BNMIT, Bangalore Engg.

Physics (18PHY12/22) Study Material

MODULE 1: OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

Introduction:

Periodic Motion:
The motion of a body is said to be periodic when it describes the same path in the
same way again and again at regular intervals of time.
In periodic motion, a body can be repeatedly moving back and forth (i.e oscillatory)
or it could be moving in a circular orbit or rotation.
Examples:
i) The motion of earth round the Sun.
ii) The motion of moon round the earth.
iii) The motion of hands of a clock.
iv) The motion of pendulum of a clock.
v) The motion of piston in the cylinder of an engine.
Here i), ii) and iii) are examples of periodic and rotational. iv) and v) are examples of
periodic and oscillatory.

Note: All periodic motions are not oscillatory (examples: i, ii & iii) but all oscillatory
motions are periodic (examples: iv & v) without damping.

Time period (T):

Time taken by a body to complete one specific path in periodic motion is called time period
and is represented by ‘T’.

Frequency (f):
The number of specific paths completed by a body in periodic motion in one second is
called frequency and is represented by f. It is the reciprocal of time period i.e. f =1/T

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM):

Definition:
SHM is a particular type of oscillatory motion along a linear path in which acceleration of the
body is directly proportional to its displacement from a fixed point and is always directed
towards the fixed point.

Explanation:
In SHM, always there is a restoring force, which makes the body to come back to its fixed
point again and again. This force is also proportional to displacement and directed towards
fixed point like acceleration.
If ‘F’ is the force and ‘y’ is the displacement then F is proportional to y
i.e. F = - k y
where ‘k’ is a constant and is called force constant. ‘k’ is defined as restoring force per unit
displacement and its S.I. unit is Nm-1. –ve sign indicates that force and displacement are
always opposite to each other in SHM.

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Examples of SHM:

i) Sounds waves are in SHM. The medium in which sound wave is propagating is
always under the influence of restoring force due to pressure difference
(Compressions and rare fractions)
ii) To and fro motion of a body attached to one end of a spring, which is fixed at another
end is SHM.

Spring Body
Spring
Frictionless surface
Horizontal vibrations Body

Vertical vibrations

iii) Vibrations of atoms in a metal about their mean position.

iv) The motion of an understand pendulum approximates to SHM if the angle of
oscillation is small.
v) The motion of piston of a cylinder is SHM (suspension system).

Characteristics of SHM:

i) SHM is periodic and oscillatory.

ii) In SHM, when a body displace from mean position, a restoring force directly
proportional to displacement which is directed towards mean position acts on the
body.
iii) In SHM energy is conserved.
iv) In SHM is amplitude is constant with time.
v) SHM can be represented by simple SINE or COSINE functions.
vi) In SHM velocity is maximum at mean position and minimum (equal to zero) at
extreme position.
vii) In SHM acceleration is maximum at extreme position and minimum at mean position.
viii) In SHM kinetic energy is maximum at mean position and minimum (zero) at extreme
position.
ix) In SHM potential energy is maximum at maximum position and minimum at mean
position.

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Differential Equation for SHM (Derivation):
Simple harmonic motion can be considered as to and fro motion of projection of a
particle on any of the diameter moving in uniform circular motion on any diameter.
𝑌

N P
y
𝑋′ θ = ωt 𝑋

𝑌′
In the above figure, consider a particle of mass ‘m’ is moving along the
circumference of a circle with angular speed ‘ω’. ‘O’ is the center of the circle. When
particle is at ‘P’, its projection on diameter 𝑌 − 𝑌 ′ is at N. when particle moves from 𝑋 −
𝑌, projection moves from 𝑂 − 𝑌; when particle moves from 𝑌 − 𝑋 ′ , projection moves
from 𝑌 − 𝑂; when particle moves from 𝑋 ′ − 𝑌 ′ , projection moves from 𝑂 − 𝑌 ′ ; and when
particle moves from 𝑌 ′ − 𝑋, projection moves from 𝑌 ′ − 𝑂. Thus, for one complete
uniform circular motion of a particle, projection on diameter 𝑌 − 𝑌 ′ executes SHM.
BNMIT, Bangalore Engg. Physics (18PHY12/22) Study Material

Solutions for Differential Equation for SHM:

The solution of the above equation is of the form (eqn (3))
(4)
Where A and B are arbitrary constants
Let us set
(5)
Where ‘a’ is amplitude of SHM and ‘φ’ is the initial phase/epoch of SHM.
From eqn (5) it is clear that

Eqn (4) can be written as

(6)
Eqn (6) is the solution of differential eqn (3) i.e. SHM.

Complex Number Representation of SHM:

Consider SHM represented by the equation
(1)
Where ‘x’ is displacement along x-axis in SHM, ‘a’ is amplitude of SHM, ‘ω’ is angular
frequency and φ is initial phase.
Consider

(2)
Using eqn (2), eqn (1) can be written as

i.e.
(3)
Eqn (3) is the complex number representation of SHM represented by eqn (1).
If SHM is represented by the equation
(4)
Where all the terms have their usual meaning
Using eqn (2) , eqn (4) can be written as

i.e.
(5)
Equation (5) is the complex number representation of SHM.

