Calculus Chapter 1 3

Calculus Chapter 1
Functions

Functions
Calculus is concerned with the slopes of curves as well as lines, and the simplest curves
are graphs of functions. A function is a rule that gives a single output number for each
number entered, like a button on a calculator:

input → function → output.

If the input number is x and the function is f , then the output is written f (x), though in
some special cases the brackets are omitted.

x→ f → f (x).

The graph of a function f , usually called the graph y = f (x), consists of all points
(x, y) in the cartesian plane for which y = f (x). Note that by definition of a function there
is only one y value for each x value.
Remarks
• The input variable is usually called the independent variable, and the output is called
the dependent variable. Some functions are defined only for restricted values of the input.
• Some functions are defined by different formulae for different values of the input.
• Some functions cannot be expressed by any formula at all, but we shall not be concerned
with them.
• It is customary to talk about the function f (x) rather than the function f , as one should
strictly do. This is because certain expressions, like x2 or 2x , would be meaningless if the
x were omitted.
• The statement “y is some unspecified function of x” is often abbreviated to y = y(x)
rather than y = f (x). That is, the same letter y is used for the dependent variable and for
the function expressing that dependence. This is usually quite clear from the context, but
not distinguishing between the variable and the function can sometimes cause confusion.
 4 MATH1041

The inverse function (if it exists) of a function f converts the output of f back into
the input, i.e. it reverses the arrows in the above diagrams. This means that applying f
followed by its inverse gets you back to the input value where you started, and applying
the inverse followed by f gets you back to the output value where you started. The best
known example are the functions a• and loga •, which are inverses of each other for any
fixed positive a 6= 1. This is simply saying that if y = ax , then x = loga y, or if a• takes
x to y, then loga • takes y back to x. Applying the functions in either order gets you back
where you started, loga (ax ) = x and aloga y = y, as can easily be seen by substituting
either equation in the other one.
The reason why the inverse function does not always exist is that a function must be
single valued. Thus if the original function f takes two or more different input values
to the same output value, then the inverse function will not be defined, because it will
not know which of the input values to take the output value back to. This problem can
be overcome by restricting the input values of the original function in such a way that
the inverse function of the restricted function does exist. But it means that applying the
original function followed by the inverse will get you back where you started only if you
√
started with a number in the restricted region. For example, the function is the inverse
√
of the function x2 restricted to non-negative values of x. It follows that y ≥ 0 always,
√
and hence that x2 = x only if x ≥ 0. Similarly the arcsin and arctan functions are the
inverses of the sin and tan functions restricted to input values lying between − π2 and π
2,
and the arccos is the inverse of the cos function restricted to input values lying between 0
and π. This explains why arccos(cos x) = x only if 0 ≤ x ≤ π, and so on (see Algebra
Chapter 2). This can easily be verified with a calculator.

Tutorial questions — Functions

D 1. (a) If f (x) = x2 − x + 1, find f (−1), f (a), f (x + ∆x). Show that f (1 − x) = f (x).
x+2
(b) If g(x) = , find g(y), g(3), g(a + b), g(x + ∆x). Show that g(g(x)) = x.
3x − 1
x−1 1 1 1
(c) If h(x) = , find h( ), , h(−x). Show that h(−x) = and that
x+1 x h(x) h(x)
1
h( ) = −h(x).
x
(d) If x = g(y) (from part (b)), express y in terms of x. (This gives the inverse function
of g.) Similarly find the inverse function of h (from (c)) by writing x = h(y) and solving
for y.
D 2. Suppose a = (t, t2 ) and b = (t−1 , t−2 ). Show that a and b lie on the parabola y = x2 .
Express the midpoint between a and b in terms of t, and show that it lies on the
parabola y = 2x2 − 1.
Calculus Chapter 1 5

Radian measure
At school angles are measured in degrees, and 360◦ make one complete revolution because
the ancient Babylonians thought that there were 360 days in a year (i.e. one complete
revolution of the seasons). We introduce a more natural unit for measuring angles, called
the radian.

r s
Α°
r

Figure 1.1. Radian measure

Consider a sector with angle α◦ drawn in a circle of radius r, as shown in Figure 1.1.
Clearly the arc length s is proportional to the angle α. For an angle of 360◦ we have
s = 2πr, since this is the entire circumference. Hence for an angle α◦ we have s =
α πα
360 (2πr) =180 r.
The πα
ratio rs = 180 is called the radian measure θ of the angle α◦ . In other words,

arc length
radian measure = ,
radius
s
.˙. θ = ,
r
.˙. s = rθ
.˙. arc length = radius × angle in radians.

