Database Management Systems

CS 5200
Dr. Tehmina Amjad
Basic SQL

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Outline
• SQL Data Definition and Data Types
• Specifying Constraints in SQL
• Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
• INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE Statements in SQL
• Additional Features of SQL

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SQL Data Definition, Data Types, Standards
• Terminology:
• Table, row, and column used for relational model terms relation, tuple, and
attribute
• CREATE statement
• Main SQL command for data definition
• The language has features for : Data definition, Data Manipulation,
Transaction control (Transact-SQL, Ch. 20), Indexing (Ch.17), Security
specification (Grant and Revoke- see Ch.30), Active databases (Ch.26),
Multi-media (Ch.26), Distributed databases (Ch.23) etc.

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Schema and Catalog Concepts in SQL
• CREATE SCHEMA statement

• Catalog
• Named collection of schemas in an SQL environment
• SQL also has the concept of a cluster of catalogs.

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The CREATE TABLE Command in SQL
• Specifying a new relation
• Provide name of table
• Specify attributes, their types and initial constraints
• Can optionally specify schema:
• CREATE TABLE COMPANY.EMPLOYEE ...
or
• CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE ...

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The CREATE TABLE Command in SQL (cont’d.)
• Base tables (base relations)
• Relation and its tuples are actually created and stored as a file by the DBMS
• Virtual relations (views)
• Created through the CREATE VIEW statement. Do not correspond to any
physical file.

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COMPANY relational database
schema (Fig. 5.7)

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One possible database state for the COMPANY relational
database schema (Fig. 5.6)

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One possible database state for the COMPANY
relational database schema – continued (Fig. 5.6)

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SQL CREATE TABLE data definition statements
for defining the COMPANY schema from Figure
5.7 (Fig. 6.1)

continued on next slide

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SQL CREATE TABLE data definition statements for defining
the COMPANY schema from Figure 5.7 (Fig. 6.1)-continued

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Attribute Data Types and Domains in SQL
• Basic data types
• Numeric data types
• Integer numbers: INTEGER, INT, and SMALLINT
• Floating-point (real) numbers: FLOAT or REAL, and DOUBLE PRECISION
• Character-string data types
• Fixed length: CHAR(n), CHARACTER(n)
• Varying length: VARCHAR(n), CHAR VARYING(n), CHARACTER VARYING(n)

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Attribute Data Types and Domains in SQL
(cont’d.)
• Bit-string data types
• Fixed length: BIT(n)
• Varying length: BIT VARYING(n)
• Boolean data type
• Values of TRUE or FALSE or NULL
• DATE data type
• Ten positions
• Components are YEAR, MONTH, and DAY in the form YYYY-MM-DD
• Multiple mapping functions available in RDBMSs to change date formats

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Attribute Data Types and Domains in SQL
(cont’d.)
• Additional data types
• Timestamp data type
Includes the DATE and TIME fields
• Plus a minimum of six positions for decimal fractions of seconds
• Optional WITH TIME ZONE qualifier
• INTERVAL data type
• Specifies a relative value that can be used to increment or
decrement an absolute value of a date, time, or timestamp
• DATE, TIME, Timestamp, INTERVAL data types can be cast
or converted to string formats for comparison.

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Attribute Data Types and Domains in SQL
(cont’d.)
• Domain
• Name used with the attribute specification
• Makes it easier to change the data type for a domain that is
used by numerous attributes
• Improves schema readability
• Example:
• CREATE DOMAIN SSN_TYPE AS CHAR(9);
• TYPE
• User Defined Types (UDTs) are supported for object-
oriented applications. (See Ch.12) Uses the command:
CREATE TYPE

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Specifying Constraints in SQL
Basic constraints:
• Relational Model has 3 basic constraint types that are supported in
SQL:
• Key constraint: A primary key value cannot be duplicated
• Entity Integrity Constraint: A primary key value cannot be null
• Referential integrity constraints : The “foreign key “ must have a value that is
already present as a primary key, or may be null.