Phasor Representation of SHM:

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BNMIT, Bangalore Engg. Physics (18PHY12/22) Study Material

An oscillating quantity can be represented by a vector rotating in phase space with an

angular velocity equal to angular frequency of the original trigonometric function and is
called “PHASOR”.
In phasor representation magnitude of rotating vector gives amplitude of oscillating
quantity. The projection of the phasor onto an axis at a specific time gives the value of the
quantity at that time. This representation is used in SHM.
Consider two SHM equations given by and
where A and B are amplitudes of two SHMs (let A > B). ϕ and φ are intra phases of two
SHMs (let ϕ > φ).
The two equations given by and can be represented in phasor diagrams as
shown below.

ϕB
φ
O

Phasor representation of SHM

Mechanical Simple Harmonic Oscillator: Mass suspended by a spring (vertical

vibrations):
Definition:
Mechanical simple harmonic oscillator is an oscillating system driven by mechanical
restoring force.

Example:
Consider a mass suspended by a spring, whose other end is fixed
as shown in below figure which executes vertical vibrations, when body is
pulled by impulsive force.
Spring
If ‘m’ is the mass of body attached to the spring and ‘k’ is force
constant/spring constant, the time period ‘T’ of these vibrations is
given by Body

Vertical vibrations
The frequency of oscillations v is given by

Force Constant (k):

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Definition:
Force constant ‘k’ is defined as restoring force per unit displacement.
The S.I unit of ‘k’ is Nm-1.
For a spring system, ‘k’ is called spring constant.

Significance of k:
Spring constant ‘k’ is a measure of stiffness of spring. In molecular vibrations, it represents
stiffness of chemical bond.

Series and Parallel Combination of Springs (Expression for Spring Constant)

1. Series Combination of two Springs:

Consider two springs of spring constants k1 and k2 connected in series as shown in below
figure.
Example: suspension systems in cars.
When springs are connected in series, any force applied to the
combination gets applied to each spring without change in magnitude. But, K1
extensions produced are different in two springs as spring constants are
different. Let x1 is the extension in first spring and x2 is the extension in
the second spring.
Then K2
(1)
But
Load

(2)
If FL is the restoring force on load, keq is the equivalent force constant then

Because is net displacement

(3)
But
Eqn (3) becomes

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BNMIT, Bangalore Engg. Physics (18PHY12/22) Study Material

(4)

Eqn (4) gives effective force constant when two springs are in series.
In general if ‘n’ springs are in series
(5)

2. Parallel Combination of two Springs:

Consider two springs of springs constants k1 and k2 connected in parallel as shown in below
figure.
When springs are connected in parallel, force on the load is the sum of
individual forces, but extension produced in both springs is same
(i.e. ) K1 K2
Restoring Force on load is
(1)
Where and are forces on springs 1 and 2 respectively.
But
(2)
Since

(3)
Eqn (3) gives effective force constant when two springs are in parallel.
For ‘n’ springs in parallel

Free Oscillations:
Definition:
The oscillations of a body or a system with its natural frequency and under no external
influence other than the impulse that intiated the motion are called ‘Force oscillations’.

Examples:

1. Oscillations of a spring with frequency

2. Oscillations of simple pendulum with frequency

3. Vibrations of tuning fork etc.
Equation of Motion for Free Oscillations:

Equation of motion for free oscillations is given by

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BNMIT, Bangalore Engg. Physics (18PHY12/22) Study Material

Where , k is a force constant and m is mass of body

Natural Frequency of Vibrations:

Definition:
The frequency with which a body vibrates freely on its own is called Natural Frequency of
Vibration. Natural Frequency of Vibration of a body depends on mass, dimensions and its
elastic properties.

Examples:
1. Simple pendulum has natural frequency

2. Spring – mass system has natural frequency

3. LCR circuit has natural frequency

where all terms have their usual meanings.

Note: if no resistance is offered to the motion of vibrating body by any source such as air
friction or internal forces, the body will keep on vibrating indefinitely and such vibrations are
called free vibrations. In practice it is not possible to eliminate friction completely. In above
examples friction/internal forces are less and can be considered as free vibrations. For free
vibrations amplitude remains constant.

Damped Oscillations:
Definition:
The oscillations of a body in which the amplitude keeps on decreasing because of frictional
resistance to the motion and hence the oscillations die out after some time are called Damped
oscillations.
In this case the motion of the body is said to be damped by friction. The friction arises
mostly from air resistance or internal forces.

Examples:
i) Mechanical oscillations of a simple pendulum.
ii) Electrical oscillations in an LC – circuit.
iii) A swing left free to oscillate after being pushed once etc.

