SSEKWE

𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

ROBERT

PRESSURE
To make sense of the effects of a force acting on a body, we have to also consider the area to which the
force acts.
Definition:
Pressure is the force acting normally per unit area of the surface.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑵)
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝒎𝟐 )
The SI unit of pressure is Newton per metre squared [𝑵/𝒎𝟐 (𝑵𝒎−𝟐 )] or Pascals (𝑷𝒂).
Therefore, 1 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝟏𝑵𝒎−𝟐 ) = 1 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 (𝟏𝑷𝒂).
Definition:
A Pascal is the pressure exerted on a body when a force of 𝟏𝑵 acts normally on an area of 𝟏𝒎𝟐 .
Other units of pressure include; 𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈, 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈, 𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔, 𝒌𝑷𝒂
Pressure is a scalar quantity.

Examples:
When calculating for pressure, the area should always be in 𝒎𝟐 .
1. A man of mass 84kg stands on a floor. If the area of contact of his shoes on the floor is 0.042𝑚2 ,
find the pressure exerted by the man on the floor.
𝒎 = 𝟖𝟒𝒌𝒈, 𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟐𝒎𝟐
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 𝑭
𝑷=
𝑭 = 𝟖𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑨
𝑭 = 𝟖𝟒𝟎𝑵 𝟖𝟒𝟎
𝑷=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟐
𝑷 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒂

2. A car piston exerts a force of 200N on a cross-sectional area of 40𝑐𝑚2 . Find the pressure exerted by
the piston.
𝟒𝟎
𝑭 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑨 = 𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭
𝑷=
𝑨
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑷=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒
𝑷 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒂

3. A block of mass 40kg exerts a pressure of 20𝑁𝑚−2 on the surface. Find the area of contact between
the block and the surface.
𝒎 = 𝟒𝟎𝒌𝒈, 𝑷 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 𝑭
𝑷=
𝑭 = 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑨
𝑭 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟎 =
𝑨
𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝑨=
𝟐𝟎
𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. A force of 100N is applied to an area of 100𝑚𝑚2 . What is the pressure exerted?

𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭
𝑷=
𝑨
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒂

5. A glass block of mass 60g exerts a pressure of 1000𝑁𝑚−2 on a table top. Determine the area of
contact between the glass block and the table top.
𝟔𝟎
𝒎 = 𝟔𝟎𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝒌𝒈, 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 𝑭
𝑷=
𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑨
𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝑵 𝟎. 𝟔
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 =
𝑨
𝟎. 𝟔
𝑨=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝒎𝟐

MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM PRESSURE

𝑭
From the formula, 𝑷 = it is noted that pressure increases with a decrease in area and vice versa.
𝑨
Maximum pressure:
To obtain maximum pressure, the area should be small.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

Minimum pressure:
To obtain minimum pressure, the area should be large.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

Examples:
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐
1. The figure below shows a block of wood of weight 25N placed on a flat horizontal surface.

𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒎

𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎
𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝒎
a) Find the minimum pressure it can exert on the surface.
b) Find the maximum pressure it can exert on the surface

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑭 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝑳 × 𝑾 𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝑾 × 𝑯
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖𝒎𝟐 𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝒎𝟐

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑴𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟓
𝑴𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐
𝑴𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟑𝟏, 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑷𝒂 𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

NOTE:
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = (𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉) × (𝑵𝒆𝒙𝒕 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉)
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = (𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉) × (𝑵𝒆𝒙𝒕 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉)

2. The dimensions of a cuboid of mass 48kg are 5𝑐𝑚 × 10𝑐𝑚 × 20𝑐𝑚. Calculate the maximum and
minimum pressure it exerts.
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 = (𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝑵
𝟓 𝟏𝟎
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑴𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝟒𝟖𝟎
𝑴𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑴𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟐𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂 𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟗𝟔, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

3. A block of wood of mass 1200g measures by 30𝑐𝑚 by 6𝑐𝑚 by 5𝑐𝑚. Calculate;

a) the greatest pressure.
b) the least pressure exerted by the wood on the surface.

𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 = ( × 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟏𝟐𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟔 𝟓
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟑𝟎 𝟔
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎

a) b)
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂 𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟕 𝑷𝒂

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Minimum and maximum pressure explains the following;

➢ An elephant is able to walk on a soft ground without sinking because it has

toes with a large surface area thus exerting less pressure on the ground.

➢ A tractor is made with broad wheels is able to move on a soft ground

without sinking because the large surface area of the wheels makes it to
exert less pressure on the ground.

➢ A nail has a pointed end hence having a small surface area at the end. This
makes it to exert much pressure on material thus penetrating the material
easily.

➢ A goat sinks in mud because of the small surface area of its feet hence
exerting much pressure on the mud.

➢ A hippopotamus is able to move on a soft ground without sinking because

it exerts less pressure on the ground due to its wide feet.

➢ Bridges are made thicker at the base than at the top to avoid collapse of the
bridge by exerting less pressure on water and ground.

➢ It is not easy to move on a soft ground with high-heeled pointed shoes

because they exert much pressure on the soft ground.

➢ It is easier to peel matooke using a sharp knife than using a blunt knife
because a sharp end of a knife has a small surface area thus exerting much
pressure on the matooke. This makes it penetrate the matooke easily.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. a) Define pressure and state its SI unit.
b) A block measuring 0.1𝑚 × 0.2𝑚 × 0.8𝑚 has a mass of 20kg. What is the maximum and
minimum pressure it can exert on the ground?
c) Explain why a sharp knife cuts easily than a blunt knife.

2. a) Explain why a hippopotamus can easily walk on mud without sinking than a goat.
b) A rectangular block of wood weighs 3N and measures 2𝑐𝑚 × 3𝑐𝑚 × 4𝑐𝑚. What is the greatest
pressure it can exert on a horizontal surface.

3. a) Explain what happens when a balloon is placed on

i) a sharp needle.
ii) thumb of a hand.
b) Calculate the maximum pressure of a glass block of density 2.5𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 would exert on a
horizontal surface if the block is measured 20 × 10 × 5𝑐𝑚.

4. a) A block of concrete weighs 900N and its base is a square of side 3𝑚. What pressure does the
block exert on the ground?
b) Explain the following observations:
i) A person feels much pain when pierced by a sharp nail than a blunt nail.
ii) It is harder to walk on a soft ground with narrow-heeled shoes than wide-heeled shoes.

5. a) A box of dimensions 6𝑚 × 2𝑚 × 4𝑚 exerts its weight of 400N on the floor. Determine its;
i) maximum pressure.
ii) minimum pressure.
iii) density.
b) Explain the following observations in real life.
i) A hippopotamus is able to walk on the mud but a goat gets stuck.
ii) A woman putting on high-heeled shoes damages a cemented floor compared to one putting
on flat shoes.
iii) Water containers (reservoirs) are usually made wide at the base.
iv) A very tall building is made wider and thicker at the bottom than at the top.
v) The rear tyres of a tractor are made wider than the front ones.

6. The tank below has a mass of 2.5𝑘𝑔.

𝟎. 𝟓𝒎

𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎
Determine the minimum and maximum pressure exerted by the tank on the ground when it is;
i) empty.
ii) filled with water up to the brim.
iii) half-filled with water
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
Since liquids take up the shape of the container in which they are placed, the volume of liquid filling a
container is equal to the volume of the container.

Consider a cylindrical container of cross-sectional area (base area), 𝑨 filled with a liquid of density, 𝝆 to
a height, 𝒉 as shown below.

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝒉

𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝑨)

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟

= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
= 𝑨𝒉
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
= 𝝆𝑨𝒉
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑) = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 𝜌𝐴ℎ × 𝑔
= 𝑨𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐴ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝑃=
𝐴
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈

OR
Consider a cylindrical container with a circular base of radius, 𝒓 filled with a liquid of density, 𝝆 to a
height, 𝒉 as shown below.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟
= 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
= 𝝆𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉
𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝒉 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 𝜌𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ × 𝑔
= 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉𝝆𝒈

𝒓 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝑃=
𝜋𝑟 2
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Factors affecting pressure in liquids:

From the above derivations, pressure at any point in a liquid is the same in all directions and it depends
on the following factors:
a) Depth (height) below the liquid surface (𝒉):
Pressure increases with an increase in the depth of the liquid and vice versa.
The higher the depth of the liquid, the more the weight of the liquid thus increasing the pressure
exerted by the liquid.
b) Density of the liquid (𝝆):
Denser liquids exert more pressure than less dense liquids.
c) Acceleration due to gravity (𝒈):
Liquid pressure is higher in areas (planets) whose acceleration due to gravity is high.

Experiment to show that pressure in a liquid depends on the depth below the liquid surface.

𝑪𝒂𝒏 𝑨

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑪

Procedures:
▪ Three equally spaced holes 𝑨, 𝑩 and 𝑪 of the same size are made on one vertical side of a tall can at
different depth.
▪ The holes are then closed and the can is filled with water.
▪ The holes are then opened at the same time and the jetting of water from the holes observed.

Observation:
▪ It is observed that water comes out fastest and lands furthest from the lowest hole 𝑪 followed by 𝑩
and lastly hole 𝑨.
▪ Therefore, pressure at 𝑨 is greater than pressure at 𝑩 and 𝑪.
▪ This shows that pressure increases with increase in the depth below the surface of a liquid.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM:

Water supply often comes from a reservoir which is at a high ground level. Water flows from the
reservoir through the pipes to the taps which are below the level of the water reservoir. This increases
the pressure at which water is supplied.
This explains why storage tanks are put at high level ground than the taps so that water comes through
the taps at a very high pressure.

NOTE:
❖ Pressure of the liquid does not depend on the cross-sectional area of the container in which it is
placed.
❖ Pressure of a liquid does not depend (independent) on the shape and size of the container.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Experiment to show that pressure is independent of the cross-sectional area and the shape of the
container

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
▪ A liquid is poured into a set of connected tubes with different shapes called communicating tubes.
▪ The liquid flows until the levels of the liquid are the same in all the tubes. This shows that the liquid
finds its own level and the pressure is the same in all tubes.
▪ Therefore, pressure in liquids is independent of the shape and the cross-sectional area of the
container.

Examples:
(𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 )
1. Find the pressure in a liquid of density 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 at a height of 8𝑚.
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝒉 = 𝟖𝒎
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝑷 = 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑷 = 𝟖𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

2. The pressure of a liquid is 10000𝑁𝑚−2. What is the height of the liquid if its density is
1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3?
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝒉 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒉=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒉 = 𝟏𝒎

3. The pressure exerted in a liquid of density 0.4𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 is 8000 𝑃𝑎. Calculate its height.
𝝆 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 = (𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎) = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑷 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑷𝒂
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝒉 × 𝟒𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒉=
𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒉 = 𝟐𝒎

4. What is the pressure 100𝑚 below the surface of sea water of density 1150𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 ?
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂
𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑷𝒂

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. The tank below contains mercury and water. The density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and that of
water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 .

𝟐𝒎 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝟑𝒎 𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

Find the total pressure exerted at the bottom of the tank.

𝝆𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝝆𝒎 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝒉𝒘 = (𝟐 + 𝟑) = 𝟓𝒎, 𝒉𝒎 = 𝟑𝒎
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 + 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝒉𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈 + 𝒉𝒎 𝝆𝒎 𝒈
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = (𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎) + (𝟑 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎)
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟎𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟒𝟓𝟖, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

6. The density of liquid is 800𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. It was poured in a container to a depth of 400𝑐𝑚. Calculate the
pressure it exerts at the bottom of the container.
𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝝆 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝒉 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟒𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝑷 = 𝟒 × 𝟖𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑷 = 𝟑𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

EXERCISE:
(𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 )
1. Calculate the pressure at the bottom of a swimming water pool 1000𝑐𝑚 deep.
2. A diver dives to a depth of 20m below the surface of sea water of density 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 . Calculate
the pressure experienced.
3. A flask is filled to a depth of 16cm with a liquid of density 800𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. Find the pressure exerted by
the liquid on the base.
4. The pressure at the bottom of a column of mercury of density 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 is 50𝑁𝑚−2. Calculate
the height of the mercury column.
5. a) Show that the pressure of a liquid in a cylindrical can of height, 𝒉 and radius, 𝒓 is 𝒉𝝆𝒈 where 𝝆
is the density of the liquid.
b) Calculate the pressure due to water experienced by a diver working 15m below the surface of the
sea.
c) Describe an experiment to show that the pressure of a liquid is independent of the cross-sectional
area.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

TRANSMISSION OF PRESSURE IN FLUIDS

A fluid is a substance which can flow e.g. a liquid or a gas.

PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE (Principle of transmission of pressure in fluids):

Pascal’s principle states that pressure applied at any point of an enclosed fluid is transmitted
equally throughout the whole fluid in all directions.

NOTE: Pascal’s principle works on an assumption that the fluid is incompressible.

Definition:
An incompressible fluid is a fluid whose volume can not be reduced by squeezing i.e. it can not
be compressed e.g water but not air.

Experiment to demonstrate Pascal’s principle:

𝑷𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
Procedures:
▪ Holes of equal size are made at different points in a container.
▪ The container is filled with the liquid as shown above.
▪ The piston is pushed inside the container to exert pressure on the liquid.
Observation:
▪ The liquid comes out of the holes with an equal force and pressure. This shows that pressure was
equally transmitted throughout the whole liquid.

Practical example:
A glass bottle is filled with water and covered with a cork.
a) Explain why the bottom of the bottle breaks when a greater force is applied on the cork to push it
down.
When a force is applied on the cork, pressure is exerted inside the water and it is transmitted
equally throughout the whole bottle. Therefore, equal pressure is exerted on the bottom by the
bottle thus breaking it.
b) Explain why a liquid like water was used instead of a gas in (a) above.
Since the experiment required transmission of pressure, it needed a fluid which is incompressible.
Therefore, a liquid like water is incompressible yet a gas is not.
RECALL: Pascal’s principle applies only to incompressible fluids.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

APPLICATIONS PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE

The principle of transmission of pressure in fluids is applied in hydraulic machines namely;
• Hydraulic press.
• Hydraulic lift.
• Hydraulic jack.
• Hydraulic brake.
In hydraulic machines, a small force applied at one point of an incompressible liquid produces a larger
force at the points of the liquid. Therefore, a small force is used to lift heavy materials like cars.

HYDRAULIC PRESS / LIFT / JACK:

▪ It consists of a small piston fitted in a small cylinder and a large piston fitted in the large cylinder.
▪ When a force is applied on a small piston, the pressure exerted by the piston is transmitted equally
throughout the liquid to the larger piston thus forcing the larger piston to move up.
▪ This force exerted on the larger piston raises a heavy load as shown below.
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟏
𝑨𝟐 𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓

(𝑷𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓) (𝑹𝒂𝒎 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓)

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

Operation of hydraulic machines

❖ When a small force, 𝑭𝟏 is applied on the small piston of cross-sectional area, 𝑨𝟏 , then pressure, 𝑷𝟏 is
exerted on the liquid by a small piston.
𝑭𝟏
𝑷𝟏 =
𝑨𝟏
❖ The pressure, 𝑷𝟏 is transmitted equally throughout the liquid to the larger piston. Hence, the pressure,
𝑷𝟐 acting on the larger piston is equal to initial pressure, 𝑷𝟏 .
𝑭𝟐
𝑷𝟐 =
𝑨𝟐
𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐
=
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐
𝑶𝑹
𝑭𝟏 𝑨𝟏
=
𝑭𝟐 𝑨𝟐
NOTE:
The cross-sectional areas of small piston and large piston should have the same units. There is no
need of converting if the units are the same.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
1. The figure below shows a hydraulic press. The cross-sectional area of piston B is 80𝑚2 and the
cross-sectional area of A is 2.5𝑚2 .
𝑭𝑨 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝑭𝑩

𝑷𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑨
𝑷𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑩

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

Find the force exerted on the piston B if a force of 600N is applied on piston A.
𝑨𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝟐 , 𝑨𝑩 = 𝟖𝟎𝒎𝟐
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐵
𝑭𝑨 𝑭𝑩
=
𝑨𝑨 𝑨𝑩
𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝑭𝑩
=
𝟐. 𝟓 𝟖𝟎
𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟖𝟎
𝑭𝑩 =
𝟐. 𝟓
𝑭𝑩 = 𝟏𝟗𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵

2. Calculate the force applied on the small piston of area 2𝑐𝑚2 if a mass of 80𝑘𝑔 is to be lifted by a
larger piston of area 10𝑐𝑚2 .
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐

𝑨𝟏 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝒎 = 𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒈

𝑭𝟐 = 𝒎𝒈 = (𝟖𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝑭𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑭𝟏 𝑨𝟏
= 𝑶𝑹 =
𝑭𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑭𝟐 𝑨𝟐
𝑭𝟏 𝟐 𝑭𝟏 𝟐⁄
= = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎⁄
𝟐 × 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐 × 𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎 𝑭𝟏 =
𝑭𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝑵 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏
𝑭𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

3. Given that the radius of a circular piston A is 14cm and radius of circular piston B is 28cm. If the
force exerted on piston A is 77N, find the force exerted on piston B.
𝑭𝑨 = 𝟕𝟕𝑵 𝑭𝑩

𝑨
𝑩

𝒓𝑨 = 𝟏𝟒𝒄𝒎, 𝒓𝑩 = 𝟐𝟖𝒄𝒎,
𝑭𝑨 𝑨𝑨
=
𝑭𝑩 𝑨𝑩
𝑭𝑨 𝝅𝒓𝑨 𝟐
=
𝑭𝑩 𝝅𝒓𝑩 𝟐
𝟕𝟕 𝟏𝟒𝟐
=
𝑭𝑩 𝟐𝟖𝟐
𝟕𝟕 × 𝟕𝟖𝟒
𝑭𝑩 =
𝟏𝟗𝟔
𝑭𝑩 = 𝟑𝟎𝟖𝑵

4. In a hydraulic press, a force of 400𝑁 is applied to a pump piston of area 0.1𝑚2 . The area of the ram
piston is 4𝑚2. Calculate;
i) the pressure transmitted through the liquid.
ii) weight on the ram piston.
𝑨𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎𝟐 , 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟒𝒎𝟐 , 𝑭𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑵
i) ii)
𝑭𝟏 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑚
𝑷𝟏 =
𝑨𝟏 𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐
𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑭𝟐
𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟏 =
𝟎. 𝟏 𝑨𝟐
𝑷𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂 𝑭𝟐
𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 =
𝟒
𝑭𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟒
𝑭𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵 (𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕)

5. A hydraulic press machine is used to raise a load, W, on a piston of cross-sectional area 100𝑐𝑚2 by
using an effort of 20N at a piston of cross-sectional area of 2𝑐𝑚2. Calculate load, W.
𝑨𝟏 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝑭𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵, 𝑭𝟐 = 𝑾
𝑭𝟏 𝑨𝟏
=
𝑭𝟐 𝑨𝟐
𝟐𝟎 𝟐
=
𝑾 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾=
𝟐
𝑾 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. The area of the large piston of a hydraulic press is 10𝑚2 and that of the smaller one is 0.25𝑚2. A
force of 100N is applied on the smaller piston. Calculate the force produced at the larger piston.
2. The area of a small piston of a hydraulic press is 0.5𝑚2. If an effort of 250N is applied on the pump
cylinder and raises a load of 20000N, calculate the area of the piston at the ram cylinder.
3. In a hydraulic press, a force of 200N is applied to small circular piston of area 25𝑐𝑚2 . If the
hydraulic press is designed to produce a force of 5000N, determine;
i) the area of the large piston.
ii) the radius of the large piston.
4. A hydraulic press has cylindrical pistons of radii 2cm and 0.4m respectively. Calculate the maximum
load at the larger piston that can overcome a force of 78N.
5. A hydraulic jack is used to lift a car by applying a force of 120N at the pump cylinder. If the area of
the ram and pump piston is 100𝑐𝑚2 and 1𝑚2 respectively. Calculate the force applied to the ram
piston.
6. Calculate the weight, W raised by a force of 56N applied on a small piston of area 14𝑚2. Take the
area of the large piston to be 42𝑚2.

HYDRAULIC BRAKE:
A hydraulic braking system is used in motor vehicles.
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅

𝑻𝒐 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍𝒔

𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍
𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓
𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏 𝑭𝒐𝒐𝒕 𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒍
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒆
𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒖𝒎

𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒅𝒔
How a hydraulic brake works:
▪ When the driver pushes down the foot pedal, the force applied exerts pressure on the brake fluid in
the master cylinder.
▪ This pressure is transmitted by the brake fluid to the wheel cylinder. This causes the pistons of wheel
cylinders to push the brake shoes which in turn press the brake pad against the brake drum. The
contact between the brake drum and brake pads stops the rotation of the wheels.
▪ When the force on the foot pedal is removed, the return spring pull back the brake shoe which then
pushes the cylinder pistons back.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Properties of hydraulic fluids (brake fluid):

Any fluid to be used in hydraulic machines should have the following properties;
• The fluid should be incompressible. This enables pressure to be equally transmitted in all parts of the
braking system.
• The fluid should have a low freezing point. This helps the fluid not to cool easily which may make it
a thicker fluid thus not behaving well.
• The fluid should have a high boiling point. This helps the fluid not to warm up easily which may
increase its compressibility.
• The fluid should not corrode the parts of the brake system.