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Specifying Attribute Constraints
Other Restrictions on attribute domains:
• Default value of an attribute
• DEFAULT <value>
• NULL is not permitted for a particular attribute (NOT
NULL)
• CHECK clause
• Dnumber INT NOT NULL CHECK (Dnumber > 0
AND Dnumber < 21);

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Specifying Key and Referential Integrity
Constraints
• PRIMARY KEY clause
• Specifies one or more attributes that make up the primary key of a relation
• Dnumber INT PRIMARY KEY;
• UNIQUE clause
• Specifies alternate (secondary) keys (called CANDIDATE keys in the relational
model).
• Dname VARCHAR(15) UNIQUE;

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Specifying Key and Referential Integrity
Constraints (cont’d.)
• FOREIGN KEY clause
• Default operation: reject update on violation
• Attach referential triggered action clause
• Options include SET NULL, CASCADE, and SET DEFAULT
• Action taken by the DBMS for SET NULL or SET DEFAULT is the same for both ON
DELETE and ON UPDATE
• CASCADE option suitable for “relationship” relations

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Giving Names to Constraints
• Using the Keyword CONSTRAINT
• Name a constraint
• The names of all constraints within a particular schema must be unique.
• A constraint name is used to identify a particular constraint in case the constraint must
be dropped later and replaced with another constraint (More details in Chapter 7)
• It is also possible to temporarily defer a constraint until the end of a transaction (Chapter
20)

• Useful for later altering

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Default attribute values and referential integrity triggered
action specification (Fig. 6.2)

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Specifying Constraints on Tuples Using CHECK
• Additional Constraints on individual tuples within a relation are also possible
using CHECK
• CHECK clauses at the end of a CREATE TABLE statement
• Apply to each tuple individually
• CHECK (Dept_create_date <= Mgr_start_date);

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Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
• SELECT statement
• One basic statement for retrieving information from a database
• SQL allows a table to have two or more tuples that are identical in all
their attribute values
• Unlike relational model (relational model is strictly set-theory based)
• Multiset or bag behavior
• Tuple-id may be used as a key

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The SELECT-FROM-WHERE Structure of Basic
SQL Queries
• Basic form of the SELECT statement:

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The SELECT-FROM-WHERE Structure of
Basic SQL Queries (cont’d.)

• Logical comparison operators

• =, <, <=, >, >=, and <>
• Projection attributes
• Attributes whose values are to be retrieved
• Selection condition
• Boolean condition that must be true for any retrieved
tuple. Selection conditions include join conditions (see
Ch.8) when multiple relations are involved.

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Basic Retrieval Queries

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Basic Retrieval Queries (Contd.)

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Ambiguous Attribute Names
• Same name can be used for two (or more) attributes in different
relations
• As long as the attributes are in different relations
• Must qualify the attribute name with the relation name to prevent ambiguity

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Aliasing, and Renaming
• Aliases or tuple variables
• Declare alternative relation names E and S to refer to the EMPLOYEE relation
twice in a query:

Query 8. For each employee, retrieve the employee’s first and last name and the first and last name
of his or her immediate supervisor.
• SELECT E.Fname, E.Lname, S.Fname, S.Lname
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, EMPLOYEE AS S
WHERE E.Super_ssn=S.Ssn;
• Recommended practice to abbreviate names and to prefix same or similar
attribute from multiple tables.
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Aliasing, Renaming and Tuple Variables
(contd.)
• The attribute names can also be renamed
EMPLOYEE AS E(Fn, Mi, Ln, Ssn, Bd, Addr, Sex,
Sal, Sssn, Dno)
• Note that the relation EMPLOYEE now has a variable name E which
corresponds to a tuple variable
• The “AS” may be dropped in most SQL implementations

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Unspecified WHERE Clause
and Use of the Asterisk
• Missing WHERE clause
• Indicates no condition on tuple selection
• Effect is a CROSS PRODUCT
• Result is all possible tuple combinations (or the Algebra operation of
Cartesian Product) result

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Unspecified WHERE Clause
and Use of the Asterisk
• Specify an asterisk (*)
• Retrieve all the attribute values of the selected tuples
• The * can be prefixed by the relation name; e.g., EMPLOYEE *

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Tables as Sets in SQL
• SQL does not automatically eliminate duplicate tuples in query results
• For aggregate operations (See sec 7.1.7) duplicates must be accounted for
• Use the keyword DISTINCT in the SELECT clause
• Only distinct tuples should remain in the result

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Tables as Sets in SQL (cont’d.)
• Set operations
• UNION, EXCEPT (difference), INTERSECT
• Corresponding multiset operations: UNION ALL, EXCEPT ALL, INTERSECT
ALL
• Type compatibility is needed for these operations to be valid

