02-01-2025

Extrusion
Extrusion is a process in which a hot billet is forced
through a constricted opening (die opening)

To get a cross section, uniform or non uniform

(regular or irregular) in continuous lengths

The billet is forced through the die opening under high

pressure.

The requisite pressure can be obtained by mechanical or

hydraulic presses

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Compressive stresses are built up during extrusion

which in turn effectively reduces the cracking tendency
of metals.

Shapes that can be extruded

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Application of extruded parts

•Aircraft, Chemical industry, Automobile,
Refrigeration, Furnitures, Textile, Motor
body
•Building, Agriculture etc., make use of
extruded parts.

Material used for extrusion

Aluminium alloys are extensively extruded

Cu, Mg alloys come next.
However, Ni, SS, Alloy steels can also be extruded

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Types of extrusion

• Direct or Forward extrusion

• Indirect or Backward extrusion

Special types
1.Impact extrusion
2.Hydrostatic extrusion
3.Tube extrusion
4.Powder extrusion
Extrusion can be done in Horizontal or vertical position.

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Direct extrusion

Consists of a cylinder with a die at one end

and a plunger at the other end

Plunger is connected to the press through which

pressure is applied. F is the applied force on the billet.

Hot billet is placed in the cylinder and plunger is actuated.

The pressure acting on the billet forces it through the die

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Hot billet has to move along the cylinder walls & has
to overcome friction.

The direction of movement of the product is same as

that of Plunger

Indirect extrusion

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Consists of a cylinder closed at one end with a hollow

plunger.

Hot billet is placed in the cylinder and plunger is

actuated.
Now, Hot metal is forced through the die fixed at
the end of a hollow plunger. F is the force applied
on the billet

As the plunger moves forward, the metal is forced through the die and

moves opposite to the direction of movement of the plunger

No relative motion between the cylinder walls and the billet. Friction

forces are lower and the power required is less than in direct extrusion

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Variables involved in Extrusion process

1. Type of extrusion (Direct or indirect)

2. Extrusion Ratio (ER)
3. Working Temperature
4. Speed of deformation (Ram Speed)
5. Frictional force between the die and
container wall with the hot billet.

Type of Extrusion
Extrusion process can be Direct or Indirect

Extrusion pressure (EP) is the ratio of applied force acting per/unit area
of the cylinder
EP = F/A
F =Applied force
A = area of the cylinder = area of billet inside the cylinder.

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Ram speed or plunger speed or Deformation speed is the speed

at which the plunger is moving against the billet.

It is the velocity of plunger movement

Variation of extrusion pressure &

Ram speed

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It can be seen that there is rapid rise in

pressure during initial portion

It is due to the initial compression of the billet in

filling the cylinder. This is same for
both types of extrusion

In direct extrusion the metal follows through the die at the max
value of pressure.

As the extrusion continues the pressure required to maintain

flow decreases progressively with decreasing length of the billet
in the cylinder

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In indirect extrusion there is no relative motion between the billet

and the cylinder wall.

Therefore the extrusion pressure is approximately constant

with increasing ram travel and represents the stress required
to deform the metal through the die.

At the end of the stroke the pressure builds up rapidly and

it is usual to stop the ram travel so as to leave a small discard
in the container, and avoid hitting the wall of the cylinder

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Special types of extrusion processes

Impact extrusion

This type of extrusion is used for producing thin hollow containers

Thin tubes used in storing medicines, tooth paste and other pasty type of
materials are produced by this process
It is a cold extrusion process

It consists of a die with a blind hole

A billet cut to size is placed in the hole

Only soft metals like Aluminium, Tin, lead etc can be

extruded by this process

A heavy punch is located co-axially above the die at a known

height

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There is an annular clearance between the punch and die periphery.

This clearance corresponds to the thickness of the tube required

As the punch is allowed to fall down on the billet,

the PE is converted to KE

As the punch makes contact with the billet with an impact, the metal
starts flowing plastically along the annular space and a tube is formed

The punch is then withdrawn and the tube is taken out

Hydrostatic Extrusion

In this extrusion process compressive

stress derived from a hydraulic fluid is
used to force the metal through a die
opening

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Hydrostatic Extrusion
It consists of a cylinder with a die at the bottom. The cross section of the
die corresponds to the configuration of the product
The die is a converging type.

