottle is monitored with an axial vibration transducer. Use velocity
Orbits and filter to 4X for initial data. Pulsation analysis data can also be
gathered by installing dynamic pressure transducers in the tapped gauge holes.
One should be installed in the bottle to cylinder connection, in the piping
upstream or downstream of the bottle, in each bottle chamber, and in cooler
inlets and outlets. Dynamic pressure that is only 10% of design pressure is
high. For a machine with a design pressure of 1000 psi, the dynamic pressure
should be less than 100 psi.

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Journal Bearings and Rod Reversal: Journal bearings in a reciprocating

compressor are lubricated by an oil wedge that moves around within the
bearing clearance depending on the direction and force of the load during the
cycle. Rod reversal is a term that is used to describe the alternating
compression and tension forces on the bearing, which allow all surfaces of the
bearing to be lubricated. The forces acting on the bearing should be in a
transition state from compression to tension or vice versa for at least 11% of
the cycle or approximately 40° for the bearing to be properly lubricated. If this
amount of rod reversal is not achieved, the bearings will not last very long.
The amount of rod reversal can be determined from the equation of
instantaneous frame load:

F= Ph*Ap – Pc*(Ap – Ar) + m*a(θ)

F= Instantaneous frame load

Ph= head end pressure
Ap= piston area
Pc = crank end pressure
Ar = rod area
m = reciprocating mass
a(θ) = instantaneous acceleration

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Reciprocating Compressors—Process and Mechanical Effects Page 37

PROCESS AND MECHANICAL EFFECTS

1. Process Effects
Changing process conditions, including gas molecular weight, suction
pressure, or unloading the machine with pocket or valve unloaders, affects the
heat of compression. This in turn could affect the thermal growth of the
piston, resulting in a rod drop reading that varies somewhat with process
conditions. Thermal growth effects are more noticeable on high-pressure
machines that use large diameter aluminum pistons, since the coefficient of
thermal expansion for aluminum is about two times greater than that for steel
or cast iron.

2. Mechanical Effects
There are two main categories of mechanical effects: crosshead vertical
motion and rod flex. Crosshead vertical motion is due to the net force on the
crosshead wrist pin because of applied torque, rod load, and cylinder
alignment. On a horizontal balance-opposed machine, the net vertical force on
one side of the machine is up during most of the stroke. Therefore, the
crosshead loads in the upper guide. This is referred to as the “up running
crosshead” (see figure 4). At the ends of the stroke, the vertical force is zero,
so for a portion of the stroke near top dead center and bottom dead center, the
crosshead moves from the upper guide to the lower guide. This movement
from the upper to the lower guide affects the rod drop measurement.

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Rod flex is due to the net horizontal force on the piston rod that causes
the piston to compress the gas. The total horizontal force is the sum of the
inertia of the reciprocating parts plus the net gas pressure on the piston. The
force due to pressure is calculated over the stroke by measuring the pressure in
the cylinder and multiplying by the area of the piston face at both the head end
and the crank end.
Over the stroke, the force reverses from acting toward the crankcase to
acting away from the crankcase in a double-acting cylinder. The inertia force
is simply the mass of the reciprocating parts multiplied by the acceleration of
those parts, F = ma. The acceleration changes in both magnitude and sign over
the course of the stroke, even in a single-acting cylinder. At bottom dead
center (BDC) the acceleration is maximum as the piston begins to move out
toward top dead center (TDC). At the middle of the stroke, the velocity is
maximum and the acceleration is zero. As the piston approaches TDC, the
sign of the acceleration has changed and the piston decelerates to a stop at the
end of the stroke.

Compressor Loading
300
200
Force 100 270º Total Load
0 Gas Load
(kips) -100 90º 180º 360º Inertia
-200
-300
Crank Angle
Figure 27--Compressor loading affects rod flex and crosshead vertical motion.

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Reciprocating Compressors—Process and Mechanical Effects Page 39

Figure 27 is a graph of the pressure and inertia forces over the stroke to
yield the net force at the crosshead wrist pin. Due to the nature of this force,
the piston rod is in compression over part of the stroke, and in tension over the
remainder of the stroke. The largest force loading occurs just at the ends of the
stroke. If the piston were perfectly aligned with the crosshead, the rod would
flex very little. However, any misalignment causes the rod to flex, especially
while the rod is in compression. In addition, on some machines the rod drop
reading changes with load as pockets are opened or valves unloaded (single-
acting cylinder machines). The changing load has a very pronounced effect on
rod load and the vertical load on the crosshead. Finally, be aware of rod
runout, which can also cause inaccurate rod drop readings.

3. Compensating Process and Mechanical Effects

The key for rod drop monitoring in machines with excessive process or
mechanical effects is to pick the right trigger angle, to acknowledge that there
will be some float in the reading, and to trend the reading. Choose a trigger
angle corresponding to the moment when the crosshead is loaded in the guide,
the piston rod flex is minimal, and the probe is close to the piston. The trigger
point that satisfies these conditions when the machine is under full load,
however, may not satisfy all conditions when the machine is partially loaded.
For instance, the crosshead may not be loaded when the machine is at the same
trigger angle under partial load. To select a trigger angle under these
conditions, evaluate the waveform at each load step and pick a trigger angle
that provides consistent results across all machine load ranges. The trigger
angle should be where the piston rod is in tension to minimize rod flex error.
Bently Nevada monitors come preprogrammed with a trigger angle of 240°. If
this doesn’t provide accurate measurements for your application, it can be

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changed. The readings can be trended with a Bently Nevada Data Manager
2000®. Over time, a trend reveals machine wear that may be hidden in an
instantaneous measurement by thermal growth and dynamic effects.