Uses of hydraulic machines:

✓ Used to lift loads such as cars in garages. (Hydraulic Jack)
✓ Used to compress materials such as cotton, steel for easy transportation. (Hydraulic press)

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

The air (mixture of gases) surrounding the earth is called “atmosphere”. This air surrounds us and
everything on the earth’s surface.
The weight of air exerts pressure on all objects on the earth’s surface and this pressure is called
atmospheric pressure.
Definition:
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air on all objects on the earth’s surface.

❖ Atmospheric pressure is measured by an instrument called Barometer.

Variation of atmospheric pressure with number of air molecules (Air density):

The more the air molecules around an object, the more force exerted on the object hence exerting high
pressure on the object. Therefore, pressure increases with increase in air molecules and pressure
decreases with decrease in air molecules.

Variation of atmospheric pressure with altitude:

Atmospheric pressure increases with decrease in altitude (height) and vice versa.
The density of air above the earth’s surface decreases as altitude increases leading to a decrease in
atmospheric pressure at high altitudes.
Therefore, atmospheric pressure is low at high altitudes (e.g. mountain peaks) and atmospheric pressure
is high at low altitudes.
This effect explains why cooking takes long at higher altitudes (See Book 2, Heat measurement).

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
❖ At sea level, the value of atmospheric pressure is very large though we do not normally feel it
because blood pressure is slightly greater than atmospheric pressure.
❖ A person may faint if he/she experiences a loss in blood pressure. The low blood pressure decreases
the rate at which blood flows to the brain thus causing an insufficient blood flow to the brain.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Crushing or Collapsing can experiment.

𝑪𝒂𝒑

𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
(𝑎) 𝑂𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑏) 𝑂𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
▪ An empty metal can is filled with some water and left uncovered.
▪ Water in the metal can is boiled for sometime until steam is produced.
▪ When the steam has driven out most of the air, the metal can is covered with a cap.
▪ Cool the metal can by pouring cold water over it.
▪ On cooling, steam condenses to water hence reducing air pressure inside the metal can.
▪ The metal can collapses inwards (crushes) because the atmospheric pressure outside the can is
greater than the reduced air pressure the can.

Other important demonstrations include;

a) Liquid trapped in inverted glass full of water:

𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔

𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

• Pour water in a glass and make it full.

• Cover the entire glass with a smooth card.
• Put one hand on the card and the other hand holds the glass.
• Quickly turn the glass upside down and then remove the hand holding the card.

𝑶𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:
• On releasing the card, it remains tightly fixed to the glass thus preventing water from pouring out.
This is because water occupies most of the space which would have been occupied by air hence
reducing air pressure inside the glass. Therefore, the atmospheric pressure outside the glass becomes
greater than the inside air pressure thus acting strongly on the card.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

b) Sticking two wet glass slides together:

𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

• One face of a glass slide is wetted with a water and a second glass slide is intimately placed on it.
• Try to move the glass slides apart.
Observation:
• It becomes difficult to separate the slides. This is because water expels air molecules between the
slides thus reducing the air pressure between the two glass slides. Therefore, the atmospheric
pressure acting outside the slides becomes greater than the air pressure in between the slides hence
forcing the slides to stick tightly together.

Practical example
Explain why mountain climbers may suffer from nose bleeding at the top of a mountain.
On top of a mountain, atmospheric pressure is lower than that at the bottom. Due to the body’s
metabolism, the blood pressure may exceed the low atmospheric pressure at the top of the mountain.
Since the blood capillaries are weaker, they may break due to the high pressure of the blood thus
causing nose bleeding.

EXERCISE:
1. Explain why it is difficult to pull a cork of a flask when it is filled with water.
2. Explain why it is difficult to separate two microscopic glass slides when water is placed between
them.
3. Explain why some people moving in aero-planes may suffer from headache and nose bleeding.
4. Explain why a fainted person is laid on his back with his feet raised above the chest.
5. A senior two student at Mbuye Farm school started nose bleeding while they were in a trip at the top
of mountain Elgon.
a) Explain the possible reason for her nose bleeding.
b) Discuss how you can help her to stop the nose bleeding.
6. Explain why cooking takes a longer time than expected at a higher altitude.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

APPLICATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Atmospheric pressure is important in;
⬧ Lift pump (Common borehole)
⬧ Force pump
⬧ Drinking straw
⬧ Siphon
⬧ Syringe, etc.

LIFT PUMP:
Lift pumps are used raise water from the wells or earth’s surface. It is commonly known as a bore hole.

𝑺𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒕

𝑷𝒍𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆 A
𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒍
𝑰𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆 B
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

During the upstroke;

▪ the plunger moves upwards which reduces the pressure inside the barrel.
▪ outlet valve A closes and inlet valve B opens.
▪ water is pushed up the pipe through the inlet valve B by the atmospheric pressure acting on the
surface of the water and occupies the space above the inlet valve B.

During the downstroke;

▪ the plunger moves downwards.
▪ inlet valve B closes and outlet valve A opens.
▪ water level in the barrel rises further through the outlet valve A and in the next repeated strokes,
water reaches the spout and pours out.

Limitations of the lift pump

❖ The lift pump can’t raise water beyond 10m. This is because atmospheric pressure is low in high
altitudes. Atmospheric pressure can only support a water column of 10𝑚.
❖ The lift pump can not work if there are leakages in the pipe.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

FORCE PUMP:
The force pump was designed to overcome the limitations of the lift pump i.e. it can raise water to
heights beyond 10𝑚 . It is commonly used to raise water from wetlands, lakes, wells to fill in storage
tanks.

𝑺𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕
𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆 A

𝑰𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆 B
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

During the upstroke;

▪ the piston moves upwards which reduces the pressure inside the barrel.
▪ outlet valve A closes and inlet valve B opens
▪ water is pushed up the pipe through the inlet valve B by the atmospheric pressure acting on the
surface of the water and occupies the space above the inlet valve B.

During the downstroke;

▪ the piston moves downwards thus compressing the water.
▪ inlet valve B closes and outlet valve A opens.
▪ water level in the barrel rises further and enters the air chamber through the outlet valve A and in the
next repeated strokes, water reaches the spout and pours out.

NOTE:
The force pump enables continuous flow of water since the air in the air chamber is compressible.
The height to which water is raised does not depend on the atmospheric pressure but it depends on;
❖ Force applied during the downstroke.
❖ The ability of the pump and its working parts to withstand pressure of the water in the chamber.

DRINKING STRAW:

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒘
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ When air is sucked out from a straw dipped in a liquid, a vacuum is created and the air pressure
inside the straw reduces. This causes the atmospheric pressure to be greater than the inside air
pressure.
▪ The atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the liquid forces the liquid to rise through the
straw up to the mouth.

Question: Explain what happens when one drinks water using a straw with a hole.
Since the straw has a hole, the air keeps on entering through the hole So no vacuum is
created thus the air pressure inside the straw doesn’t reduce. Therefore, the
atmospheric pressure doesn’t force water into the straw.

SYRINGE:

𝑷𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒍

𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑵𝒐𝒛𝒛𝒍𝒆

▪ When a piston is pulled outwards, a vacuum is created inside the barrel thus decreasing the air
pressure inside the barrel. This causes the atmospheric pressure to be greater than air pressure inside.
▪ The atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the liquid forces the liquid to rise through the
nozzle into the barrel.

BICYCLE PUMP:

𝑷𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝑰𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆
𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒍

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

During the upstroke;

▪ the piston moves upwards which reduces the pressure inside the barrel.
▪ outlet valve closes and inlet valve opens.
▪ air is pushed into the barrel through the inlet valve by the atmospheric pressure outside.

During the downstroke;

▪ the piston moves downwards thus compressing the air inside the barrel.
▪ inlet valve closes and outlet valve opens.
▪ due to high pressure on the compressed air inside the barrel, air pushed out through the outlet valve
to the tyre.

SIPHON:
This is a tube used to remove petrol from petrol tanks and also empty toilets.

𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒉
𝑻𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑫
▪ One end of the tube D is put at a height below the surface of liquid. Therefore, pressure at this end,
D is greater than the atmospheric pressure at the surface of liquid.
▪ Since the liquid at end D has a high pressure, it can easily flow out.
▪ The liquid will continue flowing out as long as tube end D is below the surface of the liquid.

Application of the siphon principle

AUTOMATIC FLUSHING TANK

𝑺𝒊𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒏

▪ Water drops slowly into the tank. Therefore, the water rises until it finds a bend.
▪ The action of the siphon starts and the tank is emptied.
▪ The action is then repeated again and again.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

RUBBER SUCKER:
These are used in attaching car licenses to wind screens.
They are also used to lift papers to be fed into printers.

𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 ▪ A rubber sucker is moistened with water and then

𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 pressed on a smooth surface. The air between the
rubber sucker and the smooth surface is decreased
𝑺𝒎𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒉 thus causing a partial vacuum.
𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 ▪ The atmospheric pressure outside the rubber sucker
exceeds the air pressure in between the sucker and
𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 the surface.
▪ Therefore, the atmospheric pressure pushes the
rubber sucker onto the smooth surface thus holding
it firmly

EXERCISE:
1. Explain how it is able to fetch water from a borehole.
2. Explain how one can drink Soda using a straw.
3. Explain why one gets difficulties when using a straw with a hole to drink milk.
4. Explain how one is able to pump air inside a bicycle tyre using a bicycle pump.

MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

In a physics laboratory, atmospheric pressure is measured by an instrument called Barometer.
There are three types of barometers namely;
• Simple mercury barometer (𝑁𝑚−2 )
• Fortin barometer (𝑃𝑎)
• Aneroid barometer (𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠)

How to construct (make) a simple mercury barometer in a laboratory:

▪ A dry glass tube is filled with mercury.
▪ The open end of the glass tube is covered with a finger and inverted into a beaker filled with
mercury.
▪ The finger is then removed.
▪ When the finger is removed, the mercury level in the tube falls until it is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.

𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎

𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
pressure
𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒓 𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
➢ The space left after the falling of the mercury level in the glass tube is called the Torricellian
vacuum. This space is not a true vacuum because it has some mercury vapour.

➢ The height of mercury in the glass tube above the surface of mercury in the beaker is called the
barometric height.

➢ After carrying out an experiment at sea level, atmospheric pressure is found to be equal to;
𝟏. 𝟎𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑷𝒂 or 𝟏 𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 or 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 or 𝟕𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈.

➢ When the glass tube is tilted, the height of mercury (h) remains the same as shown below.

𝒉 𝒉

Reasons why mercury is more convenient to use in a barometer

• Mercury doesn’t wet the glass tube and it is opaque. This makes it easier for someone to read the
barometric height.
• Mercury has a high density thus giving a low barometric height hence a short glass tube (capillary
tube) may be used.

Reasons why water is not more convenient to use in a barometer

• Water wets the glass tube and it is not opaque. This makes it not easier for someone to read the
barometric height.
• Water has a low density thus giving a high barometric height hence a long glass tube (capillary tube)
is required.

Examples:
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 (𝑯) = 𝒃𝒂𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 × 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 × 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑯 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈

1. If the barometer reads 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔. Find the atmospheric pressure if the density of mercury is
13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3.
𝟕𝟔
𝒉 = 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝒎, 𝝆 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑯 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈

𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑯 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑, 𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. The figure below shows a mercury barometer used to measure atmospheric pressure. (Density of
mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)
Calculate the atmospheric pressure;
a) In cmHg
𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒉 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 = = 𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎 (1𝑐𝑚 = 10𝑚𝑚)
𝟏𝟎
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝑯 = 𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈

b) In Pascals (𝑁𝑚−2)
𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒉 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑯 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑯 = 𝟖𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐

3. The height of mercury column of the barometer supported by the atmospheric pressure is 76𝑐𝑚.
Calculate the height of the column of water supported by the same atmospheric pressure.
(Density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and Density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)

For mercury;
𝟕𝟔
𝒉 = 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑯 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑯 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑, 𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐

For water;
𝒉 =?
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑯 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟎 = 𝒉 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟎
𝒉=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝒎
The above example explains why water is not used in barometers because it gives a high barometric
height thus requiring a long glass or capillary tube.

HOW TO MEASURE HEIGHT OF A MOUNTAIN

𝑷𝑷𝑻𝑨 ▪ Pressure at the top 𝑃𝑇 and pressure at the bottom 𝑃𝐵 are
determined using a mercury barometer.
▪ The difference between the two pressures is got i.e.
𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝑇
▪ The pressure difference is equal to the pressure of air
between the bottom and the top of the mountain.
▪ The height of the air ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟 is calculated and it is equal to the
𝑷𝑩 height of the mountain.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
(Density of mercury is 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 and Density of air is 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑)

1. A mercury barometer reads a pressure of 75𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 at the bottom of the mountain and 73.5𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 at
the top. Calculate the height of the mountain.
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟕𝟓𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈, 𝑷𝑻 = 𝟕𝟑. 𝟓𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈
−𝟐
In 𝑵𝒎 ;
𝑷𝑩 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈 𝑷𝑻 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟕𝟓 𝟕𝟑. 𝟓
𝑷𝑩 = × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑷𝑻 = × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 𝑷𝑻 = 𝟗𝟗, 𝟗𝟔𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐

But;
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒈 = 𝑷𝑩 − 𝑷𝑻
𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 × 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟗𝟗, 𝟗𝟔𝟎
𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟎
𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟎
𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 =
𝟏𝟐. 𝟓
𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝟏𝟔𝟑. 𝟐𝒎
Height of mountain = 𝟏𝟔𝟑. 𝟐𝒎

2. The pressure at the bottom of a mountain is 75.0𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔. If one climbs a mountain 1𝐾𝑚 high, what
would be the pressure at the top?
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟎𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈, 𝑷𝑻 =?, 𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝟏𝒌𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎
In 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 ;
𝑷𝑩 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝟕𝟓 𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒈 = 𝑷𝑩 − 𝑷𝑻
𝑷𝑩 = × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝑷𝑻
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝑷𝑻
𝑷𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝑻 = 𝟖𝟗, 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐

Converting it to cmHg
𝑷𝑻 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝒉
𝟖𝟗𝟓𝟎𝟎 = × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟖𝟗𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒉=
𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎
𝒉 = 𝟔𝟓. 𝟖𝒄𝒎
𝑷𝑻 = 𝟔𝟓. 𝟖𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈

3. A barometer reads 638.7𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 at the top of a hill. Calculate the pressure reading at the bottom if
the hill is 2𝑘𝑚 high.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑷𝑻 = 𝟔𝟑𝟖. 𝟕𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈, 𝑷𝑩 =?, 𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝟐𝒌𝒎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎

In 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 ;
𝑷𝑻 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝟔𝟑𝟖. 𝟕 𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒈 = 𝑷𝑩 − 𝑷𝑻
𝑷𝑻 = × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝑷𝑩 − 𝟖𝟔𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝑻 = 𝟖𝟔𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝑷𝑩 − 𝟖𝟔𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟖𝟔𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐𝑵𝒎−𝟐

Converting it to mmHg
𝑷𝑩 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝒉
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐 = × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐
𝒉=
𝟏𝟑𝟔
𝒉 = 𝟖𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒎
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟖𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈

EXERCISE:
(Density of mercury is 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 and Density of air is 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑)
1. The air pressure at the top of a mountain is 60𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔. Given that the height of the mountain is
850𝑚. Find the pressure at the bottom of the mountain in 𝑁𝑚−2.
2. The barometric height at sea level is 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 while that at the top of a highland is 74𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔. What
is the altitude?
3. The difference between the atmospheric pressure at the top and bottom of a mountain is
10,000 𝑁𝑚−2. Calculate the height of the mountain.
4. A barometer reads 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 and 73.8𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 at the bottom and top respectively. Find the height of
the mountain.
5. A barometer is taken to the top of a mountain 440𝑚 high. If the atmospheric pressure is 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 at
the bottom, calculate the barometer reading.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
A fluid may be a liquid or a gas. The pressure of fluids is usually measured by an instrument known as a
manometer.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE IN GASES (GAS PRESSURE)

In a physics laboratory, the instrument used to measure gas pressure is called a manometer.

Manometer
A manometer consists of a U-tube or J-tube filled with a liquid. Water is used as a liquid in a manometer
if the gas pressure to be measured is “low”. Mercury is used as a liquid in a manometer if the gas
pressure to be measured is “high”.
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑯

𝑮𝒂𝒔
𝒉
𝑨 𝑩

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

▪ One end of the manometer is closed and the other end is left open.
▪ The closed end is connected to the gas supply.
▪ When the gas is turned on, it exerts a pressure at point B causing a rise in the level of water in the
open end of the manometer.
▪ The height, 𝒉 due to the rise of water is obtained.
▪ Since pressure is transmitted equally (Pascal’s principle), 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐵
▪ Therefore, 𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝑩 = 𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 + 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 (𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓) 𝒂𝒕 𝑨

𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉

▪ In Pascals (𝑁𝑚−2), the heights must be in metres and 𝑮𝑷 = (𝑯 + 𝒉)𝝆𝒈

▪ If the gas pressure is less than the atmospheric pressure, the level of the liquid in closed end of the
manometer will be lower than that in the open end. Then 𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 − 𝒉
▪ If the closed end of a manometer is opened, the trapped gas escapes and liquid levels in both arms of
the manometer remain the same. Therefore, 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒.
Examples:
1. The diagram below shows a water manometer used to measure gas pressure.
𝑯 = 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈
Find the gas pressure in
(i) 𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔
(ii) 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝑮𝒂𝒔 (iii) Pascals
(𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(i) 𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 (ii) 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 (iii) Pascals

𝑯 = 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈, 𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 Recall; 𝟏𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒎 Heights in metres.
𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉 𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉 𝑮𝑷 = (𝑯 + 𝒉)𝝆𝒈
𝑮𝑷 = (𝟕𝟔 + 𝟏𝟎)𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝑮𝑷 = (𝟕𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎) 𝟕𝟔 𝟏𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = ( + ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟖𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝑮𝑷 = (𝟕𝟔𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎)𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟖𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝑮𝑷 = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟏) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟖𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐

2. The figure below shows a mercury manometer. If the atmospheric pressure is 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 and density
of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3, find the pressure of the gas in
(i) 𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑯 = 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈
−2
(ii) 𝑁𝑚

𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝑮𝒂𝒔

𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚
(i) 𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 (i) 𝑁𝑚−2
𝑯 = 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈, 𝒉 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝑮𝑷 = (𝑯 + 𝒉)𝝆𝒈
𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉 𝟕𝟔 𝟏𝟓
𝑮𝑷 =( + ) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = (𝟕𝟔 + 𝟏𝟓)𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟗𝟏 𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝑮𝑷 = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟐𝟑𝟕𝟔𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐

3. The diagram below shows a manometer used to measure gas pressure. Find the gas pressure if the
atmospheric pressure is 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 and density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3.
𝑯

𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

𝑮𝑷 = (𝑯 + 𝒉)𝝆𝒈
𝟕𝟔 𝟒𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = ( + ) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟒) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟓𝟕, 𝟕𝟔𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. The figure below shows a J-tube containing mercury used to measure gas pressure.
(𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
𝑯

𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎

Find the pressure in;

(i) 𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 (ii) 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 (iii) Pascals
𝑯 = 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈, Recall; 𝟏𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒎 Heights in metres.
𝒉 = 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉 𝑮𝑷 = (𝑯 + 𝒉)𝝆𝒈
𝑮𝑷 = (𝟕𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎) 𝟕𝟔 𝟐𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉 𝑮𝑷 = ( + ) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = (𝟕𝟔 + 𝟐𝟎)𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝑮𝑷 = (𝟕𝟔𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎)𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟗𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝑮𝑷 = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟐) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟗𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟑𝟎, 𝟓𝟔𝟎 𝑷𝒂

5. The figure below shows a mercury manometer connected to a gas supply tank. Determine the
pressure of the gas in 𝑁𝑚−2 .
(𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
𝑯 Level of liquid is lower in open end than closed end
𝒉 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝑮𝑷 = (𝑯 − 𝒉)𝝆𝒈
𝟕𝟔 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = ( − ) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 − 𝟎. 𝟏) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝑮𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝑮𝑷 = 𝟖𝟗, 𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝑷𝒂

6. In the figure below, a fixed mass of dry air is trapped in bulb A. Calculate the total pressure of the
air in A given that 𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3

𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒉 = 𝟔𝟖 − 𝟑𝟖 = 𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝑮𝑷 = (𝑯 + 𝒉)𝝆𝒈
𝟕𝟔 𝟑𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = ( + ) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟔𝟖𝒄𝒎 𝑮𝑷 = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟑) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑨 𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒, 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝑷𝒂

𝟑𝟖𝒄𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
Sometimes, the atmospheric pressure may be given in 𝑷𝒂𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝑜𝑟 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 . Therefore, there is no need
of first finding the atmospheric pressure.