The billet can be located above the die at its larger end. The cylinder
is filled with hydraulic fluid.
The fluid is actuated by a ram located above the die

As the ram is pushed downwards, the hydraulic fluid is forced against

the billet and equal hydraulic pressure is impressed on the billet.

The billet is plastically deformed and it starts coming out of the die opening

It is a cold extrusion process. All non ferrous ductile metals and mild
steel can be extruded

A Hydraulic pressure of order 1.5 x103 MPa is used.

Mild steel with extrusion ratio of around 20 : 1 and for softer metals like
aluminium with extrusion ratio of 200 : 1 are used.

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Extrusion of brittle materials

Brittle metals can be extruded using a

hydraulic fluid. The set up consists of an
extended cylinder below the die portion
called as low pressure chamber

The upper chamber houses the die portion

and is filled with hydraulic fluid. Through
the ram, the necessary pressure is applied
on to the hydraulic fluid which in turn acts
on the billet placed on the die opening

As the brittle metal is forced through the die, the annular surface has a
tendency to develop cracks .Now as the product starts coming out of the
die , a pressure equal to the half of the ram pressure is applied on to the
low pressure chamber

This low pressure acts on the surface of the product coming out of the
die and heals the crack or prevent cracks appearing on the surface

This process is used for extruding all brittle metals

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Tube extrusion

It consists of a cylinder fitted with a die at one end. A hollow

plunger with a movable mandrel is housed

The plunger and mandrel can be co-axially moved together or

independently. The axis of the plunger, axis of the mandrel and the
axis of the die are collinear.

Tube extrusion

Tube extrusion Initial position Tube Extrusion - Extrusion in process

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Soon after the plunger moves forward pushing the metal plastically around the
annular space created by the mandrel and the die.

This results in a long tube coming out of the die

A uniform tube can be easily obtained. The thickness of the tube and
diameter of the tube can be obtained by adjusting the clearance
between the die and the mandrel

This can be done by selecting an appropriate mandrel diameter and

die diameter.

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Variables in Extrusion Process

Extrusion Ratio (ER)

ER is the ratio of the area of cross section of the cylinder to the area of cross section of the
extruded product. Its value varies from 30:1 to 40:1 for steel and 400: 1 for Aluminium.

If this ratio is low, mixing of the metal will be improper and the product quality will be
poor.

If this ratio is high, excessive pressures are built up and extrusion will not be possible, the
die may fail

Working Temperature
Hot extrusion of metal is done to take
advantage of the decrease in flow stress
or deformation resistance with increasing
temperature

But hot working introduces oxidation

of metal and tools. Softening of die
and tool occurs. Adequate lubrication
is difficult to provide.

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Speed of Deformation (Ram Speed) or Plunger Speed

Ram in the cylinder is used to force the hot billet through the die
opening. The speed of ram is same as speed of deformation of the metal.

Increasing the ram speed produces increase in the extrusion pressure

Low extrusion speeds result in cooling of billets and the pressure

required for deformation increases. Higher the ram speed, higher will be
the heat generated due to friction (internal heating).

Selection of proper extrusion speed and temperature is arrived at by trial

& error for each alloy and Billet Size

Frictional force
Friction is a very important aspect existing between two contact
surfaces having relative motion.

The presence of friction is due to the contact surfaces of the clie and
the billet

Frictional force increases the pressure required for deformation

Excess friction may obstruct metal flow and produce cracks

Hence, lubrication is done at the contact surfaces

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Closed cavity extrusion

It resembles a die casting process. It consists of a split

die enclosed in a Jacket, which acts as clamp. A hot
billet slug is placed in the die cavity.

A ram from the top actuates a plunger positioned at

the top as shown

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Due to the compressive force acting on the billet, the

metal starts plastically flowing and occupies all the
contours of the cavity.

The pressure is maintained for a while. Later the plunger

is withdrawn, dies are opened and the component is
taken out.

Powder extrusion
Here metal powders mixed with a binder is loaded into the cylinder
containing the die.

When the plunger is actuated the metal powder is extruded out of the
die A long bar of required cross section is obtained.

To make easy flow of metal powder 6-12 % paraffin wax is added to

the mixture.