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Reciprocating Compressors—Information Required Page 41

INFORMATION REQUIRED

Several things must be considered to have a complete picture of the

condition of a machine. First, look at the work order to see what problem was
encountered. Since this is very basic information, it is used merely as a
starting point. Once the basic symptom is identified, the problem can be
discovered by analyzing machine information including all of the following:

Keyphasor®: A once-per-cycle Key∅® signal should be taken from the

crankshaft or flywheel for instantaneous measurement capability.

Accelerometer: Gather vibration data from an accelerometer mounted to the

casing of the machine on top of the distance piece.

Velomitor®: Obtain vibration data from a Velomitor® mounted to the side of

the crankcase. In addition, collect X-Y vibration data from the piping. It is
also important to record X-Y and axial vibration data from the bottles.

Proximitor®: Monitor rider band wear information from the rod drop probe
mounted vertically above or below the piston rod. An optional proximity
probe can be mounted horizontally in the same plane as the rod drop probe. A
second probe in this location facilitates runout and rod flex identification.

Temperature Sensor: Resistive temperature device (RTD). Collect and trend

valve temperature information. In addition, gather temperature information
from the packing box as well as from the inlet and discharge gas lines.

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Dynamic Pressure Transducer: Keep track of dynamic pressure information

gathered from the following locations:
• in bottle to cylinder connection
• in piping upstream and downstream from bottle
• in each bottle chamber
• in cooler inlets and outlets

Key. Prox. Velom. Accel. RTD Pres.

Leaking/Broken X
Valves
Leaking Piston Rod X X X
Packing
Runout X X
Worn/Broken Piston X X X
Rings
Worn/Broken Rider X X
Bands
Deteriorating X X
Foundation or Loose
Supports and
Fasteners
Piping Pulsation X X
Insufficient Rod X X X
Reversal

Figure 28—Transducer/malfunction grid

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Reciprocating Compressors—Information Required Page 43

Figure 29—Typical machine layout showing transducer locations and orientation.

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Figure 30—Transducer mounting locations (RTDs shown).

For routine monitoring of the machine, the above data will often suffice.
However, if the problem is not immediately apparent, other sources of
information should be included. For example, consider the effect the prime
mover has on the machine and the process. Also, question how the properties
of a given gas might change the machinery behavior. Be alert. Sometimes a
simple visual inspection of the outside of the machine will reveal a
deteriorating foundation, loose bolts, etc. Finally, check plant maintenance
records to learn of any preexisting problems that the machine has been
experiencing. By reviewing operator notes and maintenance records, in
relation to the other primary machinery information, the diagnostician can
completely understand the nature of a malfunction.

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Reciprocating Compressors—Appendix A Page 45

APPENDIX A: COMPRESSOR TERMINOLOGY

Absolute Pressure is the sum of gauge pressure (psiG) and atmospheric

pressure (psiA). Gauge pressure alone does not define a pressure unless
barometric (atmospheric) pressure is also given.

Actual Capacity is the quantity of gas actually compressed and delivered to

the discharge system by the machine at rated speed (and under rated inlet and
discharge conditions). This is usually expressed in cfm and is with reference
to the first stage inlet flange temperature and pressure.

Clearance is the remaining volume in the cylinder after the piston has reached
the extent of its throw. If it is not the same at both ends of a double-acting
cylinder, an average is usually used.

Compression Ratio is the ratio of the absolute discharge pressure to the

absolute inlet pressure.

Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance, usually expressed in

lb./cu. ft. at standard temperature and pressure (STP) conditions.

Discharge Pressure is the total pressure (static plus velocity) at the discharge
flange of the compressor.

Dry Gas is any gas or gas mixture that contains no water vapor and only
contains constituents that are substantially above their respective saturated
vapor pressure at the existing temperature.

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Heat is energy transferred because of a temperature difference.

Inlet and Discharge Temperature is the gas temperature at the inlet or

discharge flange of the compressor.

Inlet Pressure is the total gas pressure (static plus velocity) at the inlet flange
of a compressor. Velocity pressure is usually too small to be considered at any
point in a reciprocation compressor.

An Isentropic (adiabatic) Process is one during which there is no heat added

to or removed from the system.

An Isothermal Process is one during which there is no change in temperature.

The Piston Displacement of a machine is the net volume displaced by the

piston at rated machine speed, generally expressed in cubic feet per minute
(cfm). For single-acting machines, it is the displacement of the compressing
end only. For double-acting machines, it is the total displacement of both
ends. Multistage compressors are often rated by the displacement of the first
stage.

Piston Speed is the distance, in feet, traveled by the piston in one minute.

A Polytropic Process is one in which gas characteristics and properties

change throughout the process.

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Reciprocating Compressors—Appendix A Page 47

Pressure is a force per unit area and is usually expressed in pounds/sq. in.
(psi) or pounds/sq. ft. (lb./sq. ft.).

Specific Gravity is the ratio of the density of a given gas to the density of dry
air at the same temperature and pressure (usually 14.696 psi and 60° F).

Specific Volume is the reciprocal of density, or the volume that a certain mass
of substance occupies. It is expressed in cu. ft./lb. at STP conditions.

Vacuum is a pressure below atmospheric. It is expressed as inches of mercury

vacuum (in. Hg Vac), inches of water vacuum (in. H2O Vac), or psi-vacuum
(psi Vac).

Volumetric Efficiency is the ratio of the actual capacity to the piston

displacement, expressed as a percentage (% = ratio * 100).

Wet Gas is any gas or gas mixture that has one or more of its constituents at
saturated vapor pressure. The constituent at saturated vapor pressure may or
may not be water vapor.

Work is energy in transition and is defined as force times distance. Work

cannot be done unless there is motion.

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