7. Calculate the gas pressure if a mercury manometer reads 86𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔.

(𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 1.03 × 105 𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 + 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟖𝟔
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 + ( × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟗𝟔𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟐𝟏𝟗, 𝟗𝟔𝟎 𝑷𝒂

8. A man blows air in one end of a water U-tube manometer until the level differ by 40.0𝑐𝑚. If the
𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 1.0 × 105 𝑁𝑚−2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. Calculate the
pressure of air.
𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 + 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟒𝟎. 𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 + ( × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

9. A mercury manometer connected to a gas supply mains 70𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔. Calculate the gas pressure in
𝑁𝑚−2. (𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 103360 𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 + 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟕𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟎 + ( × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎)
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟎 + 𝟗𝟓𝟐𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏𝟐, 𝟖𝟖𝟎 𝑷𝒂

10. The figure below shows a gas trapped by a mercury column in a J-tube. The atmospheric pressure is
1.0 × 105 𝑃𝑎 and density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 .
a) Find the pressure at which the gas is.

𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟐𝟓
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 + ( × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟑𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟑𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

𝑮𝒂𝒔

𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

b) What would happen if the closed end of the J-tube was opened.
If the closed end of the J-tube manometer is opened, the trapped gas escapes and liquid levels
in both arms of the manometer remain the same. Therefore, 𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆.

COMPARISONS OF DENSITIES OF LIQUIDS THAT DON’T MIX

(𝑯𝑨𝑹𝑬′ 𝑺 𝑨𝑷𝑷𝑨𝑹𝑨𝑻𝑼𝑺)

𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒂𝒑

𝒉𝟏
𝒉𝟐

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟏 𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟐
▪ Liquids of different densities are poured in the glass beakers as shown above.
▪ When the gas tap is opened, air is let out and each liquid rises to different heights ℎ1 and ℎ2 .
▪ Since the liquids are pressurized by the same gas;
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟏 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟐
𝒉𝟏 𝝆𝟏 𝒈 = 𝒉𝟐 𝝆𝟐 𝑔

Examples:

1. Two liquids were sucked up in two identical tubes as shown below.

𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝟔𝒄𝒎

𝑩𝟏 𝑩𝟐
Given that liquid in beaker 𝐵1 is water. Calculate the density of liquid in beaker 𝐵2.
(density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟏 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟐
𝒉𝟏 𝝆𝟏 𝒈 = 𝒉𝟐 𝝆𝟐 𝑔
𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟔 × 𝝆𝟐 × 10
𝟐𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝝆𝟐
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝟐 =
𝟏𝟔𝟎
𝝆𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 31

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. The figure below shows a mercury manometer having two liquids. Find the density of paraffin.
(Density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )

𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟖𝒄𝒎 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒏
𝑨 𝑩

𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒏

𝒉𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈 = 𝒉𝒑 𝝆𝒑 𝑔
𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝝆𝒑 × 10
𝟖𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝆𝒑
𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒑 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒑 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

3. In the figure below, find the density of mercury given that density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3.
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝟓𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝒉𝒎 𝝆𝒎 𝒈 = 𝒉𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈
𝟐𝟎 × 𝝆𝒎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝝆𝒎 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟓𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒎 =
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒎 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

4. The levels of mercury in a manometer are found to be as shown below. Given that
density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3, find the density of alcohol.

𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝑨𝒍𝒄𝒐𝒉𝒐𝒍
𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 32

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝒍𝒄𝒐𝒉𝒐𝒍

𝒉𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈 = 𝒉𝒂 𝝆𝒂 𝑔
𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎 × 𝝆𝒂 × 10
𝟐𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝝆𝒂
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒂 =
𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒂 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟕 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

EXERCISE:
1. The levels of liquids in the arms of a mercury manometer are as shown in the figure below.

𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒏
𝑨 𝑩

If the density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3, determine the density of paraffin.

2. In the figure below, determine the pressure exerted by the gas.

(𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
𝑯

𝑮𝒂𝒔
𝟑𝟓𝒄𝒎

𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎

3. In the figure below, determine the pressure of the gas in.

(𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )

i) 𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔
ii) 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
iii) 𝑃𝑎

𝟓𝟔𝒄𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 33

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. The level of mercury in the arms of the manometer shown below is equal.
(density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)

𝟏𝟐𝒄𝒎
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝑲𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒆
𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

Determine the;
(i) Density of kerosene.
(ii) Relative density of kerosene.

5. The U-tube in the figure below contains mercury and oil of density 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and 600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
respectively. Calculate the height of the oil column.

𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎

6. The diagram below shows air trapped by a column of mercury in a J-tube.

(𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
Calculate the pressure of the enclosed air.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 34

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

MODERN PHYSICS
The structure of an atom:

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒔/𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔

𝑵𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏
𝑵𝒖𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒖𝒔 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction. An
atom consists of three particles namely;
▪ Electrons
▪ Neutrons
▪ Protons
An atom is made of a central part called the nucleus around which electrons revolve.
The nucleus is positively charged because it consists of protons which are positively charged
and neutrons which have no charge. The properties of the particles of an atom are as shown
in the table below.
Name Symbol Mass Charge
Protons P 1 Positive
Neutrons n 1 No charge
Electrons e 0 Negative
Note: The number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the number electrons around the nucleus
and since they have opposite charges the atom has no charge.
Likely question: Describe the model/structure of an atom
Atomic number, Z:
This is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑍 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠

Mass number [atomic mass], A: (nucleon number):

This is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 + 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐴 = 𝑍 + 𝑛
If an atom of an element X is represented as
𝑨 where A is the mass number and Z is the atomic number
𝑍𝑿

Examples:
1. Given a chloride atom 35
17𝑪𝒍. Find the number of electrons in the atom.
𝐴 = 𝑍 + 𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 = 35, 𝑍 = 17
𝑛 = 35 − 17
𝑛 = 𝟏𝟖 𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑍 = 𝟏𝟕 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. State the composition of the atom 𝟐𝟑𝟓

𝟗𝟐𝑼
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 92
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 235
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 235 − 92 = 143
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 92
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 92

ISOTOPES:
These are atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Therefore, isotopes of an element have the same number of protons and electrons and different
number of neutrons

Examples of isotopes are:

35 36 37
Chlorine; 17𝐶𝑙 , 17𝐶𝑙 , 17𝐶𝑙
12 13 14
Carbon; 6𝐶 , 6𝐶 , 6𝐶
1 2 3
Hydrogen; 1 , 1𝐻 , 1𝐻
𝐻

RADIOACTIVITY:
This is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable nucleus of an atom to form a stable nucleus
with emission of radiations.
There are three radiations emitted by radioactive nucleus namely:
▪ Alpha particles, 𝛼.
▪ Beta particles, 𝛽.
▪ Gamma rays, 𝛾.

Elements that undergo radioactivity are called radioactive elements/nuclides.

Heavy nuclides are generally unstable hence radioactivity ensures that they reach a stable state.

Examples of radioactive elements are:

▪ Uranium (U)
▪ Radium (Ra)
▪ Polonium (Po),
▪ Protactinium (Pa)
▪ Etc.

Radioisotopes:
These are radioactive atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but different
mass number.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

TYPES OF RADIATIONS
Alpha particle, 𝜶:
Alpha particle is a high speed helium nucleus ( 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆)
Alpha particles have a mass number of 4 and atomic number of 2 i.e. two protons and two neutrons
and they carry a positive charge. They have no electrons to balance the two positively charged
protons.

Properties of alpha particles:

▪ They are helium nuclei
▪ They are slightly deflected by both magnetic and electric fields because of their large mass.
▪ They are positively charged.
▪ They have the greatest ionizing power.
▪ They have the least penetrating power.
▪ They are stopped by a thick sheet of paper.
▪ They have a very short range in air.
▪ They affect the photographic films.
▪ They have speed less than the speed of light.
▪ They cause fluorescence when incident on fluorescent substance.

Alpha decay:
When a nuclide undergoes an alpha decay, it loses two protons and two neutrons.
Therefore its mass number reduces by four and its atomic number reduces by two and the daughter
nuclide is two steps to the left in the periodic table.

Given that a radioactive element, 𝑨𝒁𝑿 undergoes an alpha decay to form element Y. Then the
nuclear reaction equation is given by;
𝑨 𝑨−𝟒 𝟒
𝑍𝑿 𝑍−2𝒀 + 2𝑯𝒆 + energy
(Parent) (Daughter) (Alpha particle)

Examples:
1. Radium (Ra) decays to become radon (Rn) according to the equation
226 222
88𝑅𝑎 86𝑅𝑛 + 42𝐻𝑒

2. Uranium (U) decays to become thorium (Th) according to the equation

238 234
92𝑈 90𝑇ℎ + 42𝐻𝑒

Question 1:
A radioactive substance 226𝑋 undergoes decay and emits an alpha particle to form nuclide Y. Write
an equation for the process.
𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟖 𝟒
𝟔𝑿 𝟒𝒀 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Beta particle, β:
A beta particle is a high-speed electron emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive element.
Beta particles have no mass number and carry a negative charge ( −10𝒆).
A beta particle is produced as a result of one of the neutrons changing to a proton.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎𝒏 𝟏𝑷 + −𝟏𝒆
Properties of beta particles:
▪ They are negatively charged.
▪ They are lighter since they have negligible mass
▪ They are easily deflected by both magnetic and electric fields
▪ They have greater penetrating power than alpha particles because of their high speed.
▪ They have less ionizing power than alpha particle.
▪ They can be stopped by a thin sheet of aluminium.
▪ They have a greater range in air than alpha particles.
▪ They cause fluorescence when incident on fluorescent substance.
▪ They are electrons.

Beta decay:
When a nuclide undergoes beta decay its mass number does not change but its atomic number
increases by one. The daughter nuclide is one step to the right in the periodic table.

Given that a radioactive element, 𝑨

𝒁𝑿 undergoes a beta decay to form element Y. Then the
nuclear reaction equation is given by:
𝑨 𝑨 𝟎
𝑍𝑿 𝑍+1𝒀 + −1𝒆 + energy
(Parent) (Daughter) (Beta particle)

Examples:
1. Carbon-14 decays to Nitrogen according to the equation
𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟒
𝟔𝑪 𝟕𝑵 + −𝟏𝟎𝒆
𝟐𝟑𝟓
2. 𝟗𝟐𝑈 decays by emitting 3 beta particles to form a daughter nuclide P. Find the atomic
and mass nummber of P.
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝑼 𝟗𝟓𝑷 + 𝟑 −𝟏𝟎𝒆
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟗𝟓

Gamma rays, γ:
Gamma ray is an electromagnetic radiation with a very short-wave length.
Gamma rays have no mass number and carry no charge.
Gamma rays are produced when an excited atomic nucleus loses energy and the energy is given
out as gamma rays.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Properties of gamma rays:

▪ They are not charged.
▪ They travel at a speed of light since they are electromagnetic radiations.
▪ They are not deflected by both magnetic and electric fields since they are not charged.
▪ They have the least ionizing power.
▪ They have the greatest penetrating power.
▪ They undergo interference and diffraction.
▪ They cause fluorescence when incident on fluorescence substances.
▪ They have the greatest range in air.
▪ They are stopped by thick block of lead.

Gamma decay:
Gamma rays are not particles, therefore when nuclide emits gamma rays its atomic number and
its mass number do not change but the nucleus becomes more stable.

Given that a radioactive element, 𝑨

𝒁𝑿 undergoes a gamma decay to form a stable element X.
Then the nuclear reaction equation is given by:
𝑨 𝑨
𝑍𝑿 𝑍𝒀 + 𝛾 + energy
(Parent) (Daughter) (Beta particle)
Note:
The change of an element to another element is called Transmutation.

Examples:
1. Radium 𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 loses 5 alpha particles and 4 beta particles and is converted into a new
stable element, an isotope of lead 𝑃𝑏. Find the mass number and atomic number of this
isotope.
226 𝐴 4 0
88𝑅𝑎 𝑍𝑃𝑏 + 5( 2𝐻𝑒) + 4( −1𝑒)
226 = 𝐴 + (5 × 4) + (4 × 0) = 𝐴 + 20
𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎𝟔
Also, 88 = 𝑍 + (5 × 2) + (4 × −1) = 𝑍 + 10 − 4
𝒁 = 𝟖𝟐

2. Thorium 232 224

90𝑇ℎ is converted into Radium 88𝑅𝑎 by radioactivity transformation below.
How many α and β emissions have taken place?
232 224 4 0
90Th 88Ra + x( 2He) + y( −1e)
90 = 88 + 2x − y
y − 2x = 2 ……………………………………..(eqn 1)
232 = 224 + 4x
𝒙 = 𝟐, therefore, 𝒚 = 𝟐.
There are 2𝛼 – 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 and 2𝛽 – 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Penetrating power of the radiations:

Alpha particles have the least penetrating power and can be stopped by a thick sheet of paper.
Beta particles have a greater penetrating power than alpha particles and can be stopped by a thin
sheet of aluminium while gamma rays have the greatest penetrating power and can be stopped by
thick block of lead.
𝜶, 𝜷, 𝜸 𝜷, 𝜸 𝜸

𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝑨𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒅
𝒑𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕

Ionizing power of the radiations:

Alpha particles produce straight traces because they are heavy and they cause greater ionization
of the air through which they pass.
Beta particles produce irregular and light traces.
Gamma rays do not traces but leave hairy traces after colliding with the air molecules since they
have a least ionization power.

(Alpha particle) (Beta particle) (Gamma ray)

Deflection of the radiations in an electric field:

When the radiations from a radioactive nucleus are passed through a strong electric field;
• The beta particles are deflected towards a positive plate showing that they carry a negative
charge.
• Alpha particles are deflected towards a negative plate in the direction opposite to that of
beta particles showing that alpha particles carry a positive plate.
• The gamma rays are not deflected at all showing that they carry no charge.

𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔

𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝜶 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Deflection of the radiations in a magnetic field:

Alpha particles are deflected in a direction towards the South Pole while beta particles are
deflected towards the North Pole.
Alpha particles are less deflected than beta particles implying that alpha articles are heavier than
beta particles. The gamma rays are not deflected in the magnetic field implying that they have no
charge. 𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔
𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝜶 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔

𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝜶 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆
Differences between alpha and beta particles
ALPHA PARTICLES BETA PARTICLES
▪ Are helium atoms. ▪ Are electrons.
▪ They are positively charged. ▪ They are negatively charged.
▪ Deflected towards the negative plate in ▪ Deflected towards positive plate in an
electric field. electric field.
▪ Deflected towards south pole in magnetic ▪ Deflected towards the north pole in a
field. magnetic field.
▪ Stopped by thick sheet of paper. ▪ Stopped by thin sheet of aluminium.
▪ They are heavier. ▪ They are lighter.

Similarities between Alpha and Beta particles

▪ Both cause ionization of gases
▪ Both have charges.
▪ Both are deflected by electric field.
▪ Both are deflected by magnetic field.
▪ Both penetrate matter.

Uses of radioactivity:
a) Medical uses:
✓ Detection of broken bones.
✓ Detection of cancer cells and treating them.
✓ Used for sterilization of medical instruments
✓ Detection of brain tumors
✓ Detecting amount of blood in a patient

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

b) Industrial uses:
✓ Used to measure fluid flow in pipes in industries.
✓ Used to provide source of energy [electricity].
✓ Used in hardening polythene and petroleum.
✓ Used in food preservation.
✓ Used in detecting oil leakages in oil pipes.
✓ Used to measure the thickness of the metal sheet.

c) Agricultural uses:
✓ Used to produce new varieties of plants with new characteristics.
✓ Used to study the rate of uptake of fertilizers by plants.
✓ Used in pest control.

d) Archeological uses
✓ Used in determining the age of fossils (carbon-dating)
❖ Every living thing (plant or animal) has a certain constant quantity of carbon -14
elements (isotope). When the plant or animal dies this isotope begins decaying and
the rate of disintegration decreases with time. So, when a fossil is obtained the rate
of disintegration is determined, and this is used to calculate the age of the fossil. i.e.
when the plant or animal died, which would show when that type of plant or animal
existed.

HEALTH HAZARDS / DANGERS OF RADIOACTIVITY:

▪ Radiations cause skin burns.
▪ Radiations cause blood cancer.
▪ Radiations cause sterility [inability to produce].
▪ Radiations cause low body resistance to normal diseases.
▪ Radiations cause genetic changes [mutation].
▪ Radiations destroy body cells.
▪ Radiations damage eye sight and body tissues.

Safety precautions when handling radioactive elements:

▪ They should be handled using long pair of tongs.
▪ They should be transported in thick lead containers.
▪ You should avoid unnecessary exposure to the radiations.
▪ You should wear protective clothing when handling radioactive elements.
▪ You should not eat or drink where radioactive sources are in use.
▪ You should cover any wound before using radioactive source.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Background radiations:
These are ionizing radiations from a variety of natural and artificial sources that are always
present in the environment.

Natural sources of background radiations:

Natural sources of background radiation include the following:
Cosmic Radiation:
These are radiations that reach the Earth from space.
The sun is a major source of cosmic rays. Cosmic rays originating from the sun, stars and other
major events in outer space are continuously striking the Earth. The majority of these cosmic
rays are absorbed by the Earth atmosphere but the more energetic radiations interact with the
atoms in the atmosphere creating energetic neutrons.

Terrestrial Radiation:
These are radiations from radioactive materials that exist naturally in soil and rock.
E.g. radiations from uranium, thorium, and radium. Some rocks are radioactive and give off
radioactive radon gas. Essentially all air contains radon. In addition, water contains small
amounts of dissolved uranium and thorium, and all organic matter (both plant and animal)
contains radioactive carbon and potassium. Some of these materials are ingested with food and
water, while others (such as radon) are taken in.

Internal Radiation:
These are radiations from radioactive materials which are present in the human body. These
come from natural radioactive sources such as Carbon-14 in the air we breathe. Fruits and
crops take in radioactive materials from the soil as well as Carbon-14 from the air.

Artificial sources of background radiations:

These are mainly from human activities. They include:
Nuclear power stations:
Major incidents from nuclear power stations have released radiations into the environment.
Nuclear waste from power station also accounts for a proportion of artificial background
radiation.

Nuclear weapons:
Nuclear weapon testing resulted in an increase of radiation in the environment
because of radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing.

Medical sources:
Humans are exposed to radiations by medical procedures such as x-rays and radiotherapy.
Nearly all artificial background radiation comes from medical procedures such as receiving
X-rays for X-ray photographs.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Detecting the radiation:

The following can be used to detect radiations;
Photographic film:
Photographic film goes darker when it absorbs radiations. The more radiation the film absorbs,
the darker it becomes. People, who work with radiation, wear film badges which are checked
regularly to monitor the levels of radiation absorbed.

Geiger-Muller tube and Cloud Chamber:

The Geiger-Muller tube or cloud chamber detects radiation and each time it absorbs radiation, it
transmits an electrical pulse to a counting machine. This makes a clicking sound or displays the
count rate. The greater the frequency of clicks, the higher the count rate and the more radiation
the Geiger-Muller tube or cloud chamber is absorbing.

NUCLEAR REACTIONS:
This is a process in which energy is produced. A nuclear reaction takes place in a nuclear reactor.
There are two types of nuclear reactions and these are
▪ Nuclear fusion.
▪ Nuclear fission.

Nuclear fusion:
This is a process by which two light nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus with release of
energy.
It takes place at the sun, stars and in the hydrogen bomb.
The process results into three products i.e. one heavy atom, neutron and energy.

Example:
Two Deuterium nuclei (heavy hydrogen) combine to form Helium -3 and a neutron with release
of energy
𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏
𝟏𝑯 + 𝟏𝑯 𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟎𝒏 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

Conditions for nuclear fusion to occur:

• It occurs at very high temperature
• The light nuclei should be moving at a very high speed

Nuclear fission:
This is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei with release of energy.
This process is started by bombardment of a heavy nucleus with a slow-moving neutron.
The four products of the process are two light atom and more neutrons which can make the
process continue and energy.

Example:
𝟐𝟑𝟔
Splitting of uranium-236 𝟗𝟐𝑼 to form Barium (Ba) and Krypton (Kr) with release of energy.
236 1 141 92 1
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 56𝐵𝑎 + 36𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Conditions for nuclear fission:

• It occurs at very low temperature.
• It requires a slow moving neutron.
• Presence of a heavy nucleus.

Uses of nuclear fusion and nuclear fission

▪ Used to produce hydrogen.
▪ Nuclear fusion is used to make hydrogen bombs.
▪ Used to produce electricity.
▪ Used to produce heat energy on large scale.
▪ Nuclear fission is used to make atomic bombs.

Differences between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission

Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
▪ Is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two ▪ Is the combining of two lighter nuclei to
lighter nuclei. form a heavy nucleus.
▪ Requires a low temperature. ▪ Requires a high temperature.
▪ Requires neutrons for bombardment. ▪ Neutrons are not required.
▪ Results into four products. ▪ Results into three products.
▪ Energy released is high. ▪ Energy released is low.