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Substring Pattern Matching and Arithmetic
Operators
• LIKE comparison operator
• Used for string pattern matching
• % replaces an arbitrary number of zero or more characters
• underscore (_) replaces a single character
• Examples: WHERE Address LIKE ‘%Houston,TX%’;
• WHERE Ssn LIKE ‘_ _ 1_ _ 8901’;
• BETWEEN comparison operator
E.g., in Q14 :
WHERE(Salary BETWEEN 30000 AND 40000)
AND Dno = 5;

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Arithmetic Operations
• Standard arithmetic operators:
• Addition (+), subtraction (–), multiplication (*), and division
(/) may be included as a part of SELECT

• Query 13. Show the resulting salaries if every employee working on the
‘ProductX’ project is given a 10 percent raise.

SELECT E.Fname, E.Lname, 1.1 * E.Salary AS Increased_sal

FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, WORKS_ON AS W, PROJECT AS P
WHERE E.Ssn=W.Essn AND W.Pno=P.Pnumber AND P.Pname=‘ProductX’;

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Ordering of Query Results
• Use ORDER BY clause
• Keyword DESC to see result in a descending order of values
• Keyword ASC to specify ascending order explicitly
• Typically placed at the end of the query

ORDER BY D.Dname DESC, E.Lname ASC, E.Fname ASC

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Basic SQL Retrieval Query Block

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INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE Statements in
SQL
• Three commands used to modify the database:
• INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE
• INSERT typically inserts a tuple (row) in a relation (table)
• UPDATE may update a number of tuples (rows) in a relation (table)
that satisfy the condition
• DELETE may also update a number of tuples (rows) in a relation
(table) that satisfy the condition

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INSERT
• In its simplest form, it is used to add one or more tuples to a relation
• Attribute values should be listed in the same order as the attributes
were specified in the CREATE TABLE command
• Constraints on data types are observed automatically
• Any integrity constraints as a part of the DDL specification are
enforced

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The INSERT Command
• Specify the relation name and a list of values for the tuple. All values
including nulls are supplied.

• The variation below inserts multiple tuples where a new table is

loaded values from the result of a query.

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BULK LOADING OF TABLES
• Another variation of INSERT is used for bulk-loading of several tuples into
tables
• A new table TNEW can be created with the same attributes as T and using
LIKE and DATA in the syntax, it can be loaded with entire data.
• EXAMPLE:

CREATE TABLE D5EMPS LIKE EMPLOYEE

(SELECT E.*
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E
WHERE E.Dno=5)
WITH DATA;

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

DELETE
• Removes tuples from a relation
• Includes a WHERE-clause to select the tuples to be deleted
• Referential integrity should be enforced
• Tuples are deleted from only one table at a time (unless CASCADE is specified
on a referential integrity constraint)
• A missing WHERE-clause specifies that all tuples in the relation are to be
deleted; the table then becomes an empty table
• The number of tuples deleted depends on the number of tuples in the
relation that satisfy the WHERE-clause

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The DELETE Command
• Removes tuples from a relation
• Includes a WHERE clause to select the tuples to be deleted. The number of
tuples deleted will vary.

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UPDATE
• Used to modify attribute values of one or more selected tuples
• A WHERE-clause selects the tuples to be modified
• An additional SET-clause specifies the attributes to be modified and
their new values
• Each command modifies tuples in the same relation
• Referential integrity specified as part of DDL specification is enforced

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UPDATE (contd.)
• Example: Change the location and controlling department number of
project number 10 to 'Bellaire' and 5, respectively

U5: UPDATE PROJECT

SET PLOCATION = 'Bellaire',
DNUM = 5
WHERE PNUMBER=10

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UPDATE (contd.)
• Example: Give all employees in the 'Research' department a 10% raise in salary.
U6: UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET SALARY = SALARY *1.1
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research')

• In this request, the modified SALARY value depends on the original SALARY value
in each tuple

• The reference to the SALARY attribute on the right of = refers to the old
SALARY value before modification
• The reference to the SALARY attribute on the left of = refers to the new
SALARY value after modification

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Additional Features of SQL
• Techniques for specifying complex retrieval queries (see Ch.7)
• Writing programs in various programming languages that include SQL
statements: Embedded and dynamic SQL, SQL/CLI (Call Level Interface) and
its predecessor ODBC, SQL/PSM (Persistent Stored Module) (See Ch.10)
• Set of commands for specifying physical database design parameters, file
structures for relations, and access paths, e.g., CREATE INDEX

