Calculus Chapter 4 31

Calculus Chapter 4
Integration

Introduction
Integration is the inverse process to differentiation. In other words, if you integrate a
function and then differentiate the result, then you get back where you started. Similarly,
if you first differentiate and then integrate the derivative, then you also get back where
you started (almost). There is a slight complication here, which we shall discuss later; it
is one reason why integration is somewhat trickier than differentiation.
The importance of integration becomes apparent when we consider all the physical or
dA
mathematical formulae of the form dC = B that were obtained in Calculus Chapter 1.
In these, C is the independent variable, and B can usually be expressed in terms of C
by some simple physical or mathematical law. Thus A is the quantity that is unknown,
and for which an expression is sought. Integration provides the means for making A the
subject of the formula, since it transforms the expression
B is the derivative of A with respect to C
into
A is an integral of B with respect to C.
We shall give several examples once we have learned a few techniques.
Fundamental principles of integration
A function F (x) is said to be an integral of the function f (x) if f (x) = F ′ (x), i.e. if f (x)
is the derivative of F (x). Notice that we say an integral rather than the integral, because
there are infinitely many. However, they are all closely related.
Theorem. If F (x) is one integral of f (x), then any other integral of f (x) is of the form
F (x) + c for some constant c.
Proof. By definition F ′ (x) = f (x). Suppose G(x) is another integral of f (x); then G′ (x) =
f (x) also. Therefore
d
(G(x) − F (x)) = G′ (x) − F ′ (x) = f (x) − f (x) = 0,
dx
 32 MATH1041

so G(x) − F (x) must be constant (since its graph is horizontal everywhere), say G(x) −
F (x) = c. Thus G(x) = F (x) + c, as required.

Roughly speaking, this theorem expresses the fact that the integral of zero can be any
constant, since the derivative of any constant is zero. Its importance is that it shows
that if we know one integral of f(x), then we can express any integral by simply adding
on an arbitrary constant c. The integral involving the arbitrary constant is called the
R R
indefinite integral of f (x), and is denoted f (x)dx, e.g. 2xdx = x2 + c. It is important
R
not to forget the dx or the + c. The function between the integral sign and the dx is
called the integrand.
Most properties of integrals follow from corresponding properties of derivatives.

Theorem. If a and b are constants, then

Z Z Z
{af (x) + bg(x)} dx = a f (x)dx + b g(x)dx.

Proof. Suppose F (x) and G(x) are integrals of f (x) and g(x) respectively, i.e. F ′ (x) = f (x)
and G′ (x) = g(x). Then by the rules for differentiation

d dF (x) dG(x)
(aF (x) + bG(x)) = a +b = af (x) + bg(x),
dx dx dx

so aF (x) + bG(x) is an integral of af (x) + bg(x), as required.

The table of standard derivatives given in Calculus Chapter 3 can now be used as a
table of integrals, by heading the columns “function” and “integral” instead of “derivative”
and “function.” A fuller version will be given later. However, many simple functions can
be integrated “by inspection,” i.e. by asking “what function has its derivative equal to the
given function?”

Tutorial questions — Fundamental principles

D 1. Integrate with respect to x by inspection (i.e. find by trial and error a function f (x)
d
such that dx f (x) = the given function).
(a) cos x (b) sec x tan x (c) 3x2
3 1
(d) √ (e) 2 (f) cosec2 x
1 − x2 x +1
(g) −x + sin 3x (h) 1 − cos 2x (i) 2x
1 2 1 1
(j) 6 + (k) + cosec 2x cot 2x (l)
x 1 + 4x2 2x 3x + 2
(m) cos(5x − 4) (n) (3x + 1)10 (o) sec2 (2x − 5)
(p) (4 − 9x)−1/2 (q) (1 − 9x2 )−1/2 (r) (x2 + 2x + 2)−1 .
 Calculus Chapter 4 33

D 2. (a) Show that the functions − arctan( x1 ) and 1

2
2x
arctan( 1−x 2 ) are both integrals of the

same function (by showing that they have the same derivative). Calculate their differ-
ence for various values of x between 0 and 1 to verify that they differ by a constant.
(This is no longer true if you go beyond 0 or 1.)
(b) Repeat part (a) with the functions 8 cos4 x and 4 cos 2x+cos 4x. (Here the difference
is constant for all values of x.)
1
D 3. At time t a particle has acceleration + sin t in some units. Find general expressions
2
R
for its velocity and displacement. (Hint: Velocity = Acceleration dTime and Displace-
R
ment = Velocity dTime.) Find the exact expressions (i.e. evaluate the two arbitrary
constants) if
(a) at time t = 0 the particle is at rest at the origin,
(b) at time t = 0 the particle has velocity 1 and at time t = 2 it has displacement 5.