Example:
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝒚
𝟗𝟐𝑼 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏 𝟐𝟑𝟔
𝟗𝟐𝑼
𝟏𝟒𝟒
𝒙𝑩𝒂 + 𝟑𝟔𝑲𝒓 + 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝒏
Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the above nuclear fission reaction.
236 = 144 + 𝑦 + 2 92 = 𝑥 + 36 + 0
236 = 146 + 𝑦 92 = 𝑥 + 36
𝒚 = 𝟗𝟎 𝒙 = 𝟓𝟔

HALF LIFE:
This is the time taken for a radioactive element to decay to half its original mass.
Half-life is measured in seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months and years.
Half-life is not affected by physical factors like temperature and pressure and half-life is different
for different radioactive nuclides.
If 𝑀𝑜 is the original mass of a radioactive element and 𝑀𝑇 is the mass of a radioactive element at
any time, t, then
𝑀𝑜 𝑡
=2 ½ 𝑇
𝑀𝑇
Where 𝑇½ is the half-life of a radioactive element.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
1. If a radioactive element of mass 32𝑔 decays to 2𝑔 in 96 days. Calculate the half-life.
Method 1:
𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½
32𝑔 16𝑔 8𝑔 4𝑔 2𝑔
𝟒𝑻½ = 𝟗𝟔
𝟗𝟔
𝑻½ =
𝟒
𝑻½ = 𝟐𝟒 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔

Method 2:
32 96
𝑀𝑜 = 32𝑔,
𝑀𝑇 = 2𝑔, = 2𝑇½
2
96
𝑡 = 96𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠,
𝑇½ =? 16 = 2𝑇½
96
𝑡
𝑀𝑜 24 = 2𝑇½
=2 𝑇½
96
𝑀𝑇
4=
𝑇½
𝑻½ = 𝟐𝟒 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔

2. A radioactive element of mass 9.6𝑔 has a mass of 0.15𝑔 after 24hours.

Method 1:
𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½
9.6𝑔 4.8𝑔 2.4𝑔 1.2𝑔 0.6𝑔 0.3𝑔 0.15𝑔
𝟔𝑻½ = 𝟐𝟒
𝟐𝟒
𝑻½ =
𝟔
𝑻½ = 𝟒 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔

Method 2:
9.6 24
𝑀𝑜 = 9.6𝑔,
𝑀𝑇 = 0.15𝑔, = 2𝑇½
0.15
24
𝑡 = 24ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠,
𝑇½ =? 64 = 2𝑇½
24
𝑡
𝑀𝑜 26 = 2𝑇½
=2 𝑇½
24
𝑀𝑇
6=
𝑇½
𝑻½ = 𝟒 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

3. A radioactive element of mass 12𝑔 has a half-life of 7years. Find the time taken for the
element to decay to 0.75𝑔.
Method 1:
𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½
12𝑔 6𝑔 3𝑔 1.5𝑔 0.75𝑔
𝟒𝑻½ = 𝒕
𝟒×𝟕=𝒕
𝒕 = 𝟐𝟖 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔
Method 2:

𝑀𝑜 = 12𝑔, 12 𝑡
= 27
𝑀𝑇 = 0.75𝑔, 0.75
𝑡
𝑡 =?, 16 = 27
𝑇½ = 7𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑡

𝑀𝑜
𝑡 24 = 27
𝑡
=2 𝑇½
4= 𝟕
𝑀𝑇
𝒕 = 𝟐𝟖 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔
4. A certain mass of a radioactive material contains 2.7 × 1024 atoms, how many atoms
decayed after 3200 years if the half-life of material is 1600 years.

𝑴𝑶 = 𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 , 𝑻½ = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔, 𝒕 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒅 = 𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 − 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑴𝑫 = 𝑴𝑶 − 𝑴𝑻
𝒕
𝑴𝒐 𝑴𝑫 = 𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 − 𝟔. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑
= 𝟐𝑻½
𝑴𝑻 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒
𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎 Mass decayed = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝒈
= 𝟐𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝑻
𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒
= 𝟐𝟐
𝑴𝑻
𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 = 𝟒𝑴𝑻
𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒
= 𝑴𝑻
𝟒
𝑴𝑻 = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒈

Half-life from the graph:

• The graph of amount of an element, N against time, 𝒕 is plotted.
• Draw a horizontal line from half of the original amount to meet the curve.
• Draw a vertical line from the point on the curve to meet the time axis.
• Read the half-life from where the vertical line meets the time axis.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑨𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕
𝑵𝟎

𝑵𝟎
𝟐

𝟎 𝑻½ 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

Example:
The table below shows results obtained in an experiment to determine the half-life of a
radioactive substance.
Count rate 250 140 76 38 25
Time (min.) 0 5 10 15 20
Draw a graph of count rate against time and use it to determine the half-life of the radioactive
substance.

𝑨 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆

𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉,
𝑵𝟎 𝟐𝟓𝟎
= = 𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝑻½ = 𝟔 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔

𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝟓𝟎

𝟎
𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟓 𝟐𝟎
𝟎 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Exercise:
The following values obtained from the readings of a rate meter from a radioactive isotope of
iodine.
Time (𝑚𝑖𝑛) 0 5 10 15 20
−1 295 158 86 47 25
Count rate (𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
Plot a suitable graph and find the half-life of the radioactive iodine.

EXERCISE:
1. a) Define the following terms
(i) Atomic number
(ii) Mass number
b) State the composition of elements 𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟒
𝟖𝟔𝑿 and 𝟖𝟔𝒀
c) i) What is meant by the term radioactivity
ii) Name the radiations emitted by radioactive materials
iii)State the properties of the radiations named in (b) (ii) above
d) What dangers may arise when one is exposed to radioactive materials?
2. a) What is a radioactive nuclide
b) State the changes that take place in the nucleus of an atom if it emits
i) Alpha particle ii) Beta particle iii) Gamma ray
c) Explain the origin of beta particles and gamma rays.
d) Explain why
(i) Alpha particles are more ionizing than beta particles
(ii) Alpha particles have a short range in air than beta particles
(iii) Beta particles are deflected more than alpha particles by the same magnetic field
3. a) The nuclide 𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟖𝟔𝑿 decays to nuclide Y by emission of alpha particle.
(i) Write the equation for the decay.
(ii) State the atomic number and mass number of Y.
Ans: [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟖𝟕]
b) The nuclide 𝟐𝟒 𝟏𝟏𝑨 decays to nuclide P by emission of beta particle.
(i) Write the equation for the decay.
(ii) State the atomic number and mass number of P.
Ans: [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏𝟐]
c) The nuclide 𝟐𝟏𝟒 𝟖𝟐𝑿 decays to nuclide M by emission of beta particle and gamma ray.
(i) Write the equation for the decay.
(ii) State the atomic number and mass number of M.
Ans: [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟏𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟖𝟑]
d) The nuclide 𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 decays to nuclide Y by emission of two alpha particles and one beta
particle.
(i) Write the equation for the decay.
(ii) State the atomic number and mass number of Y.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. Given that R and H decay as shown below

(i) 𝟐𝟑𝟐
𝟗𝟐𝑹
𝟐𝟐𝟒
𝟗𝟏𝒀 + 𝒎𝜶 + 𝒏𝜷
𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟏𝟖
(ii) 𝟖𝟔𝑯 𝟖𝟒𝑷 + 𝑫
Find 𝑚, 𝑛 and identify particle D
Ans: [𝒎 = 𝟐, 𝒏 = 𝟑]
5. Given that Ra decays to Y according to the equation
𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝑨
𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 𝒁𝒀 + 𝟐𝜶 + 𝜷
Find the values of 𝐴 and 𝑍.
Ans: [𝑨 = 𝟐𝟏𝟖, 𝒁 = 𝟖𝟓]
6. a) Define the term half-life.
b) A radioactive sample of mass 60𝑔 has half-life of 8 minutes. Determine how much of it remains
after 40 minutes.
Ans: [𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟓𝒈]
c) An element 𝑋 of mass 64𝑔 decays to 4𝑔 in 96 days. Calculate
(i) The half-life of 𝑋.
(ii) The mass that decays in 120 days.
3
(iii) How long does it take for 4 of the sample to decay?
Ans: i) [𝟐𝟒 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔] ii) [𝟐𝒈] iii) [𝟒𝟖 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔]
7. a) Define the terms
(i) Nuclear fusion
(ii) Nuclear fission
b) i) State the conditions necessary for each to take place
ii) Give two examples where each takes place
c) i) 235 1
92𝑈 + 0𝑛
𝑥 92
56𝐵𝑎 + 𝑦𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛
1

Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦

ii) 21𝐻 + 31𝐻 𝑄 + 10𝑛
Find the atomic number and mass number of 𝑄
Ans: i) [𝒙 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏, 𝒚 = 𝟑𝟔] ii) [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐]
8. a) What is background radiation.
b) i) Describe the structure and action of Geiger-Muller tube.
ii) Describe the structure and action of diffusion cloud chamber.
c) Draw diagrams to show tracks of each of the radioactive radiations appear in the Geiger-
Muller tube.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

THERMIONIC EMISSION:
This is the process by which electrons are emitted from a hot metal surface.

Production of electrons
Electrons can be produced by;
▪ Thermionic emission
▪ Photo electric emission

Kinetic theory explanation of thermionic emission:

When a metal surface is heated to a certain temperature, the free electrons at the surface gain
kinetic energy and they overcome the forces of attraction by the nucleus hence escaping from the
metal surface.

Applications of thermionic emission:

Thermionic emission can be applied in the following devices;

• Diode valves.
• Cathode ray tube.
• Cathode ray oscilloscope.
• X-ray tube.

PHOTO ELECTRIC EMISSION:

This is the process by which electrons are emitted from the metal surface when exposed to
electromagnetic waves of sufficient frequency.

Photo electric emission occurs in phototubes [photoelectric cells].

The electrons emitted are referred to as photoelectrons and the electromagnetic waves used are
called ultra violet radiations.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Photoelectric cell:
• Photoelectric cell is composed of the cathode coated with a photo-sensitive material and the
anode enclosed in a vacuum tube.
• The glass tube is evacuated in order to avoid collision of cathode rays with air molecules
which may lead to low current flowing due to loss in kinetic energy of cathode rays.
𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆
𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

Mechanism of a photoelectric cell:
▪ Electromagnetic radiation is directed onto the cathode and supplies sufficient energy that
causes the liberation of electrons.
▪ The electrons emitted are then attracted to the anode and the flow of electrons generates a
current around the circuit and the ammeter deflects.
▪ The amount of the current produced is proportional to the intensity of the radiation.
▪ The stream of electrons flowing from the cathode to the anode is referred to as cathode
rays.

NOTE:
If a gas is introduced into the tube, the current decreases slowly because the gas particles
collide with the electrons, hence reducing the number of electrons reaching the anode.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒁𝒊𝒏𝒄
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑮𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

When Ultra violet light is incident on a clean zinc plate placed on the cap of a gold leaf
electroscope:
▪ If the electroscope is negatively charged, the leaf divergence slowly decreases indicating
that it is losing charge. This is because since radiations fall on a zinc plate, electrons are emitted
from leaving it with no electrons. So this makes the electrons to move from the leaf and gold
plate to the zinc to replace the lost electrons.
▪ If the electroscope is positively charged, there is no change in divergence
of the leaf. This is because the emitted electrons after ionization in air are attracted
back by the positively charged zinc hence no loss of charge.
Conclusion:
The Zinc plate emits photoelectrons when ultra violet radiation falls on it.

Note: Radio waves can’t be used because they don’t have sufficient energy to emit electrons
from zinc.

Applications of photoelectric effect:

Photoelectric effect is applied in:
1) Burglar alarms.
2) Automatic lighting systems
3) In solar calculators.
4) Television cameras.
5) Automatic door system.
6) Sound track on a film.

CATHODE RAYS:
These are streams of fast-moving electrons.
They are produced from the cathode by thermionic emission. Cathode rays carry energy since
they possess speed.

Production of cathode rays:

𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑳𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ The cathode is heated by a low voltage applied across the heater.

▪ The cathode then emits electrons by thermionic emission.
▪ The emitted electrons are then accelerated by a high voltage applied between the heater
and the anode so that they move with a very high speed hence forming cathode rays.
▪ Some of the electrons (cathode rays) pass through the anode and a parallel beam of
electrons is obtained which is received as spot on the fluorescent screen.

Note: The tube is evacuated to prevent cathode rays from colliding with air particles hence
free movement of cathode rays.

Properties of cathode rays:

▪ They travel in straight lines.
▪ They are negatively charged since they are electrons.
▪ They produce X-rays when stopped by a heavy metal.
▪ They are deflected by magnetic fields i.e. towards the north pole.
▪ They are deflected by electric fields i.e. towards positive plate.
▪ They possess momentum and kinetic energy.
▪ They cause fluorescence when they strike matter i.e. they cause other materials to give off
light.
▪ They ionize air and gas molecules.

Experiment to show that cathode rays travel in straight line (Thermionic tube).

𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏

𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑳𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑺𝒉𝒂𝒅𝒐𝒘 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔

When cathode rays are directed towards the Maltese cross in a cathode ray tube.
A shadow of the cross is formed on the fluorescent screen. The formation of the shadow verifies
that cathode rays travels in a straight line.

Applications of cathode rays:

Cathode rays are applied in the following devices;
• Cathode ray oscilloscope.
• X – ray tube.
• Diode.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope [C.R.O]:

It is an instrument used to study current and voltage wave forms.
It has three main parts and these are
▪ Electron gun.
▪ Deflecting system.
▪ Fluorescent screen. 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒈𝒖𝒏 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑳𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍 𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒅 𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝒀 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑿 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎
𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎

Functions of the parts:

(a) Electron gun:
It consists of a heater, cathode, grid and Anode.
(i) The heater: This heats the cathode electrically.
(ii) The cathode: It emits electrons by thermionic emission i.e. when heated electrically by
the heater.
(iii)The control grid: It controls the brightness of the spot on the screen by controlling the
number of electrons reaching the anode and screen.
(iv) The anode: It is used to accelerate the electrons produced by the cathode.

(b) Deflecting system:

It consists of the X – plates and Y – plates.
The Y – plates deflect the beam of electrons vertically.
The X – plates deflect the beam of electrons horizontally.

(c) Fluorescent screen:

This is where the bright spot of electrons is formed.

NOTE:
▪ The inner walls of the cathode ray oscilloscope are coated with graphite to trap stray
electrons emitted from the screen.
▪ The cathode ray oscilloscope is evacuated to minimize loss of energy of electrons due to
collision with air molecules.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(d) Time base:

This is a special circuit that generates p.d which rises steadily to a certain value and falls rapidly
to zero. It is connected across the X-plates.
The time base is used to generate a saw-toothed voltage.
𝑷. 𝒅 (𝑽)
𝑭𝒍𝒚 𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒑

Note:
The time base is connected to the X – plates and causes the spot to move from left to right
which is called linear sweep and the spot returns to the left before it starts the next sweep
which is called fly back.

Wave forms on C.R.O screen.

(i) No A.C voltage on the Y-plates and time (ii) A.C voltage on the Y-plates and time
base on base off

(iii) A.C voltage on the Y-plates and time (iv) D.C voltage on the Y-plates only and
base on time base off

(v) No D.C voltage on the Y-plates and time (vi) D.C voltage on the Y-plates and time
base on base on

(vii) No potential difference is applied to the Y-plates and time base off

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

USES OF C.R.O:
▪ It is used to measure potential difference.
▪ It is used to study wave forms.
▪ It is used to measure the frequency of the wave.
▪ It is used to measure the wave length of the wave.
▪ It is used to measure phase difference between two voltages.
▪ It is used as a timing device.
▪ It is used to measure the peak value of alternating and direct current.
▪ It is used to display pictures in TV sets.

Advantages of C.R.O over ordinary ammeter or voltmeter:

▪ It has infinite resistance therefore draws no current from the circuit.
▪ It is not affected by high voltages/currents.
▪ It measures both alternating and direct voltages.
▪ It is very accurate.
▪ It has no coil to burn out.
▪ It responds very fast.

Disadvantages of C.R.O over ordinary ammeter or voltmeter:

▪ It is not portable.
▪ It requires skilled personnel.
▪ It is expensive.
▪ It takes a lot of time to measure voltages.
▪ It does not give direct readings.

MEASURING VOLTAGE ON A C.R.O SCREEN

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = [𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑐𝑚] × [𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒(𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) ]
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒈 𝒅

Also, root mean square voltage is given by;

𝑽
𝑽𝒓.𝒎.𝒔 =
√𝟐

Also, period;
𝑻 = [𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈/𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏] × [𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆]

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
1. A cathode oscilloscope CRO with time base switched on is connected across a power supply.
The wave form shown in figure below is obtained. Length between each line is 1𝑐𝑚.
a) Identify the type of voltage generated by the
power supply.
b) Find the maximum voltage (amplitude of
𝑨 𝑩 voltage) generated if the voltage gain is
5𝑉𝑐𝑚−1.
c) Calculate the frequency of the power source,
lf the time base setting on the C.R.O is
5 × 10−3 𝑠𝑐𝑚−1 .

Solutions:
(a) 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

(b) (c)
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ, 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 3𝑐𝑚 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅, 𝑻 = 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 × 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑉 = 5×3 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 4𝑐𝑚
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟓𝑽 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 5 × 10−3 𝑠𝑐𝑚−1
𝑇 = 5 × 10−3 × 4
𝑇 = 0.02𝑠
1 1
𝑓= ⟹ 𝑓=
𝑇 0.02
𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛

2. A CRO with the time base switched on is connected across a power supply. The wave form
shown below is obtained. Distance between each line is 1𝑐𝑚.
𝟏𝒄𝒎

𝟏𝒄𝒎

a) Identify the type of voltage generated by the power supply.

𝑨𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

b) Find the maximum value of the voltage generated if he voltage gain is 10𝑉𝑐𝑚−1 .
𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒅 = 𝟏 𝒄𝒎
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏/𝒄𝒎 × 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒈 𝒅
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑽𝒄𝒎−𝟏 × 𝟏 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑽

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

c) Calculate the frequency of the power source if the time base setting on the CRO is
10.0 × 10−3 𝑠𝑐𝑚−1.
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅, 𝑻 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 × 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 × 𝟏. 𝟓
𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝒔
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇= , 𝒇=
𝑻 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝒇 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟕𝑯𝒛

X-RAYS:
These are electromagnetic waves of short wavelength which are produced when cathode
rays are stopped by a metal surface.

Production of X-Rays (X-Ray Tube):

𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎
𝑻𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒕

𝑬𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑳𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑭𝒐𝒄𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒑

𝑪𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑿 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔
𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔
𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅
Mode of operation:
▪ The cathode is heated by a low voltage and electrons are emitted from it by thermionic
emission.
▪ The electrons are accelerated to the anode by the high voltage supply connected across the
cathode and anode.
▪ And on reaching the metal target, 99% of the kinetic energy of electrons is converted into
heat and 1% of kinetic energy of elections is converted into X-rays.
▪ The heat generated at the target is cooled down by means of cooling fins and then conducted.
▪ The X – ray tube is evacuated to prevent cathode rays from colliding with air molecules
hence allowing free movement of electrons in the tube.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
✓ The tungsten is used because it has a high melting point that can withstand the heat
generated when electrons hit the target.
✓ The curvature of the cathode helps to focus emitted electrons onto the anode.
✓ The cooling fins are painted black to radiate the heat quickly.
✓ The lead shield absorbs stray X-rays

In the X – ray tube the following energy changes take place;

𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐊𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲

PROPERTIES OF X – RAYS:
▪ They carry no charge.
▪ They are not deflected by both magnetic and electric fields.
▪ They readily penetrate matter. Penetration is least with materials of high density.
▪ They cause ionization of gases.
▪ They affect photographic films.
▪ They travel in a straight line.
▪ They travel at a speed of light.
▪ They undergo reflection, refraction and diffraction by atoms.
▪ They are electromagnetic waves of very short wave length.
▪ They cause fluorescence when they strike matter.
▪ They can produce photoelectric emission

Intensity of X- Rays (Quantity):

Intensity is the strength or power of X-rays.
The intensity of X-rays in an X-ray tube is proportional to the number of electrons reaching the
target. The number of electrons produced is determined by the filament current. Therefore, the
higher the filament current the higher the intensity of the X-rays since more electrons are emitted
with high filament current.

Question: Describe how the intensity of X-rays can be improved/increased.

This is done by increasing the filament current which increase the temperature of the filament
cathode thus increasing the number of electrons emitted thermionically. Hence the number of
electrons hitting the target will increase.

Penetration power of X-Rays (Quality):

Penetration power is the ability of X-rays to enter matter.
The penetration power of X-rays depends on the kinetic energy of electrons reaching the target.
The penetration power of X-rays is determined by the high potential difference across the X-ray
tube.
The higher the accelerating voltage the faster the electrons produced and the greater the kinetic
energy of electrons hence the higher the penetration power of X-rays produced.

Question: Describe how the penetrating power of X-rays is increased.