Theory of Damped Oscillations: (Derivation of Expression of Decaying Amplitude)

When a body executes damped oscillations, it is subjected to

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i) A restoring force, F = -k y, where k is force constant and y is the displacement.

ii) A frictional force, proportional to velocity, but oppositely directed and given by
where ‘r’ is frictional force per unit velocity.

By Newtons’s 2nd law we know that

(1)
Where ‘ ’ is acceleration and m is the mass of oscillating body.

But

(2)
From eqns (1) and (2) we get

Divide by ‘ ’ on both sides

(3)
Where and and ‘b’ is damping constant and ‘ω’ is angular frequency of
oscillating body.
Eqn (3) is differential eqn of 2nd order. Let the solution of eqn (3) is of the form

(4)
Where ‘A’ and ‘α’ are arbitrary constants
Differentiating eqn (3) twice we get

Substituting values in eqn (3) we get

Divide by we get

This is a quadratic equation in α and roots are

Therefore eqn (4) becomes

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In general we can write

(5)

Eqn (5) is the expression for decaying amplitude in case of damped oscillations.

Different Cases of Damping:

Case 1: Over Damping

When in eqn (5), is real and less than the value of ‘b’. In this case, both
the exponential terms in eqn (5) are negative. Thus the displacement consists of two terms,
both dying out (decreasing) exponentially to zero without performing any oscillations as
shown in figure below.

t
In this case, the rate of decrease of ‘y’ is governed by the term as the other
term which is more negative reduced to zero quickly relative to it (other term means
). This type of motion is called as over damping.

Thus over damping is the condition in which restoring and resistive forces acting on a body
are such that, the body is brought to a halt at the equilibrium position without oscillation.

Example: The motion of a pendulum in thick oil.

Case 2: Critical Damping

When , the eqn (5) becomes

This solution mathematically does not satisfy eqn (3).

Consider , but where h tends to zero.
Then eqn (5) becomes

(6)
where and
Eqn (6) represents the possible solution.

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From eqn (6) it is clear that, as ‘t’ increases, the factor (p + qt) increases, but the factor
decreases. In this way ‘y’ increases due to (p + qt) and decreases due to But the effect
of is very large compared to (p + qt) because of its exponential nature.
Further in this case, the exponential term is –bt while in case of over damping it is
.–bt is more negative compared to , hence in this case
particle tends to acquire its position of equilibrium much more rapidly than in case of over
damping. Such a motion is called critical damped motion.

Thus critical damping is the condition in which the restoring and resistive forces acting on
a body are such that, the body is brought to a halt at the equilibrium position without
oscillation in the minimum time.

Examples: i) pointer instruments such as voltmeters, ammeters etc in which the pointer
moves to the correct position and comes to rest without any oscillation.
ii) Shock absorbers in cars are designed to give critical damping.

Case 3: Under Damping

When , In this case is imaginary.
Let
Where
Eqn (5) becomes

where (7)

where is the amplitude of undamped oscillator.

This equation represents SHM with amplitude and time period

(8)

In this case the amplitude of motion is continuously decreasing owing to the term which
is called damping factor. Since sine function varies between +1 to -1, amplitude also varies
between . This type of motion is called under damping motion and is
shown in below figure.
y

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Thus under damping is the condition in which the restoring and resistive forces acting on a
body are such that the body vibrates with diminishing amplitude as the time progresses and
ultimately comes to a halt at the equilibrium position.

Examples:
i) Oscillations of a simple pendulum in air
ii) The motion of ballistic galvanometer
iii) Electric oscillations of LCR circuit

Quality Factor (Q):

Definition:
The quality factor ‘Q’ is defined as 2π times the ratio of the energy stored in the system to the
energy lost per period.

Where ‘P’ is the power dissipated and ‘T’ is time period

Where is angular frequency and is relaxation time at which A = A0/e.

But

This equation indicates that for low damping (i.e. for low b), the quality factor is higher.

Significance of Q: The quality factor signifies how much under damped is the oscillating
system.

Forced Oscillations:
Definition:
The oscillations in which the body oscillates with a frequency other than its natural frequency
under the influence of an external periodic force are called Forced Oscillations.
Forced oscillations exist as long as there is an external periodic force. It external force is
removed, these oscillations die out.

Examples:
i) Vibrations of a bridge under the influence of marching soldiers.
ii) Vibrations of a tuning fork when exposed to the periodic force of sound waves.
iii) The periodic vibration of current in an LCR circuit driven by an AC source.
iv) The motion of diaphragm in a telephone receiver or a loud speaker and etc...

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Theory of Forced Vibrations: (Derivation of expression for amplitude and phase of

forced vibrations)
When a body executes forced oscillations, there are three forces acting on it, namely
i) a restoring force (-ky)
ii) a frictional force ( ) and
iii) the external periodic force represented by Fsin(pt)
where F is the maximum force and ‘p’ is angular frequency of applied periodic force.