Any type of metal can be extruded. The extruded product is passed

through a furnace for proper fusion of the powder

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Powder Extrusion

Usually 6-12% paraffin wax is used as the binder

With friction With lubrication/without friction

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Consider a billet being extruded by direct extrusion. Assume the billet to be

marked with horizontal and vertical lines.

The metal is extruded and the metal flow pattern is observed without friction
and with lubrication

With friction, the vertical lines are bent forward at the center and move ahead as
compared to the metal at the walls of the cylinder.

which is subjected to friction with lubrication the bend is reduced.

With friction
The horizontal grids are compressed and
they remain parallel to each other. The
grids come closer as the metal leaves the
die opening.

The vertical grids show bending within the

cylinder as
plunger is moving forward.

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The grids bend more and more as it approaches the die opening.
Due to the friction being maximum at the contact surface, bend is less.

Away from the wall and towards the center, friction reduces and reaches
zero, hence maximum bend

i.e, the metal at the center moves freely without obstruction as compared
to surface near the wall. Metal at the center undergoes
easy deformation than at the walls.

During extrusion, the temperature of the metal increases by 50 - 600c

With lubrication

The magnitude of friction is reduced due to the presence of lubrication and

the tendency to bend is reduced.

The horizontal grids get compressed and come closer as before without
friction. Solid lubricants like glass or graphite is used.

In fact the flow of metal flow pattern is exactly opposite to that of metal
flow pattern in rolling process

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Defects in Extruded Parts

Defects in Extruded Parts

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Rolling
In rolling the workpiece is
drawn by friction through
regulated opening of two
rotating rolls.

The two cylindrical rollers are

supported on bearings and are
driven by a powerful motor

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Rolling
In rolling the workpiece is drawn by friction through regulated opening
of two rotating rolls.

The two cylindrical rollers are supported on bearings and are driven
by a powerful motor.

The opening between the rolls can be adjusted as required. This

opening is normally referred to as roll gap

The workpiece is subjected to compressive forces and is

deformed plastically.

The cross section decreases and length gets elongated

where as the total volume remains constant.

Rolling of workpiece can be carried out in

hot condition or in cold condition.

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Classification of Rolling Process

Based on temperature

1.Hot Rolling-above RCT

2.Cold Rolling-below RCT

Based on Roll arrangements

2High roll mill - when two rolls are used

3 High roll mill - when three rolls are used

4 High roll mill - When four rolls are used

cluster roll mill - when a number or rollers are used in conjunction.

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Classification of Rolling Process

Planetary roll mill-when the roll arrangement look like a planet
movement

Tandem roll mill-when a continuous arrangement of rolls are

Used for continuous rolling.

Sendizmer roll mill-when the greatest reduction in the material

is required

Two high mill

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Three high mill (Looping mill)

Four high mill (Single backing mill)

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Cluster mill (Double backing roll mill)

Here the main rolls are

supported by two back up
rolls.

Higher rigidity and stability

exists in this mill,

Higher reductions are

possible. Surface of, the
work has better quality

Planetary Rolling mill

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Planetary Rolling mill

Small rolls surround the backup roll as shown, and form

the working rolls.
Slab is converted to strip in just one pass. Reduction ratio of
25:1 is possible
Feed rolls, feed the workpiece into the mill with proper alignment &
speed.
Planishing rolls at the exit and ensures good surface finish on
the work.
Front & back tensions are set up due to the above set of rolls

Tandem mill

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Tandem mill

Here a series of rolling mills are used one over

the other.

Each set of rolls is called a star

Different amounts of reduction takes place at
each stand

Uncoiler and coiler help provide back and

front tensions respectively (Strip tensions)

Sendizmer mill

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Sendizmer mill

Is a cluster mill used to produce thin sheets & foils

from stainless steels, Alloy steels
Very high reduction ratio can be obtained.
Suited for cold rolling.

Speed at entry - 10 mm/sec

Speed at exit – l00mm/sec

Metal flow pattern in Rolling

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When the metal is rolled it is seen that the outer surface of the
metal is deformed greatest to the extent.
Center of the metal is not at all deformed.

Surface grains are pulled forward and the inner grains are
left behind due to the rotation of the rolls which come in
contact with the work piece (due to frictional force)

Thus the distance between the vertical lines increases as they

are bent as shown

The horizontal lines are brought closer or compressed.