This is done by increasing the accelerating voltage between the anode and cathode which
makes electrons to move with a faster speed hence increasing the kinetic energy. This
increases the penetrating power of X-rays.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

TYPES OF X-RAYS
There are two types namely;
▪ Hard X-rays
▪ Soft X-rays.
SOFT X-RAYS:
These are X-rays of low penetrating power.

Properties of soft X-rays:

▪ They produced by low accelerating voltages.
▪ They have a low penetration power.
▪ They have low kinetic energy.
▪ They have a long wave length.
▪ They have a low frequency

HARD X-RAYS:
These are X-rays of high penetrating power.

Properties of hard X-rays:

▪ They produced by high accelerating voltages
▪ They have a high penetration power.
▪ They have high kinetic energy.
▪ They have a short wave length.

Differences between soft X-rays and hard X-rays

HARD X-RAYS SOFT X-RAYS
• Produced by a high voltage. • Produced by low voltage.
• They have a shorter wavelength. • They have a longer wavelength.
• They are more penetrative. • They are less penetrative.
• They have a high frequency. • They have a low frequency.
• They have high kinetic energy. • They have low kinetic energy.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS

▪ They are both electromagnetic waves.
▪ They both pass through a vacuum.
▪ Both are not deflected in both electric and magnetic fields.
▪ They both have no charge.
▪ They both travel with a speed of light.
▪ They are both transverse waves.

USES OF X-RAYS:
Medical uses:
• They are used to investigate the broken bones in X – ray photography.
• They are used to treat cancer cells.
• They used to detect the complicated organs of the body.
• They are used to detect tuberculosis of the lungs.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

• They are used to diagnose stomach ulcers.

How x-rays are used to locate broken parts of a bone.

❖ When X-rays are passed through the body onto the photographic plate or film,
The bones which are composed of a much denser material than the flesh absorb most of
the X-rays and appear white on the photographic plate or film.
The flesh which is composed of less dense material allows most of the X-rays to pass
through it hence darkening the photographic film or plate.
These shadows are studied in order to locate the broken part.

Industrial uses:
• They are used to detect cracks in metal castings and welded joints.
• They are used to study the structure of crystals [crystallography].
• They are used to detect faults in motor tyres.
• They are used to detect defects in paints.

Dangers of X-rays:
▪ They destroy living cells in the body.
▪ They damage blood cells and eye sight.
▪ They cause genetic changes [mutation].
▪ They skin burns due to their greater penetration power.
▪ They cause cancer after excessive exposure.

Safety precautions taken when using X-rays:

• Avoid unnecessary exposure to X-rays.
• The X-ray apparatus should be shielded using thick lead.
• The person should wear protective clothing made of thick lead.
• Keep large distance between X-ray source and people.
• Soft X-rays should always be used on human tissues

THE DIODE:
This is an electrical device that conducts electricity in one direction only.
There are two types of diodes and these are
▪ Semi-conductor diode.
▪ Vacuum diode.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Thermionic diode (vacuum diode):

This is a device used to change alternating current to direct current.
𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎
𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒆𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆

𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

It consists of the following;

▪ The heater which heats the cathode electrically.
▪ The cathode which emits electrons thermionically.
▪ The anode which accelerates electrons emitted from the heated cathode.
▪ Evacuated glass envelope helps to prevent electrons from colliding with air molecules.

RECTIFICATION:
This is a process of changing alternating current to direct current.
This is done by use of a diode (rectifier).

The arrow head in the diode or rectifier shows the direction of flow of current.
There are two types of rectification and these are;
• Half wave rectification
• Full wave rectification

Half wave rectification:

𝑫𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑨
𝑹 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑩

▪ During the first half of the cycle when A is positive and B is negative, the diode conducts
current and it flows through the resistor R.
▪ During the next half cycle when B is positive and A is negative, the diode doesn’t conduct
current to flow through the resistor R.
▪ Hence current flows through R during only one half of the cycle when A is positive with
respect to B.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

The graph of current/voltage against time for half wave is as shown below.

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

Full wave rectification:

𝑫𝟐 𝑫𝟏

𝑫𝟑 𝑫𝟒
𝑹 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

▪ During the first half cycle when A is positive and B is negative, diodes D1and D3 conduct
current and it flows though the resistor R. Diode D3 takes back current to the source.
Diodes D2 and D4 do not conduct current.
▪ During the next half cycle when B is positive and A is negative, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
current and it flows through the resistor R. Diode D4 takes back current to the source.
Diodes D1 and D3 do not conduct current.
▪ Hence current flows through R during both cycles and therefore both cycles are rectified
giving a full wave rectification.

The graph of current/voltage against time for full wave rectification is as shown below.

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. a) What is a diode?
(i) Draw a graph of current against p.d across the diode and explain the features of
your graph.
(ii) What is rectification?

𝑫𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒆
𝑹 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

b) The diagram above shows a diode in a circuit that can be used to change a.c to d.c.
Draw a graph for the variation of voltage against time.
c) What is meant by the term photo electric emission?
d) Give applications of photo cells
2. a) What are cathode rays
b) Give the properties of cathode rays
c) Draw a well labeled diagram of cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O) and give the function
of each part.
3. a) i) Draw a well labeled diagram of an X-ray tube and describe how X-rays are produced.
b) State the effect on X-rays produce when
i) The filament current is increased ii) The anode is made more positive
c) Explain how the intensity and penetrating power of X-rays in an X-ray tube may be
varied.
4. a) i) State and explain what happens when X-rays are passed above the cap of a positively
charged gold leaf electroscope.
b) Would your observation and explanation in (a) (i) above be different if the gold
leaf electroscope is negatively charged.
c) Briefly explain how X-rays may be used to locate the broken part of a bone.
d) State and explain what happens when X-rays are directed into a metal block like
that of lead.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 31

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS:
1. a) What is meant by the following;
(i) Radioactivity
(ii) Half-life
b) The following figures were obtained from the reading of a rate metre for the alpha
particle emission from Thoron – 220.
Time(s) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Average Counts 96 72 55 45 36 26 20 15
Plot a suitable graph from the readings and obtain the half-life of Thoron – 220
Ans: [𝟓𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔]
c) i) Distinguish between soft x-rays and hard x-rays
ii) Mention two uses of x-rays and briefly describe how they are applied.
2. a) Define the following terms
i) Atomic number
ii) Mass number
b) When lithium is bombarded by Neutrons, a nuclear reaction occurs which is represented
by the following reaction.
6 3
3𝐿𝑖 + 10𝑛 1𝐻 +𝑃
Complete the equation and name P
c) i) Describe the application of radioactivity in determining the age of foils.
(ii) Give two harmful effects of radioactivity.
d) The half-life of Uranium is 24 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠. Calculate the mass of Uranium which remains
after 120 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 if the initial mass is 64𝑔
Ans: [𝟐𝒈]
e) State three differences between alpha particles and gamma rays
3. a) Draw a labeled diagram of x-ray tube.
b) i) Using the diagram in (a) above, explain how x-rays are produced
ii) What adjustments will you make while using the x-ray tube to obtain hard x-rays
instead of soft x-rays?
c) i) Explain the use of a cooling system in an x-ray tube
ii) What special property has a metal target in the x-ray tube and why
iii) Why are x-rays used in study of crystals?
iv) If x-rays have wave lengths ranging from 10−8 𝑚 and 10−10 𝑚. What is the
frequency of the hardest x-rays that can be obtained?
Ans: [𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝑯𝒛]
4. a) Give two methods of producing electrons from the metal surface.
b) State the effect of each of the following on a fine beam of electrons
i) Electric field
ii) Magnetic field
c) i) Explain briefly how x-rays are produced (diagram not necessary)
ii) Distinguish between soft x-rays and hard x-rays
iii) What precaution should be taken in order to minimize x-rays health hazards

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 32

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. a) Define radioactivity
b) i) Name any two particles emitted by radioactive nuclides
ii) State the three differences between the two particles named in (b) (i) above
c) The table below gives the count produced by a radioactive isotope at different times
during an experiment
Time (ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟) 0.0 1.0 1.8 2.5 3.0 3.8 4.5 5.5
Counts rate (𝑚𝑖𝑛−1) 1816 1376 1096 896 776 616 516 416
i) Given that a back-ground count of 16 counts per minute was recorded
throughout the experiment, plot a suitable graph and use it to determine the
half-life of the isotope
ii) What is the count rate after 9.6 hours?
Ans: i) [𝟐. 𝟔 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔] ii) [𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆]
6. The diagram in the figure below shows the main parts of a cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O)
𝑨 𝑩

a) i) Name the parts labeled A, B and C

ii) Why is a C.R.O evacuated?
b) i) Describe briefly the principle of operation of C.R.O
ii) How is the bright spot formed on the screen of a C.R.O?
c) Use diagrams to show what is observed on the screen of a C.R.O when
i) The C.R.O is switched on and no signal is applied on the Y-plates
ii) The time base is switched on and no signal is applied to the Y-plates
iii) An alternating signal is applied to the Y-plates while the time base is switched off
d) Give two uses of C.R.O
7. a) i) State the necessary conditions for production of x-rays
ii) Distinguish between hard x-rays and soft x-rays
b) i) Draw a labeled diagram of an x-ray tube
ii) Describe how the penetration power of the x-rays produced by the tube may be
adjusted
iii) Mention two applications of x-rays
c) What is meant by the following?
i) Radioactivity
ii) Half-life
d) A radioactive substance is found to have a half-life of 5 days. If after 15 days, 125g
of it is remaining, what amount was present at the beginning?
Ans: [𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒈]
8. a) What are x-rays
b) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe the structure and operation of x-ray tube
c) Explain briefly how each of the following can be increased in an x-ray tube
i) Intensity of x-rays
ii) Penetrating power of x-rays

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 33

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

d) State four ways in which x-rays are similar to gamma rays

e) Give two biological uses of x-rays
9. a) i) Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
ii) State one example where nuclear fusion occurs naturally
b) State one use of nuclear fission
c) The following nuclear reaction takes place when a neutron bombards a sulphur atom
34 𝑎
6𝑆 + 10𝑛 𝑏𝑌
i) Describe the composition of the nuclide, Y formed
ii) The nuclide, Y decays by emission of an 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 and a 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦. Find
the changes in mass number and atomic number of the nuclide, Y
iii) State two properties of 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
d) The half-life of the isotope, Cobalt-60, is 5 years. What fraction of the isotope remains
after 15 years?
𝟏
Ans: [ 𝟖 ]
e) State i) One medical use of radioisotopes
ii) Two ways of minimizing the hazardous effects of radiation from radioactive
materials
10. a) Define half-life of a radioactive substance
1 𝑡ℎ
b) The mass of a radioactive substance decays to of its original mass after 16 days.
16
What is
i) its half-life
ii) Fraction of the original mass will have decayed after 20 days
Ans: i) [𝟒 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔]
232 228 228 228
c) 90𝑋 88𝑌 89𝑍 89𝑍
𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
i) Identify the particles or radiations A, B and C emitted in the decay process shown
above
ii) State two differences between radiations A and B
iii) Name two health hazards of radioactivity
d) What is the difference between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion?
11. a) Define the following terms
i) Atomic number ii) Mass number iii) Isotopes
b) A radioactive nucleus decays by emission of alpha particles
i) What is an alpha particle?
ii) What changes occur in mass number and atomic number when an alpha particle
is emitted?
iii) State any three differences between alpha particles and beta particles
c) The table shows the count rates of a certain radioactive material
Time (ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟) 0 1 3 4 7 9
−1
Counts rate (𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) 6400 5380 3810 2700 1910 1350
Plot a suitable graph and use it to find half-life of the material.
Ans: [𝟑. 𝟐 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔]

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 34

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

12. a) What is meant by the terms;

i) Isotopes
ii) Atomic number
b) i) Name and state the nature of emissions from radioactive nuclides
ii) What effect does each of the emissions have on the parent nuclide?
c) A radioactive sample has a half-life of 3 × 103 years
i) What does the statement half-life of 3 × 103 years mean?
ii) How long does it take for three-quarters of the sample to decay?
Ans: ii) [𝟔. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔]
d) Give two uses of radioactivity.
13. a) A radioactive nuclide decays by emission of two alpha particles and two beta particles
to nuclide, Y
i) What is meant by radioactive nuclide?
ii) Give three differences between alpha and beta alpha particles
iii) State atomic number and mass number of Y
b) What precautions would have to be taken when handling radioactive materials?
c) A certain radioactive material contains 2.7 x 1024 atoms. How many atoms will have
decayed after 32000 years if the half- life of the material is 800years?
Ans: [𝟐. 𝟓𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔]
d) Explain briefly one industrial application of radioactivity.
14. The figure below shows the main parts of an x-ray tube
𝑫
𝑪 𝑨 𝑩

a) Name the parts labeled A, B, C and D

b) List in order the energy changes which occur in the x-ray tube
c) Describe one industrial use of x-rays
d) i) What is meant by the half-life of a radioactive material
ii) The activity of a radioactive source decreases from 4000 counts per minute to
250 counts per minute in 40 minutes. What is the half-life of the source?
iii) A carbon source of half-life 6 days initially contains 8 × 106 atoms. Calculate the
time taken for 7.75 × 106 atoms to decay.
Ans: ii) [𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔] iii) [𝟑𝟎 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔]
15. a) Define the following terms as used in nuclear reactions
i) Fusion
ii) Fission
iii) Activity
b) Describe a simple model of an atom

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 35

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

c) Uranium, U has a mass number of 238 and atomic number of 92. It undergoes
radioactive decay by emission of an alpha particle to form element X.
i) Write down a nuclear equation reaction that takes place
ii) State the mass number and atomic number of X
Ans: ii) [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟑𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟗𝟎]
d) i) What is meant by half-life of radioactive substance
ii) The count rate of a radioactive isotope fall from 600 counts per second to 75
counts per second in 75 minutes. Calculate the half-life of the radioactive
isotope.
Ans: ii) [𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔]
16. a) A radioactive nuclide 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝟗𝟐𝑼 decays by emission of two alpha particles and two
beta particles to a nuclide Y
i) What is meant by a radioactive nuclide?
ii) State the mass number and atomic number of Y
iii) Give four differences between alpha and beta particles
Ans: ii) [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟑𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟗𝟎]
b) State four precautions that would have to be taken when handling radioactive materials
c) A certain mass of radioactive material contains 2.4 × 1012 radioactive atoms. How
many atoms will have decayed after 3200 years if the half-life of the material is 800 years?
Ans: [𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔]
d) Explain briefly one industrial application of radioactivity
e) Briefly describe how full wave rectification can be achieved
17. a) i) What is meant by cathode rays
ii) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe how cathode rays are produced by
thermionic effect
b) With reference to the cathode ray oscilloscope, describe
i) The function of the time base
ii) How the brightness is regulated
c) A cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O) with time base switched on is connected across a
power supply. The waveform shown in the figure below is obtained

The distance between the lines is 1cm

i) Identify the voltage generated by the power supply
ii) Find the amplitude of the voltage generated if the voltage gain is 5𝑉𝑐𝑚−1
iii) Calculate the frequency of the power source if the time base setting
on the C.R.O is 5.0 × 10−3 𝑠𝑐𝑚−1
Ans: i) [𝟏𝟎𝑽] ii) [𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛]

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 36

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

18. a) Describe a simple model of the atom

b) Define the following
i) Isotopes of an element
ii) Atomic number
c) State two differences between an alpha particle and a beta particle
d) i) What is meant by nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
ii) Give one example of where each one occurs
e) The half-life of radioactive substance is 24 days. Calculate the mass of the substance
which has decayed after 72 days if the original mass is 0.64𝑔.
Ans: [𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝒈]
19. a) Define the following terms
i) Atomic number
ii) Mass number
b) A radioactive nuclide 𝟒𝟐 𝟏𝟗𝒀 decays by emission of both alpha & gamma radiations to a
nuclide X
i) Write a balanced equation for the nuclear reaction
ii) Give three differences between beta and alpha particles
c) State conditions required for each of the following to occur
i) Fission
ii) Fusion
20. a) i) Name the particles emitted by radioactive nuclides
ii) Give two properties common to the particles named in (i) above
b) A stream of particles from a radioactive source passes through a magnetic field
directed into the plane of the paper as show below

𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

i) Identify the particles in the stream

ii) Sketch a diagram to show the path of the particles in an electric field

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 37

SSEKWE ROBERT

HEAT MEASUREMENT
Terminologies used:
i) Heat capacity, C:
This is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body by 1K or 10C.
𝑚𝑜 𝑛 𝑜
𝑝 𝑦
𝑛 𝑛 𝑚𝑝

-1
The SI unit of heat capacity is joules per Kelvin (J/K or JK )
Also, 𝑝 𝑦 𝑚 𝑝 𝑝 𝑦

ii) Specific heat capacity, c:

This is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg mass of a substance by 1K or
10C.
𝑚𝑜 𝑛 𝑜
𝑝 𝑝 𝑦
𝑀

The SI unit of specific heat capacity is Joules per kilogram per Kelvin (J/kgK or Jkg-1K-1).
Quantity of heat,
Where – change in temperature.
Specific heat capacity
𝑚 Mass of substance.

Note:
N.B: The specific heat capacity is different for different substances and the table below shows
values of specific heat capacities of some common substances.
Substance Specific heat capacity (Jkg-1K-1)
Water 4200
Ice 2100
Aluminium 900
Copper 400

NOTE:
Water has the highest specific heat capacity of 4200Jkg-1K-1. The high specific heat capacity of
water makes water a very good liquid for cooling machines.

Question:
-1 -1
“The specific heat capacity of water is 4200Jkg K ” What is meant by the statement?
This means that 1kg mass of water requires 4200J of heat to raise its temperature by 1K.

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SSEKWE ROBERT

Heat calculations
The following should be noted:
Always mass must be in Kilograms (kg)
In questions with the phrase “the temperature rises by” or “the temperature rose by”, the
temperature value given is the change in temperature

Examples:
o o
1. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 5kg of iron from 30 C to 40 C if the
-1 -1
specific heat capacity of iron is 440Jkg K ?
𝑚
( )

o
2. When a block of iron of mass 2kg absorbs 19kJ of heat its temperature rises by 10 C. Find
the specific heat capacity of iron.
𝑚

3. How much heat is given out when an iron metal of mass 2 𝑘 and specific heat capacity
−1
460 𝐽 𝑘 𝐾−1 cools from 300℃ to 200℃.
𝑚
( )

4. Calculate the specific heat capacity of gold if 108 J of heat raises the temperature of a 9
mass from 0℃ to 100℃.
𝑚 𝑘
𝑚
( )

−1
5. 5KJ of heat is supplied to a metal whose specific heat capacity is 400 𝐽𝑘 𝐾−1, if the
temperature of the metal rises by 5𝐾. Find the mass of the metal.
𝑚
𝑚
𝑚
5kg

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SSEKWE ROBERT

6. 1200J of heat is supplied to 100 of water at 20℃. Calculate the final temperature of water if
its specific heat capacity is 4200𝐽𝑘 −1𝐾−1
𝑚 𝑘
𝑚
( )

CALORIMETRY:
This is the measurement of flow of heat.
The instrument used in calorimetry is called calorimeter.
Calorimeter:
 It is made up of copper.
 It is lagged with an insulator and placed in a jacket with a plastic cover which has two holes
for a thermometer and a stirrer.

METHODS OF MEASURING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY:

There are two common methods namely;
 Electrical method.
 Method of mixtures.

Experiment to determine Specific heat capacity of a solid by electrical method.

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SSEKWE ROBERT

 A metal block of mass, m whose S.H.C is to be determined is drilled with two holes, one for
thermometer and the other for heater. Both the heater and thermometer must be in good
contact with the block.
 The initial temperature, θ1 of the block is recorded from the thermometer before closing the
switch.
 The heater is then switched on by closing switch, K until the temperature of block changes to
θ2, in a given time, t.
 The ammeter and voltmeter readings I and V respectively are noted and recorded.
Assuming there are no heat losses,

But

( )
But also power,

( )

Example:
1. 98,000J of electrical heat are needed to raise the temperature of 2kg of a substance from
o o
51 C to 65 C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of a substance.

( )
( )

2. A heater rated 2KW is used for heating the solid of mass 6kg, if its temperature rises from
30℃ to 40℃. In 12s, find the S.H.C of the solid.

( )
( )

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SSEKWE ROBERT

Experiment to determine Specific heat capacity of a solid by method of mixtures.

Thermometer Stirrer

Lagging

Copper calorimeter

Water Solid

 A solid of mass, 𝑚 whose specific heat capacity, is required is heated to a temperature, .

 A solid is then transferred quickly to a calorimeter of mass, 𝑚 and specific heat capacity
containing water of mass, 𝑚 both at a temperature, .
 The mixture is well stirred until a steady final maximum temperature, is reached.
Assuming there is no heat loss during the experiment,

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
 Hence specific heat capacity, of a solid can be calculated

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SSEKWE ROBERT

Experiment to determine Specific heat capacity of a liquid by method of mixtures.

