38 MATH1041

Calculus Chapter 5
Further applications of differentiation

Maxima and minima

The theory was developed in Calculus Chapter 2, but with all techniques of differentiation
now available we can do more complicated examples.
Summary: find the critical points by solving the equation f ′ (x) = 0, then distinguish
maxima from minima by determining the sign of f ′ (x) on each side of the critical points,
or by finding the sign of the second derivative f ′′ (x) at the critical points, as described in
the next section.

Tutorial questions — Maxima and minima

D 1. A circular solenoid of radius a exerts a force proportional to x/(x2 + a2 )5/2 on a magnet
at a distance x from the centre of the coil. Find the value of x for the maximum force.
Prove that it is a maximum.

Figure 5.1. Ladder just fitting around a corner in a passage

D 2. Show that in Figure 5.1 the length l of the space available for the ladder is given by
l = a cosec θ + b sec θ, and find the minimum value of l, assuming a and b are constant.
Prove that it is a minimum. Hence find the length of the longest ladder that can be
carried horizontally around a corner from an 8m wide passage into a 1m wide passage.
D 3. In a mathematical model of the growth of a sunflower head it is assumed that at time
√
t seed number n has polar co-ordinates r = t − n and θ = nα, where α is constant.
(a) Find the cartesian co-ordinates at time t of seeds n = 0 and n = q, where q is
constant. (b) Use the distance formula to show that the square of the distance between
Calculus Chapter 5 39
p
seeds n = 0 and n = q is equal to 2t − q − 2 t2 − qt cos(qα).
(c) If cos(qα) > 0, find the minimum value of the square of the distance, and the value
of t at which the minimum is attained. Prove that it is a minimum.

Curve sketching
By combining information obtainable from f (x) and its first two derivatives, it is possible
to sketch the main features of the graph y = f (x) without plotting many points. (It is often
not necessary to obtain all this information in order to sketch the curve. In particular, the
effort of finding f ′′ (x) is often not justified by the extra information it supplies.)
From f (x) we can find
• where the graph cuts the y axis (substitute x = 0),
• where the graph cuts the x axis (solve the equation f (x) = 0),
• where the graph is above the x axis (f (x) > 0) and where below the x axis (f (x) < 0),
• how the graph behaves as x → ±∞,
• whether there are any asymptotes.
In determining the behaviour as x → ±∞ it is sometimes helpful to express y in terms
of x−1 and use the fact that x−1 → 0. A general rule is that in the race to infinity
exponentials beat powers and powers beat logs. An asymptote is a straight line which
the graph approaches more and more closely. Asymptotes arise in two different ways.
There is a vertical asymptote at x = a if f (x) → ±∞ as x → a. This usually means that
trying to evaluate f (a) would lead to division by 0 or taking the log of 0. Horizontal and
oblique asymptotes may be found (if they occur) when considering the behaviour of f (x)
as x → ±∞. If f (x) can be written in the form f (x) = mx + c + g(x), and if g(x) → 0
as x → ±∞, then the graph y = f (x) must approach the line y = mx + c more and
more closely as x → ±∞, because the difference between them is tending to zero. The
asymptotic line y = mx + c will be horizontal if m = 0 and oblique if m 6= 0. It is quite
permissible for the graph to cut a horizontal or oblique asymptote.
From the first derivative f ′ (x) we can find
• where the critical points are (solve the equation f ′ (x) = 0),
• where the graph is increasing and where it is decreasing (from the sign of f ′ (x) between
and beyond the critical points).
From the second derivative f ′′ (x) we can find out where the derivative f ′ (x) is increasing
(f ′′ (x) > 0) and where it is decreasing (f ′′ (x) < 0). The sign of f ′′ (x) gives information
about the direction in which the graph is bending, and can be combined with information
 40 MATH1041

from the first derivative as shown on the next page.

f ′ (x) > 0 f ′ (x) < 0

f ′′ (x) > 0 slope positive and increasing slope negative but increasing
graph rising and getting steeper graph falling but flattening out

f ′′ (x) < 0 slope positive but decreasing slope negative and decreasing
graph rising and flattening out graph falling and getting steeper

This can be remembered by saying that

• if f ′′ (x) > 0 then the concave side of the curve is up, while if f ′′ (x) < 0 then the concave
side of the curve is down.
A point on the curve where f ′′ (x) = 0 and changes sign is called a point of inflexion
because the curve bends or flexes from one direction of concavity to the other.
The second derivative can also be used to distinguish between maxima and minima. If
the second derivative is positive at a critical point, then the curve is concave up, so the
turning point must be a minimum, while if the second derivative is negative, then the
turning point must be a maximum. This method has two disadvantages:
• the extra effort involved in finding f ′′ (x),
• the fact that f ′′ (x) might also be zero, in which case no conclusion can be drawn.
In general, it is probably simpler to determine the sign of f ′ (x) on each side of the critical
points in order to distinguish maxima from minima.