Therefore net force F is

(1)
But, by Newton’s II law

(2)
From eqns (1) and (2) we get

Divide by ‘m’ on both sides

(3)
Where , and
Eqn (3) is the differential equation of 2nd order for a particle executing forced oscillations
The solution of eqn (3) is of the form

(4)
Where ‘A’ is steady state amplitude and ‘θ’ is the angle by which the displacement ‘y’ lags
behind the applied force .
Differentiating eqn (4) twice we get

Substituting , and y values in eqn (3) we get

Comparing the coefficients of and on both sides we get

(5)
(6)

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Squaring and adding (5) and (6) we get

(7)

Eqn (7) gives the expression for steady state amplitude of a body under the influence of
periodic force.
Eqn (6) divided by eqn (5) gives

(8)

Equation (8) gives the phase lag between displacement ‘y’ and periodic force .

Different Cases in Forced Vibrations:

Depending on the values of p (applied frequency) and ω (natural frequency of the body), the
following three cases are possible.

Case 1: When p << ω

In this case amplitude becomes i.e. independent
of applied frequency

(when ‘p’ is small p2 tends to zero)

The phase angle ‘θ’ becomes

i.e. θ = 0 (⸪ when p is small, and

when p << ω, amplitude of vibration ‘A’ is independent of p and depends only on ‘f’. Also F
and ω are in phase (i.e. θ = 0).

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Case 2: when p = ω
In this case amplitude

And phase angle

Thus when frequency of applied force ‘p’ is equal to natural frequency ‘ω’ of a body, then
amplitude depends on b and p, and displacement ‘y’ lags behind force by .

Case 3: when p >> ω

In this case amplitude ‘A’ becomes (Because p2 is
negligible compared to p4)
i.e.

The phase angle ‘θ’ is given by

Since ‘p’ is large

Thus when applied frequency very large compared to natural frequency of body, then
amplitude decreases with increase in p and phase angle tends to π.

Resonance:
Definition:
The phenomenon of making a body to oscillate with its natural frequency under the influence
of external periodic force of same frequency is called Resonance.
At resonance the amplitude of vibration of the body becomes maximum.
Examples:
1. Tuning of a radio when the natural frequency is so adjusted by moving the knob of the
receiver set equal to the frequency of radio waves, the resonance takes place and the
incoming sound waves can be heard after amplification.
2. Musical instruments can be made to vibrate by bringing then in contact with
vibrations which have the frequency equal to natural frequency of the instruments.
3. Soldiers crossing a suspension bridge are prohibited to march in steps and are advised
to march on the suspension bridges out of steps so as to avoid resonance between
natural frequency of the bridge and frequency of steps of soldiers, which may cause
the collapse of the bridge.
4. Tacoma bridge collapse situated in Washington state in 1940 is initially believed to be
due to resonance of bridge vibrations with blowing wind etc…

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Condition for Resonance:

We know that amplitude of vibration in case of force vibrations is given by

(1)

At resonance ‘A’ is maximum.

From above equation (1), A is maximum when is minimum.

Divided by on both sides

(2)
Equation (2) is the condition for Resonance. This frequency ‘p’ is also called resonant
angular frequency.
But
where fr is linear resonance frequency and b is damping constant

Substituting eqn (2) in eqn (1) we get the expression for maximum amplitude as

Sharpness of Resonance:
Definition:
The rate of fall in amplitude with change of applied frequency on either side of resonant
frequency is called Sharpness of Resonance.
We know that amplitude is maximum when . If the frequency changes
from this value, the amplitude falls. When the fall in amplitude for a small departure from the
resonance frequency is very large, the resonance is said to be sharp. On the other hand if the
fall in amplitude is small, the resonance is said to be flat.

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Effect of Damping on Sharpness:

Below figure shows the variation of amplitude with applied frequency ‘p’ at different
amounts of damping (b).

(1)
1) No damping b=0
2) Low damping
(2)
(Sharpe Resonance)
(3) 3) High damping
(flat Resonance)

p
Curve (1) shows the amplitude when there is no damping (i.e. b = 0). In this case amplitude
becomes infinite at resonance. In practice this case is never attained due to
frictional resistances as slight damping is always possible.
Curves (1) and (2) show the effect of damping ‘b’ on amplitude. It is observed that peak of
the curve moves towards shorter frequency as the damping increases and amplitude
decreases.
For smaller values of b, the fall in curve about resonance is steeper than for large values.
Hence smaller is the damping sharper is the resonance or larger is the damping, flatter is the
resonance.

Helmholtz Resonator (Construction, Working and Applications):

Helmholtz resonator works on the principle of mechanical resonance.
Construction:
It consists of rigid container of known volumes nearly spherical in shape, with a small
neck and hole in one end (end A) and a large hole in the other end to emit the sound (end B)
as shown in figure below.