Thermometer Stirrer

Lagging

Copper calorimeter

Liquid Solid

 A solid of mass, 𝑚 and specific heat capacity, is heated to a temperature, .

 A solid is then transferred quickly to a calorimeter of mass, 𝑚 and specific heat capacity
containing a liquid of mass, 𝑚 whose specific heat capacity is required both at a
temperature, .
 The mixture is well stirred until a steady final maximum temperature, is reached.
Assuming there is no heat loss during the experiment,

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
 Hence specific heat capacity, of a liquid can be calculated.

Examples:
1. A piece of metal of mass 0.5kg is heated to 100oC and then placed in 0.4kg of water at 10oC,
if the final temperature of the mixture is 30oC. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the
metal. (Neglect heat absorbed by container with water and S.H.C of water is 4200Jkg-1K-1)

( ) ( )

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SSEKWE ROBERT

2. The temperature of a piece of copper of mass 250g is raised to 100℃ and it is then
transferred to a well- lagged aluminum can of mass 10.0g containing 120g of methylated
spirit at 10.0℃. Calculate the final steady temperature after the spirit has been well stirred.
Neglect the heat capacity of the stirrer and any losses from evaporation. (S.H.C of copper,
aluminum and spirit respectively = 400 𝐽 𝑘 −1 𝐾−1, = 900 𝐽 𝑘 −1 𝐾−1, = 2400 𝐽 𝑘 −1 𝐾−1)

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

3. A metal of mass 0.2kg at 100℃ is dropped into 0.08kg of water at 13℃ contained in
calorimeter of mass 0.12kg and S.H.C 400Jkg-1K-1. The final temperature reached is 35℃.
Determine the S.H.C of the metal

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

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SSEKWE ROBERT

4. A liquid of mass 200g in a calorimeter of heat capacity 500 𝐽kg-1𝐾−1 and mass 1kg is heated
such that its temperature changes from 25℃ to 50℃. Find the S.H.C of the liquid if the heat
supplied was 14,000J.

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

o o o
5. 450g of water at 60 C is to be cooled to 35 C by addition of cold water at 20 C.
Calculate the mass of cold water added. (S.H.C of water is 4200 𝐽𝑘 𝐾 )

( ) ( )

6. Hot water of mass 0.4kg at 100℃ is poured into calorimeter of mass 0.3kg and S.H.C of
400Jkg-1K-1 and contains 0.2kg of a liquid at 10℃. The final temperature of mixture is 40℃
determines the S.H.C of a liquid. (S.H.C of water is 4200 𝐽𝑘 𝐾 )

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

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NOTE: Since mass is proportional to volume, then mass of liquid is equal to its
volume for a unit substance.

o
7. A copper metal of mass 250g is heated to 145 C and then placed in a copper calorimeter of mass
3 o
250g which contains 250cm of water at 20 C. Calculate the maximum temperature attained by
-1 -1
water [specific heat capacity of water is 4200Jkg K and specific heat capacity of copper is
-1 -1
400Jkg K ]

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

PRECAUTIONS TAKEN WHEN USING METHOD OF MIXTURES

 The solid/specimens should be transferred as quickly as possible to the calorimeter to
avoid heat losses.
 The calorimeter must be insulated.
 Stirring must be done to ensure uniform distribution of heat.
 The calorimeter must be polished inside to avoid heat loss by radiation.

EXERCISE

1) A piece of copper of mass 100g is heated to 100℃ and is then transferred to a well lagged
copper can of mass 50g containing 200g of water at 10℃. Neglecting heat loss, calculate the
final steady temperature of water after it has been well stirred. Take S.H.C of copper and
water to be 400Jkg-1K-1 and 4200Jkg-1K-1 respectively. Ans; [14℃]

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2) A heating coil is placed in thermal flask containing 0.6kg of water for 600s. The temperature
of water rises by 25℃ during this time. Water is replaced by 0.4kg of another liquid. And the
same temperature rise occurs in 180s. Calculate the S.H.C of the liquid given that S.H.C of
water is 4200Jkg-1K-1. State any assumption. Ans; [1890Jkg-1K-1]

3) Copper calorimeter of mass 120g contains 100g of paraffin at 15℃. If 45g of aluminum at
100℃ is transferred to the liquid and the final temperature is 27℃. Calculate the S.H.C of
paraffin [S.H.C of aluminum and copper are 1000 Jkg-1K-1 and 400 Jkg-1K-1 respectively].
Ans; [ 2.4 x103Jkg-1K-1

4) A liquid of mass 250g is heated to 80℃ and then quickly transferred to a calorimeter of heat
capacity 380JK-1 containing 400g of water at 30℃. If the maximum temperature recorded is
55℃ and specific heat capacity of water is 4200Jkg-1K-1. Calculate the S.H.C of the liquid.
Ans; [8240Jkg-1K-1]
5) 500g of water is put in a calorimeter of heat capacity 0.38JK-1 and heated to 60℃. It takes
2minute for the water to cool from 60℃ to 55℃. When the water is replaced with 600g of a
certain liquid, it takes 1½ minutes for the liquid to cool from 60℃ to 55℃. Calculate the
S.H.C of the liquid.
Ans; [2624.8kgJ-1K-1]

6) 400g of a liquid at a temperature 70℃ is mixed with another liquid of mass 200g at a
temperature of 25℃. Find the final temperature of the mixture, if the S.H.C of the liquid is
4200 𝐽 𝑘 −1 𝐾−1. Ans; [55℃]

7) 60 kg of hot water at 82℃ was added to 300 kg of cold water at 10℃. Calculate the final
temperature of the mixture (S.H.C of water =4200 𝐽 𝑘 −1 𝐾−1) Ans; [=22℃]

8) Calculate the final steady temperature obtained when 0.8 kg of glycerine at 25℃ is put into a
copper calorimeter of mass 0.5 kg at 0℃ ( S.H.C of copper =400 𝐽 𝑘 −1 𝐾−1, . . 𝑜
𝑙𝑦 𝑛 = 250 𝐽 𝑘 −1𝐾−1). Ans; [12.5℃]

9) A block of metal of mass 0.01 kg at a temperature of 100℃ was dropped in a container of

water at 20℃. The final temperature was 40℃. Calculate the S.H.C of the metal ,if
S.H.C of water 4200 𝐽 𝑘 −1 𝐾−1. Ans; [7000 −
K− ]

10) A copper block of mass 250g is heated to a temperature of 145℃ and then dropped into a
copper calorimeter of mass 250g which contains 2500𝑚3 of water at 20℃. Calculate the final
temperature of water. (S.H.C of copper = 400𝐽𝑘 −1 ℃−1, S.H.C of water = 4200 𝐽 𝑘 −1 ℃−1).
Ans; [30℃]
11) The temperature of heat which raises the temperature of 0.1 kg of water from 25℃ to 60℃ is
used to heat a metal rod of mass 1.7 kg and S.H.C of the rod was 20℃. Calculate the final
temperature of the rod. Ans; [48.8℃]

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LATENT HEAT (HIDDEN HEAT)

This is the amount of heat required to change the state of substance without change in
temperature.
There are two types of latent heat namely:
 Latent heat of fusion
 Latent heat of vaporization

KINETIC THEORY EXPLANATION OF LATENT HEAT

Question: Explain why during change of state, the temperature of a substance remains constant
 According to kinetic theory, when a substance is changing state, there is no change in
temperature because all the heat supplied is only used to break the intermolecular forces
between the molecules and increase the molecular spacing of the substance.

Latent heat of fusion:

This is the amount of heat required to change a substance from solid state to liquid state at constant
temperature.

Specific latent heat of fusion ( ):

This is the amount of heat required to change 1kg mass of substance from solid state to liquid
state at constant temperature.

The SI unit of specific latent heat of fusion is

Examples:
1. The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 340,000 . What do you understand by this
statement?
It means that 1kg of ice needs 34,000J of heat energy to change to a liquid.

2. How much heat is needed to melt 10g of ice at 0oC? [Specific latent heat of fusion of ice =
3.36 x 105Jkg-1]

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Experiment to determine specific latent heat of fusion of ice by electrical method.

Switch
A
V

Electrical heater

Pure melting ice

Funnel

Beaker

Collected water from melted ice

 An electrical heater is placed in a funnel.

 Small pieces of ice are packed around the heater.
 The heater is then switched on for a known time, t.
 The ammeter and voltmeter readings I and V respectively are noted and recorded.
 The mass, m of collected water from melted ice is measured and recorded
 Assuming there are no heat losses in the experiment,

 Hence specific latent heat of fusion of ice 𝐿 can be calculated.

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Examples;
o
1. A 3kW electrical heater is left for 2 minutes in a container packed with ice at 0 C. If 100g
of ice melted into water, calculate the specific latent of fusion of Ice.

Note:
If the ice is not at its melting point , the heat supplied first increases/raises its temperature
to .
𝑜 ,

o o
2. How much heat is needed to melt 10g of ice at -10 C to water at 0 C? [Specific latent heat of
5 -1
fusion of ice = 3.36 x 10 kg and specific heat capacity of ice = 2100Jkg K-1]
𝑚𝑝 𝑜 𝑜𝑚 𝑜 𝑜𝑚 𝑙

( ( ))

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Experiment to determine specific latent heat of fusion of ice by method of mixtures.

Thermometer Stirrer

Water Copper calorometer

Pieces of pure melting ice Lagging

 Hot water of mass, 𝑚 and specific heat capacity, is poured in a calorimeter of mass, 𝑚
and specific heat capacity, .
 The initial temperature of the hot water and calorimeter is then recorded from the
thermometer.
 Small pieces of pure melting ice at 0oC are placed in a calorimeter.
 Stir the mixture gently until all the ice melts.
 The final steady temperature, of the mixture is recorded from the thermometer.
 Weigh the calorimeter and its contents and determine the mass, 𝑚 of melted ice from
( ) ( )
 Assuming there are no heat losses

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Latent heat of vaporization:

This is the amount of heat required to change a substance from liquid state to gaseous state at
constant temperature.

Specific latent heat of vaporization, :

This is the amount of heat required to change 1kg mass of a substance from liquid state to
gaseous state constant temperature.
The SI unit of specific latent heat of vaporization is .

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SSEKWE ROBERT

Example:
o
1. How much heat is needed to change 10g of water at 100 C to steam at constant temperature?
6
[Specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2.3 x 10 kg]

Experiment to determine specific latent heat of fusion of steam by method of mixtures.

Steam

Thermometer Stirrer

Flask
Cold water

Boiling water

Heat
 Cold water of mass,𝑚 and specific heat capacity, is poured in a calorimeter of mass, 𝑚
and specific heat capacity, .
 The initial temperature, of cold water and calorimeter is recorded.
 Steam from pure boiling water at is passed through the cold water in the calorimeter.
 Stir the mixture gently until a steady final temperature, is reached.
 Weigh the calorimeter and its contents to determine the mass, 𝑚 of condensed steam from,
( ) ( )
 Assuming there is no heat loss during the experiment.

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

 Hence specific latent heat of vaporization of steam, 𝐿 can be calculated.

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Examples:
1. A calorimeter of mass 35.0g and specific heat capacity of 840Jkg-1K-1 contains 143.0g of
water at 7oC. Dry steam at 100oC is passed through the water in the calorimeter until the
temperature of water rises up to 29oC. If the mass of steam which condenses is 5.6g,
calculate
i) The heat gained by water and calorimeter
ii) Specific latent heat of vaporization of water
(S.H.C of water 𝐽𝑘 𝐾

i)

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

ii)

( )
( )

2. The temperature of water of mass 2kg and specific heat capacity of 4200Jkg-1K-1 is raised
from 20oC to 80oC by steam at 100oC. Calculate the mass of steam needed if the specific
latent heat of vaporization of water is 2.3x106Jkg-1K-1. (Neglect heat absorption by container
with water)

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

NOTE:
If the water is not at its boiling point , the heat supplied first increases/raises its
temperature to so as to be converted to vapour.

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o o
3. How much heat is needed to melt 10g of ice at -10 C to steam at 100 C?
5 -1 -1
[Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 x 10 kg, specific heat capacity of ice = 2100Jkg K , specific
-1 -1 6 -1
heat capacity of water = 4200Jkg K , specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2.3 x 10 Jkg ]

( ( )) ( )

4. Find the heat required to change 2 kg of ice at 0℃ into water at 50℃.

(S.L.H of fusion of ice = 3.36𝑥105Jk −1 , . . 𝑜 𝑤 = 4200𝐽𝑘 −1
𝐾−1).

( )

5. An ice making machine removes heat from water at a rate of 20 J −1. How long will it take to
convert 0.5kg of water at 20℃ to ice at 0℃. (S.L.H of fusion of ice = 3.36𝑥105Jk −1 , S.H.C
of water = 4200𝐽 𝑘 −1 𝐾−1).

( )

6. A calorimeter with heat capacity of 80𝐽℃−1 contains 50g of water at 40℃. What mass of ice
at 0℃ needs to be added in order to reduce the temperature to 10℃. Assume no heat is lost
to the surrounding (S.H.C of water = 4200Jk −1℃−1, S.L.H of fusion of ice = 3.4x105Jkg-1)

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

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7. Steam at 100℃ is passed into a copper calorimeter of mass 150g containing 340g of water at
15℃. This is done until the temperature of the calorimeter and its content is 71℃. If the
mass of the calorimeter and its contents is found to be 525g. Calculate the specific latent heat
of vaporization of water. (S.H.C of copper = 400Jkg-1K-1)

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

EXERCISE:
1. Ice at 0℃ is added to 200g of water initially at 70℃ in a vacuum flask. When 50g of ice is
added and has all melted, the temperature of the flask and content is 400℃. When further
80g of ice has been added and has been melted, the temperature of the whole becomes 10℃.
Calculate the S.L.H of fusion of ice neglecting any heat loss of surrounding.
-1
Ans; [3.78x105 Jkg ]
2. Calculate the heat required to melt 200g of ice at 0℃ . (S.L.H of ice= 3.4x105Jkg-1 )
Ans; [ 6.8x104 J]
3. Calculate the heat required to turn 500g of Ice at 0℃ into water at 100℃.
(S.L.H of ice= 3.4x105Jkg-1, S.H.C of water = 4200Jkg-1 )
Ans; [3.8x ]
4. Calculate the heat given out when 600g of steam at 100℃ condenses to water at 20℃ [S.L.H
of steam = 2.26x106 Jkg-1, S.H.C of water = 4200 Jkg-1].
Ans; [1.56x106J]
5. 1kg of vegetables, having a specific heat capacity 2200 Jkg-1 at a temperature 373K are
plugged into a mixture of ice and water at 273K. How much is melted. [S.L.H of fusion of
the ice = 3.3x105 Jkg-1]
Ans; [0.67kg]
6. 0.02kg of ice and 0.10kg water at 0℃ are in a container. Steam at 100℃ is passed in until all
the ice is just melted. How much water is now in the container? (S.L.H of vaporistion of steam
= 2.3x106Jkg-1, S.L.H of fusion of ice = 3.4x105Jkg-1, S.H.C of water = 4.2 x103Jkg-1K-1
Ans; [0.1225kg]

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SSEKWE ROBERT

QUESTION; Explain why specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is always greater
than specific latent heat of fusion the same substance e.g. ( ice, water and steam)
 For Latent heat of fusion (solid to liquid); heat required is small
because it only increases slightly increases the molecular spacing by
breaking the intermolecular forces.
 For latent heat of vaporization (liquid to gas); heat required is large
because it has to increase the molecular spacing by breaking the
intermolecular forces and also has to provide energy that enables
molecules to escape from the surface of the liquid.
NOTE: The phenomenon above explains why a person feels much heat when burnt by steam
than when burnt by water at the same temperature.

EFFECTS OF HEAT ON MATTER:

Evaporating
Melting
Solid Liquid Gas

Freezing Condensing

When a solid is heated it changes to a liquid at its melting point.

Definition:
Melting point is a constant temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid.
When a liquid is cooled it changes to a solid at its freezing point.
Definition:
Freezing point is a constant temperature at which a liquid changes to a solid.
When a liquid is heated it changes to a gas (vapour) at its boiling point.
Definition:
Boiling point is the constant temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas.
When a liquid is cooled it condenses and changes to a liquid.

HEATING AND COOLING CURVES (graphs of temperature against time)

The heating curve when ice below its melting point is heated.

Temperature (oC) F

E
100

B
0 Time

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Explanation of the shape of graph.

AB: temperature of ice is increasing from A to its melting point
o
BC: ice is changing to water at 0 C
CD: the temperature of water is increasing from 𝑜 𝑜 𝑙 𝑛 𝑝𝑜 𝑛
o
DE: water is changing to steam at 100 C
EF: temperature of steam is increasing

The states of water along different regions are;

AB – solid state (ice)
BC – solid state and liquid state (water + ice)
CD – liquid state (water)
DE – liquid state and gaseous state (water + vapour)
EF – gaseous state (steam or vapour)

The cooling curve when water above its boiling point is cooled

Temperature (00C)
A

100 B C

D E
0 Time

F
Explanation of shape of the graph
AB: temperature of steam is decreasing from to boiling point 100 .
o
BC: steam is changing to water at 100 C
CD: the temperature of water is decreasing from 100 to freezing point
o
DE: water is changing to ice at 0 C
EF: temperature of ice is decreasing

The states of water along different regions are;

EF – solid state (ice)
DE – solid state and liquid state (water + ice)
CD – liquid state (water)
BC – liquid state and gaseous state (water + vapour)
AB – gaseous state (steam or vapour)

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Example:
1. 2kg of ice at −5℃ was heated up to steam at 100℃.
i) Sketch a temperature time graph curve for the ice up to steam
ii) Find the heat at each section of the graph drawn. (S.H.C of ice = 2000 J 𝑘 1K 1, S.H.C of
water = 4200 J 𝑘 1K 1, S.L.H. of fusion of ice = 3.36𝑥105Jkg-1, S.L.H. of vaporization of
water = 2.26𝑥106Jkg)

i)

100

-5
ii)

( ( ))

( )

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EXERCISE:
Where necessary assume the following
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1
Specific heat capacity of copper = 400 Jkg-1K-1
Specific heat capacity of iron = 450 Jkg-1K-1
Specific heat capacity of aluminium = 880 Jkg-1K-1
Specific heat capacity of ice = 2100 Jkg-1K-1
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336,000 Jkg-1
-1
Specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2,250,000 Jkg
o o
1. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 50g of aluminium from -100 C to 120 C?
Ans: 9,680J
o o
2. If 98,000J of heat are needed to raise the temperature of 2kg of a substance from 51 C to 65 C.
What is the specific heat capacity of a substance?
Ans: 3500Jkg-1K-1
3. An electric fire has a power of 1,800W. When used to heat a liquid of 5kg, it takes 6 minutes to
o
raise the temperature by 90 C. What is the specific heat capacity of the liquid?
Ans: 1440 Jkg-1K-1
o o
4. A 30g block of copper is heated from -20 C to 180 C. How much heat does it absorb during heating?
Ans: 2400J
o
5. How much heat energy is needed to melt 0.01kg of ice at 0 C?
Ans: 3360J
o o
6. How much heat energy is needed to change 0.2kg of ice at 0 C into steam at 100 C?
Ans: 601,200J
o
7. An electric heater marked 225,000W keeps water boiling at 100 C. What mass of water
evaporates in a second?
Ans: 0.1kg
o o
8. An electric heater was used to heat 2kg of water from 20 C to 50 C in 25 minutes. If the
voltage across the heater was 24V, what was the current through the heater?
Ans: 7.0A
9. 5kg of ice cubes are removed from the freezing compartment of a refrigerator into a home freezer.
o o
The refrigerator‟s freezing compartment is kept at -40 C the home freezer is kept at -17 C. How
much heat does the freezer‟s cooling system remove from the ice cubes?
Ans: 241,500J
10. What is the heat capacity of 5.5kg of aluminium?
Ans: 4,840JK-1

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GAS LAWS
Gas laws describe the behavior of gases when subjected to physical factors such as pressure and
temperature.
These laws express the relationships between pressure (P), volume (V) and temperature (T) of a
fixed mass of a gas.
There are three gas laws namely;
 Boyle’s law.
 Pressure law.
 Charles’ law.

Boyle’s law:
It states that the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure
at constant temperature.

𝐾 𝑜𝑛 𝑛 𝑜 𝑝 𝑜𝑝𝑜 𝑜𝑛 𝑙 𝑦
If the volume of gas changes from 𝑜 and its pressure changes from 𝑜 .