The velocity of the work piece as it leaves the rolls is greater

than the circumferential velocity of the rolls due to stretching of
the layers

The roll gap can be varied by varying the center distance of

the rolls

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Defects in Rolling Operation : General

Defects in Rolling Operation : General

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Defects in Rolling Operation : General

Sheet metal
Types of Sheet Metal

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Punch and Die

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Sheet Metal Forming

Classification –Power Presses

Presses are used for producing components

by cold working of sheet metal like
Mild steel and other ductile materials

Classification -Presses

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Classification-
Based on the type of operations
General Purpose Does all operations in one press : Suitable for
carrying out a variety of press working operations. Stamping, bending
etc. can be carried out in the same press

Special purpose : Designed for performing only a specified operation

ex : Coining or punching etc.

Classification-
Based on type of work

Blanking press, Piercing press, Bending press

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Classification-
Based on type of Frame
Solid or Fixed bed, adjustable bed open
back inclinable.

Sheet Metal
Presses

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Sheet Metal
Presses

Adjustable bed
press

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Sheet Metal-Operations

Shearing
Operations

Sheet metal operation

where in, slug/ cut portion,
is produced which will go as
waste/scrap

Sheet Metal-Operations

Shearing
Operations

Sheet metal operation

where in, slug/ cut portion,
is produced which will go as
waste/scrap

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Sheet Metal-Operations

Non-Shearing
Operations
Sheet metal operation where in,
No slug/ cut portion is produced,
Hence no waste/scrap

Sheet Metal-Operations

Non-Shearing
Operations
Sheet metal operation where in,
No slug/ cut portion is produced,
Hence no waste/scrap

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Welding- Process
Welding is a joining process which involve bonding two
materials similar or dissimilar to realize the requisite
strength and other properties.

Welding is used in all fabrication

Definition

It is a process of joining two materials (like or unlike) by the

application of heat or heat and pressure using a filler material

Almost all metals and alloys can be welded

The materials to be joined are held in contact together and

the required energy is applied mainly in the form heat

This heat fuses the material and on cooling the joint solidifies.

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Welding- Process
Advantages :

1. Any metal/alloy can be welded.

2. Any shape of component can be generated.

3. Strength of the joint will be the same as that of the

base metal.

Welding- Process
Disadvantages :

1. Harmful radiation and fumes may be generated during the process.

2. Residual stresses may be setup in the welded joint.

3. Skilled operator may be required.

4. Structure of the weld portion will differ from parent. metal

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Welding- Process
Welding is a joining process which involve bonding two
materials similar or dissimilar to realize the requisite
strength and other properties.

Welding is used in all fabrication

Definition

It is a process of joining two materials (like or unlike) by the

application of heat or heat and pressure using a filler material

Almost all metals and alloys can be welded

The materials to be joined are held in contact together and

the required energy is applied mainly in the form heat

This heat fuses the material and on cooling the joint solidifies.

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Welding- Process
Advantages :

1. Any metal/alloy can be welded.

2. Any shape of component can be generated.

3. Strength of the joint will be the same as that of the

base metal.

Welding- Process
Disadvantages :

1. Harmful radiation and fumes may be generated during the process.

2. Residual stresses may be setup in the welded joint.

3. Skilled operator may be required.

4. Structure of the weld portion will differ from parent. metal

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Welding- Process
Application :

Fabrication of aircraft and automobile

components, bridges, building structures,
ships, pressure vessel

Classification- Welding

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Preparation of base metal

and joint
Before welding, the necessary edge preparation of the
workpiece is to be done

Edge preparation involves ,cleaning of the portion of the workpiece and

adjoining area.

Scales, rust, grease, oil and any other foreign matter are removed by
using chemicals or mechanically

Preparation of base metal

and joint
Wire brush, shot blasting, grinding, emery are used to clean the surface.

Acetone, carbon tetrachloride etc are used to clean the surface chemically.

Thorough cleaning is necessary to produce homogeneous and strong welds.

The two edges of the workpiece to be joined are ground to the desired
shape before welding

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Flux

In welding of metals, welding/filler rods supply the required

metal to the joint.

At high temperature, these metals form their oxides which

have higher melting point than the base metal itself.

These oxides have a tendency to get entrapped in the

solidification of metal

Flux

However, these oxides can be removed by means of agents

called fluxes.

A flux reacts chemically with oxides and form fusible slags

at welding temperatures.