πα
Since θ = 180 , we can convert between degrees and radians as follows:

πα
α◦ = 180 radians
.˙. 180◦ = π radians.

180 ◦


It follows that 1 radian = π ≈ 57, 2957795◦ .
Radian measure is used for all scientific work, and it is important to become familiar
with it, especially the standard angles:

π π π π
360◦ = 2π 180◦ = π 90◦ = 2 60◦ = 3 45◦ = 4 30◦ = 6.

The area of a sector is also proportional to the angle. For a sector with angle 360◦
(the entire circle), the area is πr2 . In other words, a sector with angle 2π radians has
 6 MATH1041

area πr2 , and by simple proportion we see that a sector with angle θ radians has area
θ 2
2π (πr ) = 21 r2 θ. It follows that

Area of sector = 12 r2 θ.

Tutorial questions — Radian measure

D 3. (a) Express in radians: 45◦ , 60◦ , 70◦ , 30◦ , 90◦ , 162◦ .
5π 7π π π
(b) Express in degrees: 4 , 3 , 10 , 18 , 2, 4, 5.

D 4. Find the arc lengths and areas of the sectors with

1
(a) angle 20◦ and radius 2 (b) angle 2 radian and radius 4.

D 5. The total perimeter of a sector is 2. Find an expression for its area in terms of
(a) its radius (b) its angle.

r R-r
Θ
x

Figure 1.2. Pulleys and belt

D 6. A belt connects pulleys of diameter 2r and 2R with centres x apart, as illustrated in

√
Figure 1.2. If r = 20 mm, R = 120 mm, and x = 100 2 mm, find the length L of the
belt and the area of the region it encloses. Find a general expression for L in terms of
R−r
r, R, x, and θ, and note that cos θ = x .

T 7. A cone with base radius r, vertical height h and slant height l has its curved surface slit
and flattened out into a sector with radius l and angle θ. By comparing the arc length
of this sector with the circumference of the base of the cone, show that lθ = 2πr, and
deduce, by calculating the area of the sector, that the curved surface area of the cone
is πrl.
 Calculus Chapter 1 7

Figure 1.3. Goat in square field

D 8. A goat is tied by a rope of length r metres to the corner of a square field with sides of
length 100 m, as shown in Figure 1.3. Find r if the goat is able to reach exactly half
the grass in the field.
Hx,

r
y

Θ
O x

Figure 1.4. Cartesian and polar co-ordinates

Trigonometric functions
To reach the point with cartesian co-ordinates (x, y) from the origin, we must move hori-
zontally x units (to the left or right according to the sign of x), and vertically y units (up
or down according to the sign of y). A more direct approach is to say that from the origin
we must rotate through an angle θ until we are facing in the right direction, and then move
a certain (positive) distance r. This is illustrated in Figure 1.4. The numbers r and θ are
called the polar co-ordinates of the point. We shall study them in more detail later.
The convention for measuring angles of rotation is
• we start from the direction of the positive x axis,
• the units are radians,
• the positive direction is anti-clockwise.
π
Note that the point is in the first quadrant for θ between 0 and 2, in the second quadrant
π 3π
for θ between 2 and π, in the third quadrant for θ between π and 2 , and in the fourth
3π
quadrant for θ between 2 and 2π. Angles between 0 and 2π make up one full revolution,
8 MATH1041

but there is no objection to angles greater than 2π (which represent anti-clockwise rotations
of more than one full revolution) or to negative angles (which represent clockwise rotations).
Hx2 ,y2 L

r2 Hx1 ,y1 L
y2
y1
r1
Θ x1
O x2

Figure 1.5. Trigonometric functions

x
Now suppose θ is fixed. By similar triangles (i.e. simple proportion) the ratios r and
y
r are also fixed, i.e. in Figure 1.5

x1 x2 y1 y2
= and = .
r1 r2 r1 r2

These constant ratios define the values of the fundamental trigonometric or circular func-
tions cosine and sine for that value of θ. That is,

x
cos θ = or x = r cos θ
r
y
sin θ = or y = r sin θ.
r

In particular, if P (x, y) is a point on the unit circle (i.e. the circle with centre at
the origin and radius 1), then r = 1, so x = cos θ and y = sin θ. Thus P is the point
(cos θ, sin θ), or

cos θ is the horizontal co-ordinate and sin θ is the vertical co-ordinate

of the point on the unit circle with angle θ. This definition works for all values of θ,
including those greater than 2π or less than 0.
The other trigonometric functions are defined in terms of cos and sin, viz

sin θ cos θ 1 1
tan θ = , cot θ = , sec θ = , cosec θ = .
cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ

The only one of these with a natural geometric interpretation is

tan θ = slope of OP.