Working:
When air is forced into a cavity through hole ‘B’, the pressure inside increases. When the
external force pushing air into the cavity is removed, higher pressure inside the container
flows out. Due to inertia of moving air, the cavity/container will be left at a pressure slowly
lower than outside causing air to be drawn back in. This process repeats with the magnitude
of the pressure oscillations increasing and decreasing asymptotically after the sound starts
and stops, the neck of the container is placed in the external part of the ear allowing the
experimentalists to hear the sound and determine its loudness. The resonant mass of air is set

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in motion through the second larger hole which does not have a neck. Resonant frequency of
Helmholtz resonator is given by

Where ratio of specific heats

A --- area of cross section of the neck
M --- mass of air in the neck
and are static pressure and volume respectively in the container.

Applications:
1. It is used to analyse the quality of musical notes.
2. Vehicle exhausts to alter the sound of the exhaust/to reduce noise.
3. Used in architectural acoustics etc.

SHOCK WAVES:
Mach number (M):
Mach number ‘M’ is defined as the ratio of speed of an object through a fluid to the speed of
sound in the same fluid.
If ‘V’ is the velocity of object through a fluid and ‘ is the velocity of sound in the
fluid, the Mach number M is given by

Mach number gives a measure of how fast a body is moving with respect to the speed of
sound. Mach number has no unit and is a dimensionless quantity. It is named after Austrian
physicist Ernst Mach. In aerodynamics speed of objects are classified into different categories
based on Mach number. It is a very important quantity in compressible flow theory where
density of the fluid changes.

Note: Speed of sound ‘ ’ in a gas medium at a temperature T is given by

= (Because P = RT)
Where is the ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and constant volume, and
R is specific gas constant. Specific gas constant is the ratio of universal gas constant
and molar mass of the gas.
i.e. R = Universal gas constant/Molar mass
For dry air R = 287 Jkg-1K-1.

Subsonic, Supersonic, Transonic and Hypersonic speeds of objects:

Subsonic Speed:
The objects are said to be moving with Subsonic speed, if the speed of object in a fluid is
less than that of sound. For bodies moving with subsonic speeds Mach number is less than
one (M<1). Generally, in this case M lies between 0.3 and 0.8 (0.3<M<0.8).

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For a body moving with subsonic speed, the sound emitted by it move ahead and away from
the body since it is faster than the body (fig).
Example: The speeds of motor cars or trains, Speed of flight of birds, aircraft etc.

Fig.: Subsonic Flight (V< )

Supersonic Speed:
The objects are said to be moving with Supersonic speed, if the speed of object in a fluid is
more than that of sound. For bodies moving with supersonic speeds Mach number is greater
than one (M>1). Generally, in this case M lies between 1.2 and 5.0 (1.2<M<5.0).

A body moving with supersonic speed, moves ahead by crossing its own sound curtain,
leaving behind a series of expanding sound waves with their centers displaced continuously
along its trajectory (Fig.).
Example: Fighter jets, missiles etc.

Fig. : Supersonic Flight (V> )

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Transonic Speed:
The objects are said to be moving with Transonic speed, if the speed of object in a fluid is
such that Mach number lies between 0.8 and 1.2 (0.8<M<1.2).
Example: The outflows or jets from young stellar objects or disks around black holes are
transonic

Hypersonic Speed:
The objects are said to be moving with Hypersonic speed, if the speed of object in a fluid is
such that Mach number is greater than 5 (M>5).
Example: X-51A Wave rider – unmanned research experimental aircraft for hypersonic
flight, HyperSoar – a rapid-strike hypersonic weapon system (UK), WU-14 (DF-ZF) –
Chinese experimental hypersonic glide vehicle etc.

Note 1: If Mach number is less than 0.3 (M<0.3), there are very small changes in density that
can be neglected. Hence the flow of fluid in this case is considered to be incompressible.
Note 2: For all other cases (M>0.3) flow is compressible.

Description of a Shock Wave:

A Shock wave is a type of propagating disturbance. Like an ordinary wave, it carries

energy and can propagate through a medium (solid, liquid, gas or plasma) at higher speed.
Shock waves are characterized by an abrupt, nearly discontinuous change in the
characteristics of the medium. Across a shock wave there is always an extremely rapid rise in
pressure, temperature and density of the flow [Note that ordinary waves or sound waves
cause gradual, small and continuous changes in pressure, temperature and density of the
flow in contrary to shock wave].
Shock waves can be generated during a sudden release of large amount of energy such
as during an explosion or lightning strike. Also shock waves are produced by objects moving
through a medium at supersonic speeds.Though a shock wave itself cannot be heard, we hear
a booming sound as the velocity of object increases from subsonic to supersonic. It is called
‘sonic boom’.

Definition of Shock wave:

As the shock wave is formulated, it becomes a distinct surface constituted by the
medium itself. In aerodynamics, shock wave is defined in technical terms as follows;
“A shock wave is a surface that displays as a discontinuity in a fluid medium in
which it is propagating with supersonic speed’.