This slag float to the top without interfering with the

deposition of filler metal and covers the weld joint.

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Flux

The slag layer protects further oxidation of metal.

Fluxes are available in the form of powder solutions or coatings

For welding cast iron, brass, bronze, aluminium, stainless steel.

flux is required.

For welding carbon steel no flux is required as the oxide formed is

lighter than the molten metal and hence floats to the top.

Gas Welding Equipment

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Arc Welding
In manual arc welding an arc is struck between the electrode and the
workpiece.
Arc can be struck by quickly touching the workpiece surface with the
electrode and moving it away immediately.

Arc Welding parameters

The parameters associated with arc welding are

1. Arc current
2. Arc length
3. Electrode diameter
4. Shielding gases
5. Welding time

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Arc Current
Increasing arc current increases the depth of penetration and fusion zone.
A proper current value should be selected for the optimum weld bead size
and joint strength.

Arc Length
An arc length of 0.5 - 2.5 mm is found suitable. Smaller arc length may cause
Contamination of the electrode. Bigger arc length may result in under cutting.

Electrode Diameter
The diameter of the electrode is selected based on the workpiece thickness.
Larger diameter is used for depositing higher weld metal and smaller
diameter for lower weld metal requirement.

Normally 1 - l.5mm dia electrodes are used for smaller thickness of workpiece.
2-3mm dia electrodes are used for larger thickness of workpiece.

Shielding Gases
A variety of gases are used as shielding gases to protect the weld joint.
Argon. Helium gas etc are passed near the joint to yield good weld joint.
Gases at flow rates of 1.5 to 3.0litres/min
are passed for the purpose.

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Welding Time

For producing high quality reproducible weld, arcing

time must remain unchanged.

Welding -Classification

1. Flux welded arc welding

7.Laser welding
2. TIG welding
3. MIG welding 8.Atomic , welding
4. Submerged arc welding 9.Plasma welding
5. Resistance welding
10.Thermit welding
6. Special welding methods

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TIG welding

An inert gas such as helium or argon is passed near the arc and a
shield is created. An arc is struck between the electrode and the work.

The inert gas corning out of the hood forms a protective cover around the
arc. Pressure of gas varies between 0.1 -0.15 N/mm2. Mainly DC supply is
used.

Current of the order 300-900 amps is used. When tungsten electrode is used,
it is referred to as Non-consumable or Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG).
A filler rod is used to supply molten metal to the joint

TIG welding

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MIG welding
When metal electrode is used it is referred as to as
consumable or Metal inert gas welding (MIG)

No filler is required here.

The Metal Electrode itself will supply the required metal

Carbon and low alloy steel Al and Mg alloys

Heat Resistant alloys Cu-alloys SS can easily be welded

MIG welding

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Electro Slag Welding

Electro Slag Welding-Process

The job is welded through the molten slag covering which

is a result of high quantity of heat

Heat is generated by the circulation of electric current

through the electrode and the job.

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Electro Slag Welding-Principle

Electroslag welding process works on the principle of heat generation

due to arc and electric resistance.

Arc is made between welding electrode and the workpiece which starts
melting the filler metal to fill the filler cavity.

Now the heat is produced due to electric resistance when the current
passes through the surface.

The heat further starts melting the filler metal which is continuously fed
from the roller.

This filler wire melts and fills the weld and makes it a strong joint.

Electro Slag Welding-

Applications

This welding process is a single pass high productive

welding process which is used for welding
thick (25-300 mm) materials in vertical or close to vertical
positions.

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Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Here an arc is struck between a consumable electrode and the parent

metal, when buried under a granular flux such as Tio2 Sio2
An arc is struck between metal rod and the parent metal . Powder flux
is allowed to drop through hopper near the arc.

Flux melts and forms a liquid .The rod supplies the molten metal for
welding . Liquid flux covers the molten metal with an impermeable
slag and protects the weld until it cools .

It is used for general continuous welding

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

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Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding

When the welding is carried out manually then it is referred to as Manual
Metal Arc welding or MMAW

The surface of the work is cleared of grease, rust, oil, dust etc. The work pieces
are held in position.

Welding leads are connected to the power source and the work piece.

Power source is switched on. Now a suitable current is allowed to pass. The
operator grips the electrode by means of a holder and strikes the arc by moving
the electrode near to the work piece.

The arc length is adjusted to get a continuous stable arc and supply of molten
metal.

Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding

During welding. Slag is used as a protection to the molten metal.
This act as flux and shields the weld portion. This is referred to
as Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding (FSMAW)

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Resistance Welding

Whenever a heavy electric current is passed through a

material, the material will offer resistance to the flow of
current.
This results in local heating of the material.
This principle is used to generate the required heat at
the joint for welding.

Heat generated is very rapid as very high currents of

300 - 105 amps with a voltage upto 25 volts is used.

A transformer is used for the purpose. AC source is

used.

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The parts to be joined are heated to

plastic state and high pressure is applied.

This results in a joint, after cooling. Current

consumed depends on the area of contact and time.

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Atomic Hydrogen Welding

It is a welding process wherein fusion is produced by

heating the job with an electric arc maintained between

two tungsten electrodes in an atmosphere of hydrogen,

which also acts as a shielding gas

Atomic Hydrogen Welding

Filler rod and pressure may or may not be applied depending
upon job conditions.
Principle
1. It possesses the features of both arc and flame welding
processes.
2. The job does not form a part of the electric circuit.
3. Combined energy of the arc and a chemical reaction is
utilized for welding.
4. Electric arc is struck between two tungsten electrodes.
5. This arc supplies energy for a chemical reaction.

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Setup-Atomic Hydrogen Welding

Atomic Hydrogen Welding

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Atomic Hydrogen Welding

Atomic Hydrogen Welding

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Atomic Hydrogen Welding

Atomic Hydrogen Welding

Disadvantages :
1. The process cannot be used for depositing large quantities of metals.
2. Welding speed is less as compared to that of metallic arc or MIG
welding.
3. The process becomes uneconomical for certain applications because
of higher operating cost as compared to that of other welding
processes.

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Atomic Hydrogen Welding

Application :

The process can be used for the welding of most of

the metals and alloys like plain carbon steel, alloy
steel, stainless steel, aluminium, copper, nickel and
their alloys.

Resistance Welding

Whenever a heavy electric current is passed through a

material, the material will offer resistance to the flow of
current.
This results in local heating of the material.
This principle is used to generate the required heat at
the joint for welding.

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Resistance Welding

Heat generated is very rapid as very high currents of

300 - 105 amps with a voltage upto 25 volts is used.

A transformer is used for the purpose.

AC source is used.

Resistance Welding

The parts to be joined are heated to plastic state and

high pressure is applied, This results in a joint after
cooling.

Current consumed depends on the area of contact and

time.

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Resistance Welding
Pressure applied is approximately around 25 - 55 N/mm2

No filler metal is required for the purpose.

Copper electrode is used to carry the current to the joint.

Resistance welding can be used for all metals except tin, lead

and zinc as they pose several problems

Resistance Welding
Advantages of Resistance Welding

1. Fast rate of welding possible

2. No filler rod required
3. Semi skilled workers can be employed
4. Both similar and dissimilar metals can be welded.
5. Very high reliability and reproducibility obtained in the welds.
6. Semi automatic equipments can be used.

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Resistance Welding
Disadvantages of Resistance Welding

Initial cost of equipment is high

Needs good control and maintenance of equipment's
Higher thickness of metal cannot be welded.

Resistance Welding
Process is simple and the operation is very rapid. used for mass
production.

Application of Resistance Welding

1. Used for joining sheets, bars, rods and tubes.

2. Used for welding aircraft and automobile parts
3. Used for general engineering fabrication purposes like grills,
containers, tanks, etc

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Spot Welding

It is the simplest form of resistance welding.

Mainly used for welding sheet metal, both ferrous and non-
ferrous metals of 8 mm thick and less.
Consists of two electrodes (water cooled) one fixed and another
moveable.

Spot Welding

The sheets are cleaned first and are placed between the
electrodes.

Bottom electrode is fixed and the top electrode is moveable.

By operating a foot lever the moveable electrode is brought

in contact with the sheet and a pressure of 22 - 55 N/mm2 is
applied

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Spot Welding

A low voltage of 30 - 40V and high current of 120 -

300 amps is passed between the electrodes.

This results in intense heat and the sheet gets welded

within 10 - 15 sec. Soon after the current is switched
off with pressure on

Spot Welding
After the weld cools, pressure is released.
Materials having higher thermal conductivity can be easily
welded

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