Definite integrals
If F (x) and G(x) are both integrals of f (x), then we have shown above that G(x) =
F (x) + c, so for any numbers a and b we have

G(b) − G(a) = {F (b) + c} − {F (a) + c} = F (b) − F (a).

In other words, the difference between the value at b and the value at a is the same for
every indefinite integral of f (x). This fixed difference is called the definite integral of
f (x) from a to b, and is indicated by inserting a and b below and above the integral sign
respectively, or by putting any indefinite integral in square brackets with a and b below
and above on the right hand side. Thus
Z b  b
f (x)dx = F (x) = F (b) − F (a).
a a

Note that the indefinite integral is a function of the variable of integration and involves
an arbitrary constant, while the definite integral depends only on the endpoints a and b
and has nothing arbitrary about it. In particular, the variable of integration in a definite
integral is a dummy variable and can be replaced by any other variable without changing
the value of the integral.
The following properties of definite integrals are important.

Theorem.
Z b Z c Z b
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
a a c
Z a Z b
f (x)dx = − f (x)dx.
b a
 34 MATH1041

Proof. Let F (x) be any integral of f (x). Then the first RHS = {F (c) − F (a)} + {F (b) −
F (c)} = F (b) − F (a) = LHS and the second RHS = −{F (b) − F (a)} = F (a) − F (b) =
LHS.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus summarizes the fact that differentiation and
integration are inverse processes.

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. If a is constant, then

Z x 
d
f (t)dt = f (x).
dx a

Proof. Let F (t) be any integral of f (t), so F ′ (t) = f (t). By definition of the definite
Rx
integral, a f (t)dt = F (x) − F (a). Thus the derivative of the left hand side with respect
to x is equal to the derivative of the right hand side, i.e.
Z x 
d d
f (t) dt = (F (x) − F (a)) = F ′ (x) − 0 = f (x).
dx a dx

Z x
Corollary. The integral of f (x) that equals 0 when x = a is f (t) dt.
a
Rx
Proof. By the Fundamental Theorem, a
f (t) dt is an integral of f (x) (i.e., a function
whose derivative is f (x)), and by properties of definite integrals it is equal to zero when
x = a.

This is often used to express an indefinite integral, because the lower endpoint a serves as
an arbitrary constant. However, it is not quite as general, because this expression is zero
at x = a, but an indefinite integral does not have to equal zero for any value of x. For
Rx
example, 2 − cos x is an integral of sin x that cannot be expressed in the form a sin t dt.

Tutorial questions — Definite integrals

D 4. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
R1 Rπ R1
(a) 0 (ex + e−x ) dx (b) π/2 cos x dx (c) 0
(et + e−t ) dt
R1 R π/4 R −2
(d) −2
2u du (e) 0
sec2 x dx (f) 1
2u du.
D 5. Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and properties of definite integrals to find
d
Rb
dx x f (t)dt if b is constant.

Areas and volumes

These are the most important applications of integration.
Calculus Chapter 4 35

Theorem. If f (x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b, then the area enclosed between the curves
y = f (x), y = g(x), and the lines x = a and x = b is the integral from a to b of f (x)−g(x),
i.e.
Z b
Area = {f (x) − g(x)} dx.
a

More generally, if the curves cross, then we can write

Z b
Area = |f (x) − g(x)| dx
a

but in practice we need to integrate separately over the intervals where g(x) ≥ f (x) and
those where f (x) ≥ g(x).

Figure 4.1. Area between two curves

Proof. Let A(x) denote the area between the curves from any fixed vertical line to the
vertical line at x, as shown in Figure 4.1. Then the required area is simply A(b) − A(a).
On the other hand (as in Calculus Chapter 1),

dA
= “height” = distance between the curves = |f (x) − g(x)|,
dx

since the absolute value of the difference is the scalar distance. Therefore A(x) is an
integral of |f (x) − g(x)|, and the required area A(b) − A(a) is the definite integral from a
to b of |f (x) − g(x)|.