Properties of shock waves:

1. They travels in a medium with Mach number greater than one (M>1).
2. Shock waves satisfy the laws of fluid dynamics.
3. The effects caused by shock waves result in increase in entropy.
4. Shock waves exist in the medium of propagation confined to a very thin space of thickness
not exceeding 1μm.
5. Shock waves result in enormous increase in pressure, temperature and density of the
medium where it is created. Etc.

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Control volume:
Control volume is a model on the basis of which the shock waves are analysed. It is an
imaginary thin envelope that surround the shock wave / shock front within which there is a
sharp increase in the pressure, temperature and density in the compressed medium.
Control volume is a one dimensional confinement in the medium with two surfaces – one on
the pre-shock side and the other one on the post-shock side. Their inter separation is very
small. However, the entire shock is bound between these two surfaces. On the pre-shock side ,
density, slow velocity, internal energy, temperature, enthalpy and pressure are respectively ,
V1, U1, T1, h1 and p1 and on the post-shock side they are respectively , V2, U2, T2, h2 and p2.

Basics of Conservation of Mass, Momentum and Energy:

Fig.: Stationary normal shock wave in a duct

Consider a stationary normal shock wave in a duct as shown in above figure. Let the control
volume be just enough to enclose the shock wave as shown. Suffix 1 is used for quantities at
surface 1 on the upstream side and suffix 2 for quantities at surface 2 on the downstream
side.

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Conservation of Mass:
According to the conservation of mass, the total mass of a system remains constant as mass
can neither be created nor destroyed. Then by conservation of mass, it can be shown that

The above equation represents the principle of conservation of mass and is known as
continuity equation. Where & are densities of fluid on the upstream side & downstream
side of shock wave respectively, and V1& V2 are velocities of fluid on the upstream side &
downstream side of shock wave respectively .

Conservation of Momentum:
According to the conservation of momentum, in a closed system the total momentum remains
constant. Then by conservation of momentum, it can be shown that

The above equation represents the principle of conservation of momentum. Where &
are densities of fluid on the upstream side & downstream side of shock wave respectively,
V1& V2 are velocities of fluid on the upstream side & downstream side of shock wave
respectively and p1& p2 are the pressures on the upstream side & downstream side of shock
wave respectively.
Conservation of Energy:
According to the conservation of energy, in a closed system the total energy remains
constant. Then by conservation of energy, it can be shown that

The above equation represents the principle of conservation of energy. Where h1& h2are
enthalpies of fluid on the upstream side & downstream side of shock wave respectively, V1&
V2 are velocities of fluid on the upstream side & downstream side of shock wave
respectively.

Methods of creating shock waves in the laboratory using a shock tube:

A shock tube is a simple device that is used to generate a shock wave in a controlled
environment. It basically consists of two long tubes separated by a solid metal diaphragm as
shown in below figure. On one side of the diaphragm, a gas is filled to a pressure high
enough to rupture the metal diaphragm, and pressure in the other tube is reduced to a lower
value than atmospheric pressure as required. The side with high pressure is called driver side
and side with low pressure is called driven side. When the diaphragm ruptures due to the high
pressure gas in the driver tube, it generates a shock wave that moves along the length of the
driven tube, thereby increasing the pressure, temperature and density of the driven gas. In a
shock tube, the gas filled in the driven section is called test gas and gas in the driver section is
called driver gas.

Figure: A shock tube

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The following are two types of shock tubes.

Combustion Driven Shock Tube:

In this shock tube, the pressure and temperature of the driver gas is raised instantaneously
with a controlled combustive explosion. The walls of the driver tube are fitted with spark
plugs that initiate the combustion when the experiment is ready.

Free – Piston Driven Shock Tube:

In this shock tube, the pressure and temperature of the driver gas is raised instantaneously by
adiabatic compression. At the back end of driver tube, termed here as ‘compression tube’ a
reservoir is connected. At the junction of the compression tube and reservoir, a heavy piston
is placed. A heavy piston is accelerated into the compression tube containing helium gas by
high pressure air in the reservoir. The piston heats and compresses the helium gas due to
which the diaphragm separating the compression tube and the driven tube ruptures and
creates a shock wave.

Description (Construction and working) of Hand Operated Reddy Shock

Tube:
Reddy tube is a hand operated shock tube capable of producing shock waves using human
energy. It was developed by K.P.J. Reddy and his group at I.I.Sc., Bangalore, India. It is a
class of free-piston driven shock tube.

Construction:
Reddy tube consists of a cylindrical stainless tube of about 30mm diameter and length nearly
1 meter as shown in below figure. The cylindrical tube is divided into two sections each of
length about 0.5m. The section on left side is called driver section filled with a gas called
driver gas and the other one on right side is called driven section filled with a gas called test
gas. The driver section is maintained at high pressure and driven section is maintained at
lower pressure. These two sections are separated by a thin (around 0.1mm thick) aluminium
or mylar or paper diaphragm. The tube has a piston fitted at the far end of the driver section
whereas the far end of driven section is closed. A port is provided at the closed end of the
driven section for filling the test gas to the required pressure.
A digital pressure gas is mounted in the driven section near the diaphragm to measure the
rupture pressure. Two piezoelectric sensors S1 and S2 are mounted 70mm apart towards the
closed end of the shock tube in driven section.