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Additional Features of SQL (cont’d.)
• Transaction control commands (Ch.20)
• Specifying the granting and revoking of privileges to users (Ch.30)
• Constructs for creating triggers (Ch.26)
• Enhanced relational systems known as object-relational define
relations as classes. Abstract data types (called User Defined Types-
UDTs) are supported with CREATE TYPE
• New technologies such as XML (Ch.13) and OLAP (Ch.29) are added to
versions of SQL

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Summary
• SQL
• A Comprehensive language for relational database management
• Data definition, queries, updates, constraint specification, and view definition
• Covered :
• Data definition commands for creating tables
• Commands for constraint specification
• Simple retrieval queries
• Database update commands

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Complex SQL Retrieval

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Outline
• More Complex SQL Retrieval Queries
• Views (Virtual Tables) in SQL
• Schema Modification in SQL

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More Complex SQL Retrieval Queries
• Additional features allow users to specify more complex retrievals
from database:
• Nested queries, joined tables, and outer joins (in the FROM clause), aggregate
functions, and grouping

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Comparisons Involving NULL and Three-
Valued Logic
• Meanings of NULL
• Unknown value A person’s date of birth is not known, so it is
represented by NULL in the database. An example of the other case
of unknown would be NULL for a person’s home phone because it is
not known whether or not the person has a home phone.
• Unavailable or withheld value A person has a home phone but does
not want it to be listed, so it is withheld and represented as NULL in
the database.
• Not applicable attribute
AnattributeLastCollegeDegreewouldbeNULLfora person who has no
college degrees because it does not apply to that person.
• NULL = NULL comparison is avoided
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Comparisons Involving NULL and Three-
Valued Logic (cont’d.)

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Comparisons Involving NULL and Three-
Valued Logic (cont’d.)
• SQL allows queries that check whether an attribute value is NULL
• IS or IS NOT NULL

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 Subquery: Query inside Query
<Main Query> <Sub Query>

SELECT
SELECT FROM
WHERE
FROM GROUP BY

WHERE

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 Type 1: Sub Query in Where
<Main Query> <Sub Query>

SELECT

FROM

WHERE SELECT FROM

WHERE
GROUP BY

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 Type 1-1: Single row subquery
<Main Query> <Sub Query>

mysql> select fname, lname

SELECT
from employee
where ssn = (select min(essn)
FROM from dependent
where sex = ‘F’
);
WHERE col = ( SELECT FROM
WHERE
GROUP BY )
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 Type 1-2: Multiple rows subquery
<Main Query> <Sub Query>

mysql> select distinct essn

SELECT -> from works_on
-> where (pno,hours) IN (select pno, hours

FROM -> from works_on

-> where essn='123456789');

WHERE col IN ( SELECT FROM

WHERE
GROUP BY )
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 Type 2: InLine View (FROM)
<Main Query> <Sub Query>

mysql> select e.dno, count(*)

from employee e,
SELECT (select dno from employee
group by dno

FROM ( SELECT FROM having count(*)>1) bigdept

WHERE where salary>40000
GROUP BY )t and e.dno = bigdept.dno

WHERE group by 1;

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 Type 3: Scalar subquery (SELECT)
<Main Query> <Sub Query>
Must return ”Single column” and “Single Value”

mysql> select (select max(salary)

SELECT SELECT FROM
WHERE from employee e
GROUP BY where e.dno = d.dnumber

FROM group by e.dno limit 1)

from department d;

WHERE

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Type 4: WITH (Common Table Expression)
<Sub Query>
WITH cte ( SELECT FROM mysql> with cte as (
WHERE
GROUP BY ) select dno
from employee
SELECT group by dno
having count(*) > 1
)
FROM <Main Query>
select e.dno, count(*)
from employee e, cte

WHERE where e.salary>40000

and e.dno = cte.dno
group by e.dno;

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Nested Queries, Tuples, and Set/Multiset
Comparisons
• Nested queries
• Complete select-from-where blocks within WHERE clause of another query
• Outer query and nested subqueries
• Comparison operator IN
• Compares value v with a set (or multiset) of values V
• Evaluates to TRUE if v is one of the elements in V

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Nested Queries
Q4A: Make a list of all project numbers for projects that involve an employee whose last name is
‘SMITH’, either as a worker or as a manager of the department that controls the project.