Calculus Chapter 1 9

2 √
2 √ 3
2
π/4 π/3
√
2 1
Figure 1.6. Standard triangles
From the standard triangles, illustrated in Figure 1.6, we obtain the values of the
π π π
trigonometric functions of 6, 4, and 3. These should be learnt, as they occur frequently.
Many of the properties of cos and sin (and hence of the other trigonometric functions
as well) can be derived from the definition and a quick sketch, with a small positive angle
θ.
cos(θ + π) = − cos θ sin(θ + π) = − sin θ
(Adding π to the angle corresponds to rotating through an extra half a revolution, so we
obtain a diametrically opposite point.)
cos(θ + 2π) = cos θ sin(θ + 2π) = sin θ
(Adding 2π to the angle corresponds to rotating through an extra full revolution, so we
obtain the same point again.)
cos(−θ) = cos θ sin(−θ) = − sin θ
(Changing the sign of the angle corresponds to rotating in the opposite direction, i.e.
reflecting the point in the x axis, which leaves x unchanged, but changes the sign of y.)
cos(π − θ) = − cos θ sin(π − θ) = sin θ.
(Subtracting the angle from π corresponds to reflecting the point in the y axis, which
changes the sign of x only.)
Since P (cos θ, sin θ) is a general point on the unit circle, which has equation x2 + y 2 = 1,
it follows that
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1.

If we divide this identity by cos2 θ or sin2 θ, then we obtain the identities

1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ and cot2 θ + 1 = cosec2 θ.

The general addition formulae, however, must be learnt (without proof):

cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B

sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B.
 10 MATH1041

If we put A = B, then we get the double angle formulae

cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A = 2 cos2 A − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 A and sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A.

Trigonometric equations can be solved by manipulating them into one of the forms

cos θ = cos α or sin θ = sin α or tan θ = tan α,

where α is known from a standard triangle or by using a calculator. (There is no need to

use a “reference angle” when the right hand side of the equation is negative. The calculator
will always give one correct solution, and the general solution can be obtained from it.)
The solution can then be written down from the definition and a sketch (the points defined
by θ and α have the same horizontal co-ordinate or vertical co-ordinate or slope to the
origin). The general solution of

cos θ = cos α is θ = ±α + 2nπ,

sin θ = sin α is θ = α + 2nπ or θ = π − α + 2nπ,
tan θ = tan α is θ = α + nπ.

Tutorial questions — Trigonometric functions

D 9. (a) Find tan θ if 9 sin2 θ − cos2 θ = 7. (Divide through by cos2 θ.)
(b) If m = sec θ + p tan θ and n = p sec θ + tan θ, prove that m2 − n2 = 1 − p2 .
D 10. In Figure 1.7, O is the origin, P is the point (1, 0), angles OP Q, ORP , and RP S are
right angles, and RS k OP . Express the co-ordinates of Q, R, and S in terms of α.
Q
R S

Α
O P

Figure 1.7. Illustration for Question 10

T 11. Use double angle formulae to prove the identities

2 tan A 1 − tan2 A 2 tan A

sin 2A = , cos 2A = , tan 2A = .
1 + tan2 A 1 + tan2 A 1 − tan2 A

Hence show that if t = tan 12 θ, then

2t 1 − t2 2t
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ = .
1 + t2 1 + t2 1 − t2
 Calculus Chapter 1 11

D 12. Using the previous question, or otherwise, prove that (t2 + 1)2 = (t2 − 1)2 + (2t)2 . By
substituting t = 2, 32 , and other simple rational numbers (and then clearing fractions),
find the familiar Pythagorean triples, and some new ones, perhaps.
T 13. Derive the following identities from the addition formulae for sin and cos.

sin A cos B = 21 {sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)}

sin A sin B = 12 {− cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)}
cos A cos B = 21 {cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)}
tan A + tan B
tan(A + B) = .
1 − tan A tan B

T 14. Derive the following identities by putting C = A + B and D = A − B (and expressing

A and B in terms of C and D):

sin C + sin D = 2 sin 21 (C + D) cos 12 (C − D)

sin C − sin D = 2 cos 21 (C + D) sin 12 (C − D)
cos C + cos D = 2 cos 21 (C + D) cos 12 (C − D)
cos C − cos D = −2 sin 21 (C + D) sin 21 (C − D).