Fig. : Reddy Shock Tube

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Working:
The driver gas is compressed by pushing the piston hard into the driver section until
diaphragm ruptures. Following the diaphragm rupture, the driver gas rushes into the driven
section, and pushes the test gas in it towards the far downstream end. This generates a
moving shock wave that traverses the length of driven section. The primary shock wave
instantaneously raises the temperature and pressure of the test gas as it moves over it. The
propagating primary shock wave is reflected from the downstream end. After the reflection,
the test gas undergoes further compression which raises its temperature and pressure to still
higher values. This state of high values of pressure and temperature is sustained at the
downstream end until an expansion wave reflected from the upstream end of the driver tube
arrives there and neutralises the compression partially. Expansion waves are created at the
instant of diaphragm rupture and travel in a direction opposite to that of the shock wave. The
time period over which the extreme conditions of pressure and temperature at the
downstream end is sustained depends on the properties of driver and test gases, and also on
the dimensions of shock tube. This time is typically of the order of milliseconds. The pressure
rise by primary and reflected shock waves is sensed by sensors S1 and S2 respectively. These
pressures are recorded in terms of voltage on CRO, as S1& S2 are connected to CRO. The
voltage can be converted into pressure by suitable conversion factors. Since millisecond time
scale is involved in the experiment, the rise time of CRO should be a few microseconds i.e.
bandwidth should be 1MHz or more. The shock arrival times can be found out by associated
time base calculations in CRO. Using the data so obtained velocity of shock wave, Mach
number, temperature and pressures can be calculated.

Characteristics of Reddy tube:

1. The Reddy tube operates on the principle of free piston driven shock tube (FPST).
2. It is a hand operated shock producing device.
3. It is capable of producing shock wave of Mach number greater than 1.5.
4. The temperatures exceeding 900K can be easily achieved by using helium as driver
gas and argon as the test gas.
5. The rupture pressure in Reddy tube is a function of thickness of diaphragm.

Applications of Shock Waves:

Shock waves have number of applications in different fields. Few of them are briefly
discussed below.
1. Treatment of dry borewells: Water will be available in borewells when water from
the feeder sources accumulates in the borewell through a number of seepage points
which are porous. Sometimes, such seepage points are blocked by sand particles
obstructing the pores. A shock wave sent through such a dry borewell clears the
blockages and rejuvenates/refreshes the bore well into a water source.
2. Drying of wood in pencil industry: In pencil industry, the wood used for making
pencil is first of all softened by soaking in a polymer at 700C for about three hours
and then dried. Drying of wood takes usually few days. The time required for drying
of wood could be reduced drastically to very short time (few minutes) by passing
shock waves into the liquid containing wood. The liquid gets into the wood almost
instantaneously in the presence of shock waves facilitating rapid drying.

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3. Wood preservation: By using shock waves, chemical preservatives in the form of

solutions could be pushed into the interior of the wood samples such as bamboo. This
is a very fast and efficient method of introducing preservatives into wood. Wood can
withstand the microbial attacks in the presence of preservatives and hence it increases
the lifetime of wood such as bamboo.
4. Kidney stone treatment: Shock wave is used in a therapy called ‘extra-corporal
lithiotripsy’ to smash the kidney stones into smaller fragments, after which they are
passed out of the body smoothly through the urinary tracts.
5. Needleless drug delivery: By using shock waves, drugs can be injected into the body
without using needles. In this method, drug is filled into a cartridge which is kept
pressed on the skin. Then shock wave is sent into the cartridge, which makes drug to
enter the body directly through the porosity of the skin. The typical depth of
penetration is about 100 microns.
6. Gas dynamic studies: The extreme conditions of pressure and temperature that can
be generated in the shock wave, enables the study of high temperature gas dynamics.
The high temperature gas dynamics are important in the study of supersonic motion of
bodies and hypersonic re-entry of space vehicles into the atmosphere.
7. Blast protection materials: Shock waves can be used to study the effect of sudden
impact of pressure on materials. This study could help develop blast protection
materials.
8. Brain injury studies: Shock waves can be used to study traumatic brain injuries,
which could help in diagnosis and treatment of traumatic patients. (Presently this
study is being carried out at NIMHANS, Bangalore).