Beware: there is no way to integrate an absolute value directly, so regions where f (x) <
g(x) must be considered separately from those where f (x) > g(x). This is essential if the
curves cross each other.
 36 MATH1041

Theorem. The volume of a solid lying between the planes x = a and x = b is the integral
from a to b of the cross-sectional area, i.e.
Z b
Volume = (Area of cross-section at x) dx.
a

Proof. Let C(x) denote the cross-sectional area at x and let V (x) denote the volume
between some fixed plane and the plane at x. Then the required volume is simply V (b) −
d
V (a). On the other hand (as in Calculus Chapter 1) dx V (x) = C(x), so V (x) is an integral
of C(x), and the required volume V (b) − V (a) is the definite integral from a to b of C(x).

The commonest application is to solids of revolution, i.e. solids obtained by revolving

a curve about an axis.

Corollary. The volume of the solid obtained by revolving the curve y = f (x) about the
x axis between x = a and x = b is given by
Z b Z b
2
Volume of solid of revolution = π y dx = π {f (x)}2 dx.
a a

Proof. The cross-section at x is a circle of radius y (or f (x)) so the cross-sectional area is
πy 2 or πf (x)2 .

A similar formula for solids rotated about the y axis can be obtained by interchanging
x and y in the above formula.

Tutorial questions — Areas and volumes

T 6. By drawing a sketch, convince yourself that in the proof of the theorem on areas

A(x + ∆x) − A(x) ≈ |f (x) − g(x)|∆x

(hint: the left hand side is the area of a narrow vertical strip of width ∆x), and hence
dA
that dx = |f (x) − g(x)|, as stated.
D 7. Find the area of the region:
√
(a) enclosed between the x axis, the lines x = 1 and x = 4, and the curve y = x + √1x ,
(b) enclosed between the parabola y = 3x2 + x + 1 and the line y = 3 − 4x,
(c) enclosed between the curves y = x2 and y = 2x and the lines x = 1 and x = 5 (find
the points of intersection by trial and error),
10
(d) enclosed between the curves y = 1+x2 and y = 4 − x,
E (e) lying below the curves y = √ 4 and y = 3 1
25−x2 x, above the line y = 2, and to the
right of the y axis. (Sketch the region, and divide it in two.)
 Calculus Chapter 4 37

D 8. Find the volume of the solid:

1
(a) with cross-sectional area 4x2 +4x+5 lying between the planes x = 0 and x = 21 ,
π
(b) obtained by rotating the region under the curve y = sec x between x = 0 and x = 3
about the x axis,
(c) obtained by rotating the region between the curves y = √1 and y = 1
between
x x
x = 12 and x = 2 about the x axis,
√
(d) obtained by rotating the region enclosed between the curves y = x and y = x
about the y axis.

Answers
1. (a) sin x + c (b) sec x + c (c) x3 + c (d) 3 arcsin x + c (e) arctan x + c (f) − cot x + c
x
(g) − 12 x2 − 13 cos 3x + c (h) x − 21 sin 2x + c (i) ln2 2 + c (j) − 15 x−5 + arctan 2x + c
1
(k) 2 ln |x| − 12 cosec 2x + c (l) 31 ln |3x + 2| + c (m) 15 sin(5x − 4) + c (n) 33
1
(3x + 1)11 + c
1
√
(o) 2 tan(2x − 5) + c (p) − 29 4 − 9x + c (q) 31 arcsin 3x + c (r) arctan(x + 1) + c.
1 π
2. (a) Derivative = 1+x2 , difference = 2. (b) −32 cos3 x sin x, 3.
3. v = 12 t − cos t + c, s = 14 t2 − sin t + ct + k.
(a) v = 21 t−cos t+1, s = 14 t2 −sin t+t. (b) v = 21 t−cos t+2, s = 14 t2 −sin t+2t+sin 2.
4. (a) e − 1e (b) −1 (c) e − 1e (d) −3 (e) 1 (f) 3.
5. −f (x).
7. (a) 20
3
19
(b) 6 54 (c) 6
ln 2 −4 (d) 20 arctan 2 − 10 arctan 3 − 9 + 5π
2
(e) 4 arcsin 53 + 3 ln 2 − 3.
π 1
√ π
8. (a) 16 − 4 arctan 12 , (b) π 3, (c) 2, (d) 2π
15 .