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Nested Queries
• Use tuples of values in comparisons
• Place them within parentheses

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Nested Queries
• Use other comparison operators to compare a single
value v
• = ANY (or = SOME) operator
• Returns TRUE if the value v is equal to some value in the set V and is
hence equivalent to IN
• Other operators that can be combined with ANY (or SOME): >,
>=, <, <=, and <>
• ALL: value must exceed all values from nested query

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Nested Queries
• Avoid potential errors and ambiguities
• Create tuple variables (aliases) for all tables referenced in SQL query

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Correlated Nested Queries
• Correlated nested query
• Evaluated once for each tuple in the outer query
• For each EMPLOYEE tuple, evaluate the nested query, which retrieves
the Essn values for all DEPENDENT tuples with the same sex and
name as that EMPLOYEE tuple; if the Ssn value of the EMPLOYEE tuple
is in the result of the nested query, then select that EMPLOYEE tuple.

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Correlated Nested Queries
• A query written with nested select-from-where blocks and using the =
or IN comparison operators can always be expressed as a single block
query
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, DEPENDENT AS D
WHERE E.Ssn=D.Essn AND E.Sex=D.Sex
AND E.Fname=D.Dependent_name;

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The EXISTS and UNIQUE Functions in SQL for
correlating queries
• EXISTS function
• Check whether the result of a correlated nested query is empty or not. They
are Boolean functions that return a TRUE or FALSE result.
• EXISTS and NOT EXISTS
• Typically used in conjunction with a correlated nested query
• SQL function UNIQUE(Q)
• Returns TRUE if there are no duplicate tuples in the result of query Q

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USE of EXISTS
Q7: List the names of managers who have at least one dependent
SELECT Fname, Lname
FROM Employee
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE Ssn= Essn)

AND EXISTS (SELECT *

FROM Department
WHERE Ssn= Mgr_Ssn)

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USE OF NOT EXISTS
Retrieve the name of each employee who works on all the projects con- trolled by
department number 5 can be written using EXISTS and NOT EXISTS
SELECT Fname, Lname
FROM Employee
WHERE NOT EXISTS ( (SELECT Pnumber
FROM PROJECT
WHERE Dno=5)

EXCEPT (SELECT Pno

FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE Ssn= ESsn))
The above is equivalent to double negation: List names of those
employees for whom there does NOT exist a project managed by
department no. 5 that they do NOT work on.
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 Double Negation to accomplish “for all” in
SQL
To achieve the “for all” (universal quantifier) effect, we use double negation this way in SQL:
Q3B: SELECT Lname, Fname
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE NOT EXISTS ( SELECT *
FROM WORKS_ON B
WHERE B.Pno IN ( SELECT Pnumber
FROM PROJECT
WHERE Dnum=5
AND NOT EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM WORKS_ON C
WHERE C.Essn=Ssn
AND C.Pno=B.Pno )
)
);
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The above is a direct rendering of: List names of those employees for whom there does NOT exist a project managed by department no. 5 that they do
76 NOT
work on.
Explicit Sets and Renaming of Attributes in
SQL
• Can use explicit set of values in WHERE clause
Q17: SELECT DISTINCT Essn
FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE Pno IN (1, 2, 3);
• Use qualifier AS followed by desired new name
• Rename any attribute that appears in the result of a query

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Specifying Joined Tables in the FROM Clause
of SQL
• Joined table
• Permits users to specify a table resulting from a join operation in the FROM
clause of a query
• The FROM clause in Q1A
• Contains a single joined table. JOIN may also be called INNER JOIN

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Different Types of JOINed Tables in SQL
• Specify different types of join
• NATURAL JOIN
• Various types of OUTER JOIN (LEFT, RIGHT, FULL )
• NATURAL JOIN on two relations R and S
• No join condition specified
• Is equivalent to an implicit EQUIJOIN condition for each pair
of attributes with same name from R and S

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NATURAL JOIN
• Rename attributes of one relation so it can be joined with another using
NATURAL JOIN:

Q1B: SELECT Fname, Lname, Address

FROM (EMPLOYEE NATURAL JOIN (DEPARTMENT AS DEPT
(Dname, Dno, Mssn, Msdate)
)
)
WHERE Dname=‘Research’;