𝑛
Where 𝑛 𝑙𝑝
𝑛 𝑙𝑝
𝑛 𝑙 𝑜𝑙 𝑚
𝑛 𝑙 𝑜𝑙 𝑚

Examples:
3
1. The volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature is 250cm when the pressure is
3
720mmHg. Find the pressure when the volume is increased to 600cm .

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SSEKWE ROBERT

-5 3
2. The volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature is 2.0 x 10 m when the
6 -4 3
pressure is 7.2 x 10 Pa, find the pressure when the volume is increased to 6.0 x 10 m .

3
3. The volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature is 4cm when the pressure is 6
atmospheres, find the volume when the pressure is increased to 12 atmospheres.

4. The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is 5 atmospheres when its volume is 𝑚 . Find the
pressure when the volume is
i) halved
) doubled

ii)

( )

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Experiment to verify Boyle’s law

Graduated glass tube
Volume scale
Pressure gauge
Trapped air

Air from foot pump

Oil

 Trap air above oil in the graduated glass tube.

 Read the initial volume, V and pressure, P of trapped air.
 Increase the pressure of trapped air by using a foot pump connected to a pressure gauge as shown
above.
 Allow the air to cool to room temperature.
 Read and record the new values of V and P.
 Increase the pressure again to get different values of V and P.
 Record your results in a suitable table including values of

P V

 A graph of P against V is then plotted.

P

 A graph of P against is also plotted.

P

 From the above graphs it shows that pressure is inversely proportional to volume which is
Boyle’s law.

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Pressure law (Gay Lussac law):

It states that the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature at constant volume.

𝑜𝑛 𝑛 𝑜 𝑝 𝑜𝑝𝑜 𝑜𝑛 𝑙 𝑦
If the temperature of gas changes from to and its pressure changes from to .

Where 𝑛 𝑙 𝑚𝑝
𝑛 𝑙 𝑚𝑝
𝑛 𝑙𝑝
𝑛 𝑙𝑝

Definition:
Absolute temperature is the temperature at which the volume of a gas reduces to zero.
Or Absolute temperature the temperature at which the molecules of a gas have the lowest
kinetic energy
N.B: The temperature must always be in kelvins.

Examples:
o
1. The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at 127 C is 600mmHg. Calculate its pressure at
o
constant volume if the temperature reduces to 27 C.

2. The pressure of a gas is 75𝑁𝑚−2 at −73℃. What is its pressure when a gas is heated up to
127℃.

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3. A sealed flask contains a gas at a temperature of 27℃ and a pressure of 90 𝑘 . If the

temperature rises to 127℃. What will be the new pressure?

Experiment to verify Pressure law

Thermometer
Rubber tubing
Pressure gauge

Water

Flask
Dry air
Heat

 The apparatus is set up as shown above.

 The flask containing dry air is placed in a metal can with water such that water is almost to
the top of its neck.
 The can is heated from the bottom while stirring.
 Pressure, P is then recorded for different values of temperatures.
 The results are recorded in a suitable table
P T(0C) T(K)

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SSEKWE ROBERT

 A graph of P against temperature is then plotted.

P
P

-273 0 T(oC) 0 T(K)

 From the above graphs it shows that pressure is directly proportional to the temperature which is
pressure law.

o
NOTE: The temperature -273 C (0K) is called absolute zero temperature.

Charles’ law:
It states that the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature at constant pressure.

𝑜𝑛 𝑛 𝑜 𝑝 𝑜𝑝𝑜 𝑜𝑛 𝑙 𝑦
If the temperature of gas changes from to and its volume changes from to .

Where 𝑛 𝑙 𝑚𝑝
𝑛 𝑙 𝑚𝑝
𝑛 𝑙 𝑜𝑙 𝑚
𝑛 𝑙 𝑜𝑙 𝑚

Example:
o 3
1. The volume of a fixed mass of a gas at 127 C is 300cm . Calculate its volume at constant
o
pressure if the temperature reduces to 27 C.

( ) ( )

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o -4 3
2. The volume of a fixed mass of a gas at 17 C is 5.0 x 10 m . Calculate its temperature at
-4 3
constant pressure if the volume reduces to 2.0 x 10 m

o 3
3. The volume of a fixed mass of a gas at 27 C is 400cm . Calculate its volume at constant
o
pressure if the temperature reduces to -123 C.

4. The temperature of a fixed mass of a gas is 27℃. If the volume is halved, find its new
temperature.

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Experiment to verify Charles’ law:

Rubber band

 Trap dry air using the index of concentrated sulphuric acid in a capillary tube.
 Tie the tube on the metre rule using a rubber band.
 Place the tied tube in a metal can containing water.
 Heat the water slowly while stirring gently.
 Read and record the length, L of the trapped air column and the temperature, T from the
thermometer.
 Repeat procedures to obtain other values of L for different temperature values.
 Record the results in a suitable table.
L(cm) T(0C) V

But L is proportional to volume, V so V=L

 Plot a graph of volume V against temperature T.
V V

0 T(K)
-273 0 T(oC)

 From the above graphs it shows that volume is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature which is Charles’s law.

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Equation of state for an ideal gas:

This is sometimes referred to as ideal gas equation. It combines the three gas laws.
Combining the three gas laws, we get;

Therefore if the volume of the gas changes from 𝑜 , its pressure changes from 𝑜 and
its temperature from 𝑜

NOTE:
At standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p)
 Standard absolute temperature
 Standard pressure

Examples:
3 o
1. In an experiment 500cm of a gas was collected at a temperature of 97 C and a pressure of
6 6
3.7 x 10 Pa. Find the volume of the gas if the pressure changes to 6.0 x 10 Pa at a temperature
o
of 27 C.

2. A bicycle pump contains 𝑚 of air at and a pressure of 1 atmosphere. Find the

pressure when it is compressed to 𝑚 and its temperature rises to

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3 o
3. In an experiment 58cm of a gas was collected at a temperature of 17 C and a pressure of
4
8.0 x 10 Pa. Find the volume the gas at s.t.p.

4. 240 𝑚3 of oxygen gas was collected when a temperature is 20℃ at a pressure of 50cmHg.
Calculate its volume at s.t.p.

5. The volume of hydrogen at 273℃ is 10 𝑚3 at a pressure of 152 cmHg. What is its volume at
s.t.p.

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Kinetic theory of Gas laws:

Recall; Kinetic theory of matter states that matter is made up of small particles called
molecules that are in a continuous random motion and possess energy.

Question: Explain what causes gas pressure.

Increase in temperature, increases the speed of molecules and hence with the walls of the
container thus creating pressure.
N.B: This explains why the pressure of a car tyre increases on a hot day.

Boyle’s law:
For a fixed mass of a gas;
When the volume of the fixed mass of a gas is reduced at constant temperature the speed
of the gas molecules increases hence the rate of collision with the walls of the container
increases thus the pressure of the gas increases.
However increasing the volume of a gas reduces the pressure since the speed of the
molecules of the gas reduces hence reducing on the rate of collision with the walls of the
container.

Charles’ law:
For a fixed mass of a gas;
When the temperature of the fixed mass of a gas is increased at constant pressure, the
speed of the molecules of a gas increases and the rate of collision with the walls of a container
increases thus increasing the volume of gas.

Pressure law:
For a fixed mass of a gas;
When the temperature of the fixed mass of a gas is increased at constant volume, the
speed of the molecules of a gas increases and the rate of collision with the walls of a container
increases hence the pressure of the gas increases.

VAPOURS
Vapour is the gaseous state of a substance below its critical temperature.
Critical temperature is the minimum temperature above which the gas cannot be changed
back to a liquid.

There are two types of vapours namely;

 Saturated vapour
 Unsaturated vapour

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SATURATED VAPOUR
This is the vapour that is in dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid.
i.e. 𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑜𝑛 𝑜 𝑜𝑛 𝑛 𝑜𝑛

Saturated vapour pressure;

This is the pressure exerted by a vapour that is in dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid.

Explanation of occurrence of saturated vapour pressure (s.v.p) using kinetic theory

Evaporation

Condensation
Consider a liquid enclosed in a container with a piston.
When a liquid in a closed container is heated, some of the liquid molecules get enough
kinetic energy and break the intermolecular forces and escape from the surface of the liquid and
occupy the space just above it and become vapour molecules. This process is called evaporation.
These vapour molecules collide with the walls of the container hence creating vapour
pressure.
When these molecules bounce off from the walls of the container, they strike the liquid
surface and re-enter the liquid. This process is called condensation.
A state of dynamic equilibrium is attained i.e. (rate of evaporation = rate of
condensation) and this point, vapour is said to be saturated and exerting saturated vapour
pressure.

Definition: Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted on the walls of the container by the vapour
molecules.

NOTE:
Gas laws only apply to a fixed/constant mass of a gas.
Therefore, saturated vapours do not obey ideal gas laws because there masses change due to
condensation or evaporation as the conditions change.
It should be noted that saturated vapor occurs for a very short time and at a constant temperature
(boiling point).

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UNSATURATED VAPOUR
This is the vapour that is not in dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid.
i.e. 𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑜𝑛 𝑜 𝑜𝑛 𝑛 𝑜𝑛

Unsaturated vapour pressure:

This is the pressure exerted by a vapour that is not in dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid.

Differences between saturated vapour and unsaturated vapour

Saturated vapour Unsaturated vapour

 It doesn’t obey gas laws.  It obeys gas laws.
 It is the vapour in dynamic equilibrium  It is the vapour that is not in dynamic
with its own liquid. equilibrium with its own liquid.
 Exists at a fixed temperature.  Exists at any temperature.

Other terms;
Super saturated vapour:
This is the vapour whose rate of evaporation is greater than the rate of evaporation.

Ideal gas:
This is a gas whose intermolecular forces are negligible.

Real gas:
This is a gas whose intermolecular forces are not negligible.

Dew point:
This is the temperature at which atmospheric air is saturated with water vapour.
OR
This is the temperature at which water vapour condenses to liquid water (dew)
Note;
Fog or cloudy film forms on windscreens of cars because the dew point of water vapour
has been exceeded.

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EVAPORATION:
This is the process by which a liquid changes into gas (vapour).
OR
This is the escape of molecules of a liquid from its surface.
Evaporation takes place only at the surface of the liquid.
It takes place at all temperatures but it is greatest when the liquid is at its boiling point.

Explanation of evaporation according to kinetic theory:

(How evaporation causes cooling)
According to kinetic theory, molecules of a liquid are in a state of continuous random motion
and their speed depend on the temperature of the liquid.
Faster moving molecules with the most kinetic energy reach the liquid surface and weaken
the intermolecular forces of attraction and then escape from the surface of liquid causing
evaporation.
The slow moving molecules with the lowest kinetic energy remain in the liquid thus cooling
the liquid.

Recall: Temperature decreases with decrease in speed of molecules. Since some molecules
have low speeds, so they are cold.

Applications of cooling as a result of evaporation:

 Panting of dogs.
 Making of ice by evaporation of a volatile liquid.
 Refrigerators.

Experiment to make ice by evaporation of a volatile liquid:

Air

Glass tube

Metal can

Volatile liquid (ether)

Water
Wooden block
Procedures:
 Place a metal can filled with ether (volatile liquid) on a film of water on top of a wooden
block.
 Blow air through the glass tube.
Observation:
 It is observed that the water under the can turns into ice i.e. it freezes.

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Explanation:
Ether will evaporate when it gets necessary heat from water and blowing in air increases
the rate of evaporation.
Since water is supplying heat to ether, it loses heat thus its temperature decreases hence
water freezes to ice.

Definition:
Volatile liquid is a liquid with a low boiling point.

Factors that affect the rate of evaporation:

Rate of evaporation indicates the number of molecules that escape from liquid surface per
second.
The following factors affect the rate of evaporation;
(i) Surface area:
Increasing the surface area increases the rate of evaporation because a large surface exposes
many energetic molecules to escape while small surface exposes fewer molecules to escape.
• This explains why a plate cools porridge faster than a cup since the plate is wider than the cup.
(ii) Temperature:
Increasing temperature increases the rate of evaporation and decreasing the temperature decreases
the rate of evaporation. At high temperature, more molecules will move faster to escape from the
liquid surface but at low temperature fewer molecules move faster to escape from the liquid
surface.
(iii) Wind (air currents):
The rate of evaporation increases if there is too much wind/air blowing because wind blows
away molecules which have already escaped from the liquid so they can’t return back to the
liquid.
This explains why a person can cool porridge while blowing air through it.
(iv) Pressure:
Reducing pressure of air above the liquid surface (atmospheric pressure) increases the rate of
evaporation since low pressure is exerted on the liquid surface.

(v) Intermolecular forces of a liquid:

The stronger the intermolecular forces, the slower the rate of evaporation since molecules will
need much heat to break these forces.

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REFRIGERATOR:
This is a cooling device which transfers heat from objects in it to the surrounding.
It is used in preservation of;
 Food in homes and supermarkets
 Blood in hospitals
 Medicines in hospitals and pharmaceuticals.
In a refrigerator, heat is taken in at one point and given out at another point by a volatile liquid or
refrigerant.

HOW A REFRIGERATOR WORKS

Vapour

Volatile liquid

Evaporator pipes
Cooling fins

Condenser tube
(Heat exchanger)

Copper tube
Vapour
Compressor pump

Mode of operation:
 The copper tube contains a volatile liquid which enters the evaporator pipes in the freezer.
 The volatile liquid gets latent heat from the refrigerator contents thus evaporating to vapour.
 This causes cooling of the contents since they lose heat.
 The vapour formed is compressed into the condenser tube and turns into a liquid thus giving
out latent heat.
 The heat given out is lost to the surrounding through the cooling fins by convection and
radiation.
 The liquid returns to the freezer and the process continues.

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FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS:

(a) Compressor pump:
This removes the vapour formed in the freezer and forces the vapour to the condenser tube.
(b) Condenser tube (Heat exchanger):
This where vapour is turned into a liquid giving out latent heat of vaporization to the
surrounding air.
(c) Cooling fins:
These are painted black so that they can give out heat to the surrounding air.
Black colours are good emitters of heat.
(d) Evaporator pipe:
This absorbs heat from the refrigerator contents and gives it to the volatile liquid so as to
evaporate.

BOILING:
Definition:
Boiling is a process which occurs when atmospheric pressure is equal to saturated vapour
pressure.
OR
Boiling is a process by which a liquid changes to vapour at its boiling point.
Boiling occurs at a fixed temperature called boiling point and it takes throughout the liquid.
Boiling involves formation of bubbles.

Differences between boiling and evaporation

Boiling Evaporation
• It occurs at a fixed temperature. • It occurs at any temperature.
• It takes place throughout the liquid. • It takes place at the liquid.
• Doesn’t cause cooling. • Causes cooling.
• Involves formation of bubbles. • Doesn’t involve formation of bubbles.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT BOILING POINT OF A LIQUID

(i) Pressure:
The lower the atmospheric pressure, the lower the boiling point (temperature needed to boil a
liquid). But if pressure is increased, the boiling point also increases.
This is because if the atmospheric pressure is decreased, then the liquid will boil more easily
since it will take less time for its saturated vapour pressure to equal to atmospheric pressure.
This explains why;
 Cooking takes longer at higher altitudes.
 In a pressure cooker, food cooks more quickly.
 During cooking we cover our saucepans.

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(ii) Impurities:
Addition of impurities like salt raises the boiling point of a liquid.
Salts in a water will cause water molecules to be more attracted to the salts thus a higher
temperature is required to break the forces of attraction between water molecules thus
increasing the boiling point of water.
This explains local salt “kisula” is added to beans so as they boil easily.

QUESTION:
Why cooking takes a lot of time to boil at high altitudes.
This is because at high altitude, the atmospheric pressure is low therefore, the boiling point of
water is also low. This causes water to boil faster before food is properly cooked.
Hence it takes a lot of time for saturated vapour pressure to equal to the atmospheric pressure.

PRESSURE COOKER:
Pressure cookers are useful in places where the atmospheric pressure is low e.g. at the top of a
mountain because they raise the boiling point of a liquid thus reducing time for cooking.

How a pressure cooker works.

 A pressure cooker has a lid (cover) that prevents steam from escaping.
 As water inside is heated, steam accumulates thus an increase in steam pressure causing the
boiling point of water to rise above 1000C.
Thus food boils quickly thereby saving time and fuel.

FREEZING POINT AND MELTING POINT

Freezing is the process by which a liquid changes to a solid. Freezing occurs at constant temperature
called freezing point.
Melting is the process by which a solid changes to a liquid. Melting occurs at a constant temperature.
Freezing point is a constant temperature at which a substance changes from liquid state to solid
state.
Melting point is a constant temperature at which a substance changes from solid state to liquid
state.

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Factors that affect freezing and melting points of a substance.

(i) Pressure:
Increase in pressure lowers the melting/freezing point of a substance and vice versa
(ii) Impurities:
Addition of impurities lowers the melting/freezing points of a substance and vice versa.
• This explains why ice melts why ice melts quickly when salt is sprinkled on it.

Effect of pressure on melting point of ice.

When pressure is increased on the ice by the copper wire;

 The copper wire passes through the ice block since increased pressure by the copper
wire lowers the melting point of ice. So it melts easily at a low temperature.

HEAT ENGINE
A heat engine is a device used to convert heat energy to kinetic energy (mechanical energy).

Why engines are always less than efficient.

 Because some of the energy is lost in overcoming friction since it has moving parts. This is
friction is reduced by lubricating engine parts.
 Some heat is lost to surrounding due to conduction.
 Some energy is wasted in lifting useless loads like pistons.

PETROL ENGINE
It is also called the four stroke cycle engine.

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OPERATION OF A FOUR STROKE CYCLE ENGINE (PETROL ENGINE)

Intake (inlet) stroke:

 Piston moves down causing a vacuum.
 Inlet valve opens and the air –fuel mixture is forced into the cylinder from carburetor.
 Exhaust valve closes.

Compression stroke:
 Both valves close.
 The piston moves up compressing the air-fuel mixture.
 The fuel is ignited by a spark plug.

Power stroke:
 A spark jumps across the points of a spark plug and explodes the air-fuel mixture.
 Piston is forced to move down.

Exhaust stroke:
 The outlet valve opens pushing the exhaust gases out of the cylinder.

NOTE:
 The operation of a diesel engine is the same as that of a petrol engine.
 The diesel engine use diesel as a fuel yet petrol engines use petrol as a fuel.

Differences between diesel and petrol engines.

Diesel engine Petrol engine

 Uses diesel as a fuel.  Uses petrol as a fuel.
 No spark plug used.  Spark plug is used.
 Has a fuel injector instead of  Has a carburetor instead of fuel
carburetor. injector.
 Produces a lot of smoke.  Produce less smoke.
 Uses less fuel.  Uses a lot of fuel.
 They are expensive.  They are cheap.
 They are heavy  They are lighter.

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EXERCISE:
o
1. 200litres of a gas at 0 C are kept under a pressure of 150kPa. If the temperature is raised to
o
273 C, its pressure is raised to 400kPa. Calculate its volume.
Ans: 150 litres
o -3 3
2. The density of argon gas at 27 C is 0.27kgm . A volume of 50m of argon gas is kept under
o o
constant pressure at 27 C. What will be the density of argon if its temperature is raised to 51 C?
Ans: 0.25kg
3
3. The volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature is 150cm when the pressure is
76cmHg. Calculate the volume when the pressure is 38cmHg.
Ans: 300c
3 o
4. The volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure is 400cm at a temperature of 27 C.
o
Calculate the volume when the temperature is raised to 78 C.
Ans: 468c
5. The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at constant volume is 600mmHg at a temperature of
o o
127 C. Calculate the pressure when the temperature falls to 27 C.
Ans: 450mmHg
o
6. Air in a 2.5litre vessel at 127 C exerts a pressure of 3 atmospheres. Calculate the pressure
o
that the same mass air would exert if contained in a 4litre vessel at -73 C
Ans: 0.9375atmospheres.
7. State differences between boiling and evaporation
8. Distinguish between saturated vapour and un-saturated vapour
9. What are the factors that affect the rate of evaporation of a liquid and how
10. Use the kinetic theory to explain effect of increasing temperature of the gas at constant pressure

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS:
1. a) Define specific heat capacity
b) 0.05kg of water at 80oC is mixed with 0.06kg of water at 10oC contained in a vessel of
heat capacity 28Jkg-1. What is the final temperature of the mixture?
Ans: 4000C
c) i) Define specific latent heat of fusion
ii) Describe a simple method to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice
c) When 0.005kg of ice at 0oC is added to 0.02kg of warm water at 30oC the final
temperature attained is 8oC. Find the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
Ans: 336,000Jkg-1

2. a) i) State Boyle‟s law

ii) With the aid of a labeled diagram describe the experiment to show the relationship
between the volume and the temperature of a fixed mass of a gas at atmospheric
pressure.
b) A cylinder with a movable piston contains 0.1m3 of air at a temperature of 27oC.
Calculate the volume of the gas if it is cooled to -33oC at constant pressure.
Ans: 0.08

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c) Define the term specific heat capacity

d) A copper block of mass 200g is heated to a temperature of 145oC and then dropped into
a well lagged copper calorimeter of mass 250g which contains 300cm3 of water at 25oC
i) Calculate the maximum temperature attained by the water
ii) Sketch a graph to show the variation of temperature of water with time
Ans: i) 31.70C

3. a) i) Define heat capacity of a substance

ii) Describe an experiment to determine specific heat capacity of a substance by
method of mixtures
iii) State the precautions necessary for accuracy during the experiment above
b) A well lagged copper calorimeter of mass 85g contains 80g of water at 60oC. Dry ice at
0oC is added to the calorimeter and after stirring the mixture attains a steady temperature
of 20 oC. Find the mass of ice added
Ans: 35.20C
c) i) Describe an expiration to show that evaporation produces cooling.
ii) Explain why evaporation produces cooling.
iii) State one application of cooling by evaporation.