D 15. (a) Using Question 13, prove that cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ. (Hint: 3θ = 2θ + θ.) Derive
a similar formula for sin 3θ in terms of sin θ.
(b) Express cos4 θ and sin4 θ cos2 θ in terms of cosines of multiples of θ.
tan 3A 2 cos 2A + 1
(c) Prove that = .
tan A 2 cos 2A − 1
D 16. Find the general solutions of the following equations. (There is no need to express sines
or cosines of multiple angles as powers.)
(a) cos 4x = sin 2x (hint: sin 2x = cos( π2 − 2x)) (b) cos 3x = sin 2x
(c) sin 3θ − sin θ = cos 2θ (d) sin2 3x − sin2 x = sin2 2x.
The following equations have solutions that are not standard angles. Use a calculator
(in radian mode) to find the solutions to 4 decimal places.
1
(e) 3 cos 3x = 1 (f) sin 3θ − sin θ = 2 cos 2θ (g) 3 + 5 cos θ + 6 cos 2θ = 0.
D 17. Find all the solutions between 0 and 2π of the equations
√
(a) cos 2θ − 7 cos θ − 3 = 0 (b) 3 sec2 θ = 4 tan θ (c) 3 cos 2θ − 2 cos θ + 2 = 0.

Answers
1. (a) f (−1) = 3, f (a) = a2 − a + 1, f (x + ∆x) = x2 − x + 1 + ∆x(2x + ∆x − 1).
y+2
(b) g(y) = 3y−1 , g(3) = 85 , g(a + b) = a+b+2
3a+3b−1 ,g(x + ∆x) = x+∆x+2
3(x+∆x)−1 .
12 MATH1041

(c) h( x1 ) = 1−x 1
1+x , h(x) = x+1
x−1 , h(−x) = x+1
x−1 .
x+2 1+x
(d) 3x−1 (same as g(x)) and 1−x .
1
2. 2 (t + t−1 , 21 (t2 + t−2 ).
7π 9π 360 ◦ 720 ◦ 900 ◦
3. (a) π4 , π
3, 18 ,
π
6,
π
2, 10 . (b) 225◦ , 420◦ , 18◦ , 10◦ , π , π , π .
2π 2π
4. (a) s = 9 , A= 9 . (b) s = 2, A = 4.
2θ
5. (a) r(1 − r). (b) (θ+2)2 .
6. L = 10(19π + 20), A = 100(109π + 140). L = 2[rθ + x sin θ + R(π − θ)].
q
8. r = 100 π2 .
9. tan θ = ±2.
10. Q(1, tan α), R(cos2 α, cos α sin α), S(1 + cos2 α, cos α sin α).
12. t = 2 : 3, 4, 5, t = 23 : 5, 12, 13, t=4: 8, 15, 17.
15. (a) sin 3θ = 3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ.(b) 18 (3 + 4 cos 2θ + cos 4θ);
1 1
16 (1− cos 2θ − cos 4θ + cos 2θ cos 4θ) = 32 (2 − cos 2θ − 2 cos 4θ + cos 6θ).
π
16. (a) x = 12 + n π3 , x = − π4 + nπ.(b) x = 10 π
+ n 2π π π
5 , x = − 2 + 2nπ.(c) θ = ± 4 + nπ,
θ = π6 + 2nπ, θ = 5π6 + 2nπ. (d) x = n π2 , x = ± π6 + nπ. (e) x = ±0, 4103 + k 2π
3 .
(f) θ = ± π4 + kπ, θ = 0, 2527 + 2kπ, θ = 2, 8889 + 2kπ. (g) θ = ±2, 4189 + 2kπ,
θ = ±1, 2310 + 2kπ.
17. (a) θ = 2π3 ,
4π
3 . (b) θ = π6 , π3 , 7π
6 ,
4π
3 .
(c) θ = 0, 9177; 1, 8486; 4, 4346; 5, 3655.