The above works with EMPLOYEE.Dno = DEPT.Dno as an implicit join condition

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INNER and OUTER Joins
• INNER JOIN (versus OUTER JOIN)
• Default type of join in a joined table
• Tuple is included in the result only if a matching tuple exists in the other relation
• LEFT OUTER JOIN
• Every tuple in left table must appear in result
• If no matching tuple
• Padded with NULL values for attributes of right table
• RIGHT OUTER JOIN
• Every tuple in right table must appear in result
• If no matching tuple
• Padded with NULL values for attributes of left table
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81
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
82
 Practice
• Create “STUDENT” table
mysql> create table student (sid int, sname varchar(10), dno int);
mysql> insert into student values (1,'Lee',20),(2,'Patel',30),(3,'Peng',40);

• Create “DEPT” table

mysql> create table dept (dnumber int, dname varchar(10), dlocation varchar(10));
mysql> insert into dept values (10,'EE','NY'),(20,'CS','SJ'),(30,'DS','SF');

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STUDENT DEPT
sid sname dno dnumber dname dlocation
1 Lee 20 10 EE NY
2 Patel 30 Inner Join 20 CS SJ
3 Peng 40 (dno = dnumber) 30 DS SF

mysql> select * from student inner join dept on dno = dnumber;

+------+-------+------+---------+-------+-----------+
| sid | sname | dno | dnumber | dname | dlocation |
+------+-------+------+---------+-------+-----------+
| 1 | Lee | 20 | 20 | CS | SJ |
| 2 | Patel | 30 | 30 | DS | SF |
+------+-------+------+---------+-------+-----------+

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84
STUDENT DEPT
sid sname dno dnumber dname dlocation
1 Lee 20 10 EE NY
2 Patel 30 Left Outer Join 20 CS SJ
3 Peng 40 (dno = dnumber) 30 DS SF

mysql> select * from student left outer join dept on dno = dnumber;

+------+-------+------+---------+-------+-----------+
| sid | sname | dno | dnumber | dname | dlocation |
+------+-------+------+---------+-------+-----------+
| 1 | Lee | 20 | 20 | CS | SJ |
| 2 | Patel | 30 | 30 | DS | SF |
| 3 | Peng | 40 | NULL | NULL | NULL |
+------+-------+------+---------+-------+-----------+

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STUDENT DEPT
sid sname dno dnumber dname dlocation
1 Lee 20 10 EE NY
2 Patel 30 Right Outer Join 20 CS SJ
3 Peng 40 (dno = dnumber) 30 DS SF

mysql> select * from student right outer join dept on dno = dnumber;

+------+-------+------+---------+-------+-----------+
| sid | sname | dno | dnumber | dname | dlocation |
+------+-------+------+---------+-------+-----------+
| NULL | NULL | NULL | 10 | EE | NY |
| 1 | Lee | 20 | 20 | CS | SJ |
| 2 | Patel | 30 | 30 | DS | SF |
+------+-------+------+---------+-------+-----------+

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86
STUDENT DEPT
sid sname dno dnumber dname dlocation
1 Lee 20 10 EE NY
2 Patel 30 Full Outer Join 20 CS SJ
3 Peng 40 (dno = dnumber) 30 DS SF

M y S QL !
mysql> select * from student p p or t
fulled inouter join dept on dno = dnumber;
Not Su
mysql> select * from student left outer join dept on dno = dnumber
-> union
-> select * from student right outer join dept on dno = dnumber;
+------+-------+------+---------+-------+-----------+
| sid | sname | dno | dnumber | dname | dlocation |
+------+-------+------+---------+-------+-----------+
| 1 | Lee | 20 | 20 | CS | SJ |
| 2 | Patel | 30 | 30 | DS | SF |
| 3 | Peng | 40 | NULL | NULL | NULL |
| NULL | NULL |Copyright
NULL© 2016
| Ramez Elmasri
10and|Shamkant
EE B. Navathe
| NY |
87
+------+-------+------+---------+-------+-----------+
Example: LEFT OUTER JOIN

SELECT E.Lname AS Employee_Name

S.Lname AS Supervisor_Name

FROM Employee AS E LEFT OUTER JOIN EMPLOYEE AS S

ON E.Super_ssn = S.Ssn)