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Question Bank
Part A: Theory Questions
1. Define SHM. Mention any five examples and characteristics of SHM.
2. Starting from Hooke’s law, derive the differential equation for SHM. Explain the
characteristics of SHM . (VTU Model Question Paper – 2, 2018)
3. Explain the complex number and phasor representation of SHM.
4. What is mechanical simple harmonic oscillator? Explain the mass suspended by a
spring executing vertical oscillations.
5. Define force constant. Mention its SI unit and significance. Obtain the expression for
effective force constant when two springs are in parallel combination.
6. Obtain the expression for effective force constant when two springs are in series
combination.
7. What are free oscillations? Mention any two examples and equation of motion.
8. What are damped oscillations? Derive the expression for decaying amplitude and
hence discuss the case of critical damping – 10 Marks (VTU Model Paper – 2, 2018)
9. What are damped oscillations? Give the theory of damped oscillations and hence
discuss the case of under damping– 10 Marks (VTU Model Question Paper – 1, 2018)
10. Explain the cases of over damping and critical damping.
11. Show that time period of oscillations in case of under damping is given by
, where all the terms have their usual meanings.
12. Define quality factor. Mention its expression and significance.
13. Discus the theory of forced vibrations and hence obtain the expression for amplitude -
10 Marks (VTU Model Question Paper – 1, 2018)

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14. What are forced oscillations? Obtain the expressions for steady state amplitude and
phase angle in case of forced oscillations.
15. Discus the amplitude and phase variations when p<<w, p=w and p>>w in case of
forced vibrations.
16. What is resonance? Give any three examples of resonance. Obtain the condition for
resonance.
17. What is sharpness of resonance? Explain its variation with damping factor.
18. Explain the construction and working of Helmholtz resonator. Mention its
applications.
19. Define Mach number. Mention its significance
20. What are subsonic, supersonic, transonic and hypersonic speeds. Give an example for
each case.
21. What are shock waves? Mention the characteristics of shock waves – 6 Marks (VTU
Model Question Paper – 1, 2018)
22. State and explain laws of conservation of mass, energy and momentum - 6 Marks
(VTU Model Paper – 2, 2018)
23. With a neat diagram explain the construction and working of Reddy tube. Mention
any four applications of shock waves - 10 Marks (VTU Model Question Paper – 2,
2018)
24. Mention the characteristics of Reddy shock tube.

Part B: Numerical Questions (Problems)

1. A particle executes linear simple harmonic along a 8cm path. The particle starts from
a distance of 2cm from its mean position towards the positive maximum. Find the
epoch and phase of motion when the displacement is 4cm. (Answer: Epoch (Φ) = 300,
Phase at y = 2.5cm is (wt+ Φ) = 900).
2. A spring undergoes an extension of 2.5cm for a load of 40g. Find its force constant.
Also calculate angular frequency, frequency and time period if the same spring is set
for vertical oscillations with a load of 100g attached to its bottom. Ignore the mass of
spring.(Answer: K = 15.68Nm-1, w = 12.52 rads-1, f = 2Hz, T = 0.5s)
3. A mass of 10g is attached to a spring of force constant 25Nm-1. This mass spring
system is executing SHM. Find the frequency of the external force which excites
resonance in the system. (Answer: fext = 7.96 Hz, Hint: For resonance external applied
frequency should be equal to natural frequency of the system)
4. A spring of stiffness factor 100Nm-1 is pulled through 9.8cm. Find the restoring force
and calculate the mass which should be applied so as to stretch the spring by the same
amount. (Answer: F = 9.8N, m = 1kg)
5. In solved problem , if k1 = 2000Nm-1, k2 = 1500Nm-1, k3 = 3000Nm-1, k4 = k5 =
500Nm-1. Find the mass m such that natural frequency in each case is 10Hz. (
Answer: f = 0.22kg and0.47kg)
6. An under-damped oscillator has its magnitude reduced to 1/8 times its value after 200
oscillations. If the time period is 4 seconds, calculate damping constant. (Answer:
b=2.6x10-3rads-1)
7. A 10g oscillator with natural angular frequency 20rads-1 is vibrating in damping
medium. The damping force is proportional to the velocity of the vibrator. If the
damping coefficient is 0.27kgs-1, find out whether damping is over damping or under
damping? Also calculate the value of damping required for the oscillations to be
critically damped. (Answer: Oscillation is under-damping and for critical damping r =
0.4kgs-1)

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8. Calculate the peak amplitude of vibration of a system whose natural frequency is

1000Hz when it oscillates in a resistive medium for which the value of damping /unit
mass is 0.008 rads-1 under the action of an external periodic force/unit mass of
amplitude 5Nkg -1, with tunable frequency. (Answer: Amax= 0.1m)
9. Calculate the Mach number for a body when it is moving in air with a speed of (i)
380 km/hr (ii) 2000 km/hr and (iii) 8000 km/hr and classify these speeds as
subsonic/supersonic/hypersonic. Given velocity of sound under the same conditions is
340 m/s. (Answer: i) M = 0.31, Subsonic ii) M = 1.63, Supersonic iii) M = 6.53,
Hypersonic)
10. The distance between two pressure sensors in a shock tube is 100 mm. The time taken
by a shock wave to travel this distance is 200 μs. If the velocity of sound under the
same conditions is 340 m/s, find the Mach number of the shock wave. (Answer: M =
1.47)

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