Tutorial questions — Curve sketching

D 4. Sketch the following curves, after finding all easily obtainable information from y, y ′ ,
and y ′′ .
(a) y = 10 + 12x − 3x2 − 2x3 (b) y = x4 − 4x (c) y = x + x1
16(x − 25) (x + 1)(x − 2)
(d) y = x + 2 sin x (e) y = (f) y =
x(x − 16) x(x − 1)
(g) y = x ln |x| (h) y = x3 ex (i) y = (5 + x1 )ex
(j) y = e−x/5 sin x.
The curve in (j) is damped simple harmonic motion.
 Calculus Chapter 5 41

D 5. The growth of populations or the progress of chemical reactions under constrained

conditions can often be described by the logistic curve y = b/(1 + Re−kt ), where b, k,
and R are positive constants.
(a) Show that 0 < y < b for all values of t (hint: show that the denominator is greater
than 1), and determine the behaviour of y as t → ±∞.
(b) Find y ′ and sketch the curve. Show that the curve is steepest when y is midway
between the asymptotes.
7x − 3
D 6. Sketch the graph y = x − 5 + , after finding all necessary information. (Note
x2
that the graph has a vertical and an oblique asymptote, and that it cuts the oblique
asymptote where x = 73 . This is perfectly acceptable.)
D 7. Sketch the graph y = x4 (x−1)4 after finding all necessary facts from y, y ′ , and y ′′ . (Note
that the nature of the minima cannot be determined from the values of y ′′ there.)

Related rates of change

dx
If x is some quantity that varies with another variable t, then the derivative is the rate
dt
of change of x with respect to t. If y is some other quantity that depends on x, then the
dy dy dx
rate of change of y with respect to t, i.e. the derivative , can be found from and
dt dx dt
by the chain rule.

Tutorial questions — Related rates of change

D 8. A gas-filled balloon is in the shape of a hemisphere of radius r on top of a cone of radius
r and height 2r. (All dimensions are in metres.)
(a) Find the volume V and surface area A in terms of r.
(b) If r increases at 0, 01 ms−1 find the rates of change of V and A when r = 5.
(c) If V increases at 10−3 π m3 s−1 , find the rates of change of r and A when r = 5.
D 9. A rod of radius a is being sawn through as shown in Figure 5.2. At time t let h denote
the depth of the cut and let A denote the area of the cut face, assuming that the line
of saw teeth is kept horizontal.

Figure 5.3. Saw cutting rod

dA dh
(a) Express A and h in terms of θ and find dθ and dθ .
(b) Assuming that dA dθ dh
p
dt = k (constant), find dt and show that dt = k/2 h(2a − h).
 42 MATH1041

dA
E (c) Note that dh = 2a sin θ. How could this be proved directly?
2
D 10. The area A mm of the image on an observer’s retina is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance s m between object and observer. An object moves in such a way
that at time t seconds the distance s = 8(t2 − 7t + 13) metres. If A = 4 when s = 8,
dA dA ds
find dt from ds and dt at times t = 2 and t = 4. What is the maximum area, and
when does it occur?
D 11. Recording tape of thickness a mm is being wound onto a reel at a constant rate of b
mm s−1 . Assuming that the side view of the tape already on the reel is a circle of radius
r, it can be shown that the area of the circle increases at a constant rate of ab mm2 s−1 .
dr
(Can you see why?) Find dt in terms of r.

H0,cL

Θ
O LH4,0L

Figure 5.4. Shadow cast by rotating particle

dθ
D 12. A particle P moves with constant angular velocity dt = k radian s−1 on the circle
x2 + y 2 − 4x + 3 = 0 as shown in Figure 5.4.
(a) A light source at L(4, 0) causes the shadow of P to be cast on the y axis at the point
S(0, c). Express the co-ordinates of P and S in terms of θ. Find the velocity of S when
π 2π
θ= 4 and when θ = 3 . What is the maximum value of c and for what value of θ is it
attained? Can you verify this geometrically?
(b) Using the same diagram, suppose P is a horse racing around a circular track (with
the same angular velocity as before), and L is a television cameraman filming the race.
sin θ dφ
If φ is the angle OLP , show that tan φ = , and find , i.e. the angular velocity
2 − cos θ dt
with which the cameraman must rotate his camera.

Answers
1. x = 12 a.
√
2. Shortest distance = (a2/3 + b2/3 )3/2 . Longest ladder = 5 5 m.
3. Minimum value of square of distance is q| sin(qα)|, occurring when t = 21 q(1+| cosec(qα)|).
Calculus Chapter 5 43

4. See sketches below.

5. y ′ = bRke−kt (1 + Re−kt )−2 > 0. At y = 12 b, t = 1
k ln R and y ′′ = 0, so curve is steepest.
See sketch.
6. See sketch.
7. At x = 0 and x = 1, both y ′ and y ′′ are zero. See sketch.

Figure 5.5. Sketches for Question 4, 5, 6, and 7

√ √
8. V = 43 πr3 , A = πr2 (2 + 5), dAdt = 2+ 5
10 π,
dV
dt = π,
dr
dt = 10
−5
, dA
dt = 10−4 (2 +
√
5)π.
9. (a) A = 21 a2 (2θ − sin 2θ), h = a(1 − cos θ), dA 2
dθ = a (1 − cos 2θ),
dh
dθ = a sin θ.
dθ k dArea
(b) dt = 2a2 sin2 θ
(c) dHeight =Breadth.
44 MATH1041

dA
10. A = ks−2 , k = 4(8)2 = 256. At t = 2 dt = 89 . At t = 4 dA
dt = −8. Maximum area
64 7
A= 9when t = 2.
dr ab
11. In one second film of length b mm and thickness a mm is added to the reel. dt = 2πr .
√
4 sin θ π 8k(5 2−1)
12. P (2 + cos θ, sin θ) S(0, 2−cos θ ). When θ = 4, velocity = 49 . When θ = 2π
3 ,
√
velocity = − 32k
25 . Maximum value of c is
4 3
3 when θ = π
3 (and LS is tangent to the circle).
dφ k(2 cos θ−1)
(b) dt = 5−4 cos θ .