ALTERNATE SYNTAX:
SELECT E.Lname , S.Lname
FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE S
WHERE E.Super_ssn = S.Ssn (+)
M y S QL !
p or te d in
p
Not Su g Oracle !!
sin
Only u
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88
Multiway JOIN in the FROM clause
• FULL OUTER JOIN – combines result if LEFT and RIGHT OUTER JOIN
• Can nest JOIN specifications for a multiway join:

Q2A: SELECT Pnumber, Dnum, Lname, Address, Bdate

FROM ((PROJECT JOIN DEPARTMENT ON Dnum=Dnumber) JOIN EMPLOYEE ON
Mgr_ssn=Ssn)
WHERE Plocation=‘Stafford’;

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89
Aggregate Functions in SQL
• Used to summarize information from multiple tuples into a single-
tuple summary
• Built-in aggregate functions
• COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, and AVG
• Grouping
• Create subgroups of tuples before summarizing
• To select entire groups, HAVING clause is used
• Aggregate functions can be used in the SELECT clause or in a
HAVING clause
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90
Aggregate Functions
● COUNT()
● AVG()
● MAX()
● MIN()
● STD()
● STDDEV()
● SUM()
● More . . .

91
GROUP BY

SELECT DNO, COUNT(*), AVG(SALARY)

FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY DNO;

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Renaming Results of Aggregation
• Following query returns a single row of computed values from EMPLOYEE
table:

Q19: SELECT SUM (Salary), MAX (Salary), MIN (Salary),

AVG (Salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE;
• The result can be presented with new names:
Q19A: SELECT SUM (Salary) AS Total_Sal,
MAX (Salary) AS Highest_Sal,
MIN (Salary) AS Lowest_Sal,
AVG (Salary) AS Average_Sal
FROM EMPLOYEE;
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Aggregate Functions in SQL
• NULL values are discarded when aggregate functions are applied to a
particular column

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Aggregate Functions on Booleans
• SOME and ALL may be applied as functions on Boolean Values.
• SOME returns true if at least one element in the collection is TRUE
(similar to OR)
• ALL returns true if all of the elements in the collection are TRUE
(similar to AND)

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95
Grouping: The GROUP BY Clause
• Partition relation into subsets of tuples
• Based on grouping attribute(s)
• Apply function to each such group independently
• GROUP BY clause
• Specifies grouping attributes
• COUNT (*) counts the number of rows in the group

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96
Examples of GROUP BY
• The grouping attribute must appear in the SELECT clause:
Q24: SELECT Dno, COUNT (*), AVG (Salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY Dno;
• If the grouping attribute has NULL as a possible value, then a separate group is
created for the null value (e.g., null Dno in the above query)
• GROUP BY may be applied to the result of a JOIN:
Q25: SELECT Pnumber, Pname, COUNT (*)
FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE Pnumber=Pno
GROUP BY Pnumber, Pname;

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97
Grouping: The GROUP BY and HAVING
Clauses (cont’d.)
• HAVING clause
• Provides a condition to select or reject an entire group:
• Query 26. For each project on which more than two employees work, retrieve the project number,
the project name, and the number of employees who work on the project.

Q26: SELECT Pnumber, Pname, COUNT (*)

FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE Pnumber=Pno
GROUP BY Pnumber, Pname
HAVING COUNT (*) > 2;

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98
GROUP BY

Result of Having
SELECTDNO, COUNT(*), AVG(SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY DNO
HAVING COUNT(*) > 3;
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
99
Combining the WHERE and the HAVING
Clause
• Consider the query: we want to count the total number of employees whose
salaries exceed $40,000 in each department, but only for departments where
more than five employees work.

• INCORRECT QUERY:
SELECT Dno, COUNT (*)
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Salary>40000
GROUP BY Dno
HAVING COUNT (*) > 5;

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100
Combining the WHERE and the HAVING
Clause (continued)
Correct Specification of the Query:
• Note: the WHERE clause applies tuple by tuple whereas HAVING
applies to entire group of tuples

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101
Use of WITH
• The WITH clause allows a user to define a table that will only be used
in a particular query (not available in all SQL implementations)
• Used for convenience to create a temporary “View” and use that
immediately in a query
• Allows a more straightforward way of looking a step-by-step query

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102
Example of WITH
• See an alternate approach to doing Q28:

• Q28’: WITH BIGDEPTS (Dno) AS

( SELECT Dno
FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY Dno
HAVING COUNT (*) > 5)
SELECT Dno, COUNT (*)
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Salary>40000 AND Dno IN BIGDEPTS
GROUP BY Dno;

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103
Use of CASE
• SQL also has a CASE construct
• Used when a value can be different based on certain conditions.
• Can be used in any part of an SQL query where a value is expected
• Applicable when querying, inserting or updating tuples

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EXAMPLE of use of CASE
• The following example shows that employees are receiving different
raises in different departments (A variation of the update U6)

• U6’: UPDATE EMPLOYEE

SET Salary =
CASE WHEN Dno = 5 THEN Salary + 2000
WHEN Dno = 4 THEN Salary + 1500
WHEN Dno = 1 THEN Salary + 3000

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

105
Recursive Queries in SQL
• An example of a recursive relationship between tuples of the same
type is the relationship between an employee and a supervisor.
• This relationship is described by the foreign key Super_ssn of the
EMPLOYEE relation
• An example of a recursive operation is to retrieve all supervisees of a supervisory employee e at
all levels—that is, all employees e¢ directly supervised by e, all employees e¢’ directly supervised
by each employee e¢, all employees e²¢ directly supervised by each employee e², and so on. Thus
the CEO would have each employee in the company as a supervisee in the resulting table.
Example shows such table SUP_EMP with 2 columns (Supervisor,Supervisee(any level)):

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

106
An EXAMPLE of RECURSIVE Query
• Q29: WITH RECURSIVE SUP_EMP (SupSsn, EmpSsn) AS
SELECT SupervisorSsn, Ssn
FROM EMPLOYEE
UNION
SELECT E.Ssn, S.SupSsn
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, SUP_EMP AS S
WHERE E.SupervisorSsn = S.EmpSsn)
SELECT *
FROM SUP_EMP;
• The above query starts with an empty SUP_EMP and successively builds SUP_EMP table
by computing immediate supervisees first, then second level supervisees, etc. until a
fixed point is reached and no more supervisees can be added
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107
EXPANDED Block Structure of SQL Queries

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108
Summary of SQL Syntax

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109
Summary of SQL Syntax

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Summary
• Complex SQL:
• Nested queries, joined tables (in the FROM clause), outer joins, aggregate
functions, grouping

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Homework
• Exercise Lab 5: Basic SQL
• Assignment 1: Creating University Database
• Assignment 2: More Queries with UNIVERSITY database
• Solve at least 5 queries from Exercise 2. Create SQL script for each query with the
file name including proper number. For example, 1.sql, 2.sql, 3.sql …
• Create a zip file, ex-lab5.zip. Then, submit it on Canvas
• Note: You don’t have to submit Exercise 1 part
• Homework 5:
• SQL
• SQL Workshop
• Submit WS5-3.sql
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[Optional Assignments]
• WATCH: Role of SQL
• https://northeastern.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=7f7725ef-
b7cb-4c73-a54a-ac52014a1946&start=0
• Quick Review: SQL Style
• https://northeastern.instructure.com/courses/123286/pages/15-min-skim-sql-style-
recommendations
• WATCH: DDL
• https://northeastern.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=4ac9add4
-98eb-442a-8e5d-abed010a41b7&start=0
• WATCH: Simple SQL
• https://northeastern.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=b43f7938
-f0d5-4e87-bd86-ac5400292bfd&start=0
• WATCH: Retrieving Select Rows with WHERE
• https://northeastern.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=e064745c
-71a7-43d0-8c09-accd017ad22d&start=0
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113
• WATCH: Aggregating Data (Group By)
• https://northeastern.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=9d
d5c7a0-64aa-4a66-b884-ac9900ec6d6e&start=0
• https://northeastern.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=d1
200056-3f7b-46cd-b960-ac9900ec9045&start=0
• WATCH: Self-Join
• https://northeastern.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=aa
7d0c6b-77b5-4360-a730-ac520105ed19&start=0
• WATCH: Sub-Query
• https://northeastern.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=bf
144f2b-1096-4209-985c-ac9900eca5bb&start=0
• WATCH: JOIN
• https://northeastern.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=d5
fce32d-7885-4e25-8f42-ac9900ec605e&start=0
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• WATCH: Reclusive
• https://northeastern.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=87
af9a63-bf7a-4bc9-8fb8-abe60140d284&start=0
• https://northeastern.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=1d
0c33b6-670f-4411-864b-abe701817843&start=0

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115