4. a) i) What is a saturated vapour

ii) Explain why the boiling point of a liquid depends on altitude.
b) i) Define specific heat capacity.
ii) Describe an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a solid
c) A copper block of mass 250g is heated to a temperature of 145°C and then
transferred to a cooper calorimeter of mass 250gwhich contains 250cm3of water at
20°C
i) Calculate the maximum temperature attained by water
ii) Sketch the graph to show the variation of temperature with time
Ans: i) 300C
d) i) What is meant by the term temperature
ii) Give two physical properties which change with temperature

5. a) Define the following terms as used in heat

i) Specific heat capacity
ii) Latent heat of vaporization
b) Describe an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid
c) Steam from boiling water is bubbled through 1.5kg of water at 20oC. After this process,
the mass of water was found to be 1.54 kg. What is the new temperature of water?
Ans: 35.990C
d) State four ways in which heat losses can be minimized in a calorimetry experiment

6. a) Define specific latent heat of fusion

b) Describe an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice
c) A copper block of mass 300g is heated to a temperature of 245oC and then dropped into
a well lagged copper calorimeter of mass 350g containing 400g of water at 35oC.

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Calculate the maximum temperature attained by the water.

Ans: 43.30C
d) i) What is meant by absolute zero temperature
ii) A sealed flask contains gas at a temperature of 27oC and a pressure of
900Pa. if the temperature rises to 127oC. What will be the new pressure?
Ans: ii) 1200Pa

7. a) i) Define temperature.
ii) The fundamental interval of a mercury-in-glass thermometer is 192mm. Find the
temperature in degrees Celsius when mercury thread is 67.2mm long
b) With the aid of a labeled diagram describe the experiment to show the relationship
between the volume and the pressure a fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature.
c) A copper block of mass 150g is heated to a temperature of 95oC and then dropped into
a well lagged copper calorimeter of mass 200g containing 250g of water at 15oC.
Calculate the maximum temperature attained by the water.
Ans: 19.00C
d) State any two differences between boiling and evaporation

8. a) Define specific latent heat of vaporization

b) A calorimeter of mass 35g and specific heat capacity 840Jkg-1K-1 contains 143g of
water at 7oC. Dry steam at 100oC is bubbled through water in the calorimeter until the
temperature of the water rises to 29oC. If the mass of steam which condenses is 5.6g,
i) Calculate heat gained by the water and calorimeter
ii) Obtain an expression for the heat lost by the steam in condensing at 100oC and in
cooling to 29oC.
iii) Find the specific latent heat of vaporization of water
Ans: i) 13860J ii) 0.0056Lv + 1669.92 iii) 2,176,800
c) Explain in terms of molecules what is meant by a saturated vapour?
d) Describe briefly one application of vaporization

9. a) i) Describe the fixed points of a Celsius scale of temperature

ii) Give two advantages of mercury over alcohol as thermometric liquid
iii) Convert -200oC to Kelvin
Ans iii) 730C
b) Use the kinetic theory to explain the following
i) Cooling by evaporation
ii) Why the temperature of a gas contained in a cylinder increases when it is compressed
c) Explain briefly the transfer of thermal energy by conduction in metals
d) A battery of e.m.f 12V and internal resistance 1Ω is connected for 3minutes across a
heating coil of resistance 11Ω immersed in a liquid of mass 0.2kg and specific heat
capacity 2.0 x 103Jkg-1K-1. Find the rise in temperature of the liquid. State clearly any
assumptions made.
Ans: 4.950C

10. a) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe the experiment to show the relationship
between temperature and pressure a fixed mass of a gas at constant volume.

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b) A gas of volume 1000cm3 at a pressure of 4.0 x105 Pa and temperature of 17oC is heated
to 89.5oC at constant pressure. Find the new volume of the gas.
Ans: 1250c
c) A balloon is filled with 50cm3 of hydrogen and tied to the ground. The balloon alone and
the container it carries have a mass of 2kg. If the densities of hydrogen and air are
9.0 x 10-2kgm-3 and 1.29kgm-3 respectively, how much load can the balloon lift when
released

11. a) What is meant by conduction

b) Draw a labeled diagram of a thermos flask and explain how it is able to keep a liquid
cold for a long time
c) With the aid of a diagram, describe how you would determine the upper fixed point of
un -calibrated thermometer
d) Explain the following observations;
i) A bare cement floor feels colder than a carpeted one
ii) A beam with a notch that is used for constructing a bridge lasts longer when the
notch is on its top surface than when the notch is on its lower surface

12. a) Define the following terms

i) Specific heat capacity
ii) Specific latent heat of fusion
Temperature (oC) A

80 B C

25 D E
F
0 time

b) The figure above shows a cooling curve of a liquid whose boiling point is 80oC and
freezing point is 25oC.
i) Give the states over regions AB, BC, DE and EF
ii) What is happening over region BC?
iii) Use the kinetic theory to explain the differences in states over regions AB and EF
c) An iron rod of mass 0.8kg is pushed into an insulator solid substance through a
distance of 2.3m against frictional force of 400N. The temperature of iron rises by
2.5oC. Calculate the specific heat capacity of iron
Ans: 460Jkg-1K-1
d) i) Explain why when water in a saucepan is heated, the level first falls and then rises after
some time
ii) The length of mercury thread of un-calibrated thermometer is 10cm when the bulb is
in pure melting ice and rises to 20cm in steam. What is the reading of the
thermometer when the mercury thread is 18cm?
Ans: ii) 800C

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13. a) Define specific latent heat of vaporization

b) Describe an experiment to determine specific latent heat of vaporization of steam
c) A copper calorimeter of heat capacity 60Jkg-1 contains 0.5kg of water at 20oC. Dry
steam at 1000C is passed into the water in the calorimeter until the temperature of the
water and the container reaches50oC. Calculate the mass of steam condensed
Ans: 4.61kg
d) i) What is meant by saturated vapour pressure
ii) Explain what may happen when one is to cook food from a very high altitude
14. a) i) Define latent heat of fusion.
ii) Describe with the aid of a labeled diagram, an experiment to show the effect of
increase in pressure on the melting point of ice
b) If the melting point of lead is 327oC, find the amount of heat required to melt 200g of
lead initially at 27oC given that specific latent heat of fusion of lead is 2.5 x 106Jkg-1 and
specific heat capacity of lead is 660Jkg-1K-1.
Ans: 539,600J
c) What is meant by the terms?
i) Temperature
ii) Heat
d) State two physical properties which change with temperature.

15. a) Describe an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice
b) i) 2 kg of ice initially at -10oC is heated until it changes to steam at 100oC
ii) Sketch the graph to show how temperature changes with time
iii) Calculate the energy required at each end of the graph
Ans: 42,000J 672,000J 840,000J 4,500,000J

16. a) Differentiate between conduction and convection

b) Describe an experiment which can be performed to show convection in a liquid
c) i) Draw a labeled diagram of a vacuum flask
ii) Explain how a vacuum flask minimizes heat losses
d) Why is a car radiator made of fins and painted black

17. a) State the kinetic theory of matter

b) i) State the law of volume and temperature
ii) The volume of a fixed mass of a gas at a given pressure is 1.5m3 at 300K. at what
temperature will the volume of the gas be at the same pressure
c) Describe an experiment to determine the fixed points of a thermometer
d) i) Mention any three reasons for not using water as a thermometric liquid
iii) When a Celsius thermometer is in a boiling liquid, the mercury thread rises above the
lower fixed point by 19.5cm. Find the temperature of boiling liquid if the
fundamental interval is 25cm.
Ans: 780C

18. a) What is meant by latent heat of vaporation

b) With the aid of a labeled diagram describe how a refrigerator works

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c) The cooling system of a refrigerator extracts 0.7kW of heat. How long will it take to
convert 500g of water at 20oC into ice?
Ans: 300s
d) Explain how evaporation takes place

19. a) What is meant by conduction

b) Draw a labeled diagram of a vacuum flask and explain how it is able to keep a liquid hot
a long time
c) With the aid of a labeled diagram describe an experiment to determine the upper fixed
points of an un-calibrated thermometer
d) Explain the following observation a bare cement floor feels colder than a carpeted one

20. a) i) Define latent of fusion

ii) Describe with the aid of a labeled diagram, an experiment to show the effect of
increase in pressure on the melting point of ice
b) What is meant by the terms?
i) Temperature
ii) Heat
c) The fundamental interval of mercury in glass is 192mm. find the temperature in degrees
Celsius when the mercury thread is 67.2mm below the upper fixed point.
Ans: 650C
d) State two physical properties which change with temperature

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Experiment 18

PY
A small mass is attached to a length of thread as shown in Figure 18. This is referred to as the
plumbline.

CO
E
PL
M
SA

Fig. 18
(a) Suggest a suitable title for this experiment.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Carry out the following instructions referring to Figure 18.
(c) Measure and record the lengths of the three sides of the triangular sheet of card.
length 1 = ………………………………….
length 2 = ………………………………….
length 3 = ………………………………….
(01 mark)
(d) (i) Hang the card on the nail through hole A.
(ii) Hang the plumbline from the nail so that it is close to the card but not touching it.
(iii) When the card and plumbline are still, make a small mark at the edge of the card
where the plumbline crosses the edge.
(iv) Remove the card and draw a line from the mark to hole A.
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Experiment 12
Imagine you are conducting an experiment to investigate the period of a pendulum. The apparatus
is set up as described in the instructions, and you refer to Figure 12.1 and Figure 12.2. Follow the
given steps to perform the experiment.

PY
Fig. 12.1 Fig. 12.2
(a)

CO
Start by measuring the distance ݀ between the bottom of the split cork and the floor.

݀ ൌ ………………………………….cm
This distance ݀ must remain constant throughout the experiment.
(01 mark)
E
(b) • Adjust the length of the pendulum until the distance x, measured from the centre of the
bob to the floor, is 50.0 cm.
PL

• Displace the bob slightly and release it so that it swings. Figure 12.2 shows one complete
oscillation of the pendulum.
• Measure, and record in Table 12, the time ‫ ݐ‬for 10 complete oscillations.
M

• Calculate, and record in Table 12, the period T of the pendulum. The period is the time
for one complete oscillation.
• Calculate, and record in Table 12, ܶ ଶ . (02 marks)
SA

Table 12
x(ܿ݉) t(‫)ݏ‬ T(‫ݏ‬ሻ ܶ ଶ (‫ ݏ‬ଶ ሻ
50.0
45.0
40.0
35.0
30.0

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(c) From the experiment described above, identify:
(i) The independent variable ……………………………………………………………
(ii) The dependent variable ………………………………………………………………
(iii) The constant variable …………………………………………………………………

(d) Repeat the procedure in (b) using ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 45.0 cm, 40.0 cm, 35.0 cm and 30.0 cm.
(03 marks)
ʹ
(e) Plot a graph of ܶ (along the vertical axis) against ‫( ݔ‬along the horizontal axis). You do
not need to start your axes at the origin (0,0). (04 marks)

PY
CO
E
PL
M
SA

(f) Explain why timing 10 oscillations gives a more accurate result for the period ܶ than
timing one oscillation. (01 mark)

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(i) Measure and record in Table 25 the angle of incidence ݅ between the line AN and the
normal. Measure, and record in the table, the angle of reflection ‫ ݎ‬between the normal
and the line passing through P2 and P3.
Table 25

edge ݅ (௢ ) ‫(ݎ‬௢ )

A

(03 marks)
(j) Repeat the steps (e) – (i) but using edge B of the card instead of edge A.

PY
(k) In spite of carrying out this experiment with care, it is possible that the values of the
angle of reflection ‫ ݎ‬will not be exactly the same as the values obtained from theory.
Suggest two possible causes of this inaccuracy.
1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
CO
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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(02 marks)
Insert your rayെtrace sheet opposite this page.
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(05 marks)

Experiment 26
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Concave mirrors curve inward and are thicker at the center than at the edges, causing light rays
parallel to the optical axis to converge. These mirrors are employed in applications such as
reflecting telescopes for gathering and focusing light in astronomy, and in cosmetic mirrors
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where their ability to produce enlarged and upright images is utilized for personal grooming.
However, it is necessary to determine the focal length, ݂ of a concave mirror before its use.

(a) A concave mirror is placed in a holder and used to focus light from a window onto a
screen. The screen is adjusted until a sharp image is formed on it.
(i) Measure and record the distance ݀, between the screen and mirror.
݀ = ……………………………………. (01 mark)
(ii) Explain the meaning of distance . (01 mark)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
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(b) Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 38. Adjust the distance, ‫ݑ‬, of the torch bulb
from the mirror to ͳͷcm. Close switch ‫ ܭ‬. Adjust the position of the white screen, ܵଶ until
a sharply focused image of the wire gauze appears on it. Open switch ‫ ܭ‬.

ࡿ૛

Fig. 38

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(c) Measure and record the distance, ˜ of the screen ܵଶ from the mirror.
˜ = ……………………………………. (01 mark)
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Calculate the values of ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ܸ െ ݀ and ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ ݑ‬െ ݀ .

‫…………………………………… = ݕ‬. (01 mark)

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‫…………………………………… = ݔ‬. (01 mark)

(e) Repeat procedures (f) to (h) for values of ‫ ݑ‬ൌ ͵ͷǤͲǡ ͶͲǤͲǡ ͶͷǤͲǡ ͷͲǤͲand ͷͷǤͲܿ݉.
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ଵ
(f) Tabulate your results including values of .
௫
Table 38
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(06 marks)

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(g) From the experiment described above, identify:
(i) The independent variable ……………………………………………………………
(ii) The dependent variable ………………………………………………………………
(iii) The constant variable …………………………………………………………………

ଵ
(h) Plot a graph of ‫ ݕ‬against . (06 marks)
௫

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 (i) Determine the slope, S of the line of best fit.
Show your working and indicate on the graph the values you use to calculate the gradient
G.

S = ........................................................ (02 marks)

(j) Calculate the value of ݂ଵ from ݂ଵ ൌ ξܵ.

݂ଵ = ........................................................ (02 marks)

ଵ
(k) Determine the value of the constant, ݂ of the concave mirror using ࢌ ൌ ሺ݂ଵ ൅ ݀ ሻ
ଶ

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B= ........................................................ (02 marks)
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Experiment 27
This experimental investigation has two part, (I) and (II).
PART I
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A concave mirror is mounted in a mirror holder and a pin in cork is placed such that its pointed
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end lies along the axis of the mirror. The pin is moved towards and away from the mirror until it
coincides with its image by no-parallax.
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(a) Suggest a suitable title for this experiment. (01 mark)

……………………………………………………………………………………………..
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……………………………………………………………………………………………..
(b) State one suitable hypothesis that could be investigated. (01 mark)
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
(c) With the apparatus provided, set up this experiment. Measure and record the distance, N
between the pin and the mirror.

= ……………………………………. (01 mark)

N
(ii) Calculate, the quantity, Bfrom: B L sWt N

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 ݂ = ........................................................ (02 marks)

PART II

(a) Set up a new arrangement of apparatus as shown in Figure 27. Place the mirror, wire
gauze and bulb such that distance, T L s wB
.
x

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y
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Fig. 27

Close switch, -and adjust the position of the screen until a clear image of the wire
gauze is obtained on the screen.
(i) Measure and record the distance, Ubetween the mirror and screen.
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U= ……………………………………. (01 mark)

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(b) Repeat procedures (a) to (c) for T L t rBÆt wBÆu wBÆv rBand v wB
U
(c) Tabulate your results including values of .
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(06 marks)
T
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……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
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(d) From the experiment you have just carried out, state; (04 marks)
(i) The aim of the experiment ……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
T (ii) The independent variable ……………………………………………………………
(ii) The dependent variable ………………………………………………………………
(iii) The constant variable …………………………………………………………………
‫ݕ‬
(e) Plot a graph of against ‫ݕ‬. (06 marks)
‫ݔ‬

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 ଶଶ
(g) The resistance ܴௐ of the wire is calculated using the equation: ܴௐ =
ே
௏ೄ
where ܰ = െͳ
ଵ଴଴ீ
Use your value of VS recorded in (b) and your value of G calculated in (f) to calculate ܴௐ .
Show your working.

ܴௐ = …………………………………….Ω (01 mark)

Experiment 48
In this experiment you will investigate the resistance of a light-emitting diode (LED).
You are provided with:
• a power supply
• a light-emitting diode PY
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• 5 resistors of resistance 150 Ω
• a switch
• connecting wires and crocodile clips.
The supervisor has set up the circuit shown in Figure 48.
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The crocodile clip shown in the diagram in Figure 48 is a movable contact that can be attached at
different points in the circuit.
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Fig. 48
You are also provided with a voltmeter and two additional connecting wires.

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(a) (i) Make sure that the movable crocodile clip and wire is not touching any other part of
the circuit.
Connect the voltmeter between the terminals T1 and T2 of the power supply. Record
the reading VS on the voltmeter.
Disconnect the voltmeter from the power supply.
VS = …………………………………….V (01 mark)
(ii) Attach the movable crocodile clip to one of the wires either side of the crocodile clip
labelled A.
Connect the voltmeter between F and G.
Close the switch.
Record the reading V on the voltmeter.
Open the switch.

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VS = …………………………………….V (01 mark)
(iii) Using your answer from (a)(ii), calculate the current ‫ܫ‬௅ா஽ in the LED using the
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௏
equation ‫ܫ‬௅ா஽ ൌ
ଵହ଴
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‫ܫ‬௅ா஽ = …………………………………….A (01 mark)

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(iv) The total number of resistors connected in series with the LED is ݊. When the
movable crocodile clip is attached by A, the value of ݊ is 5.
Using your answers from (a)(i) and (a)(ii), calculate the voltage ܸ௅ா஽ across the
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LED using the equation

VLED = VS – nV.
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ܸ௅ா஽ = …………………………………….A (01 mark)

(v) Using your answers from (a)(iii) and (a)(iv), calculate the resistance RLED of the
LED using the equation
ܸ‫ ܦܧܮ‬
ܴ௅ா஽ ൌ
‫ ܦܧܮܫ‬

ܴ௅ா஽ = …………………………………….Ω (01 mark)

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 (b) (i) In the appropriate row in Table 48, record your readings and calculations
from (a)(ii), (iii), (iv) and (v).
Add appropriate headings with units to each column. (01 mark)
(ii) Repeat the procedure in (a)(ii) to (a)(v) with the movable crocodile clip
connected by B, C, D and E.
Record your readings and calculations in Table 48.
Table 48
Position of n
crocodile clip
by A 5
by B 4
by C 3

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by D 2
by E 1

(c)
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From the experiment described above, identify: (03 marks)
(03 marks)

(i) The independent variable ……………………………………………………………

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(ii) The dependent variable ………………………………………………………………
(iii) The constant variable …………………………………………………………………
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(d) Using the grid on next page, plot a graph of RLED (along the vertical axis) against ILED
(along the horizontal axis). Draw the curve of best fit. (04 marks)
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(e) The values of the supply voltage and the resistance of the resistors have been carefully
selected for use with this LED in this practical exercise.
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Suggest two reasons why these values are suitable.

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
(04 marks)

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 PY
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 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

LINEAR MOTION
This chapter deals with the study of motion in a straight line.

TERMS USED IN LINEAR MOTION

❖ Distance:
This is the length of path moved by the body
OR
This is the length between two points.
The SI unit of distance is a metre (m).
NOTE: Distance is a scalar quantity.

𝑩
The person moves from point A to B regardless of any direction he/she takes. The length of path from
A to B is called distance.
Therefore, distance is described by only magnitude hence a scalar quantity.

❖ Displacement:
This is the distance moved in a specified direction.
The SI unit of displacement is a metre (m).
NOTE: Displacement is a vector quantity.

𝑩
The person moves from point A to B in a specific direction. The distance moved in that direction is
called displacement.
Therefore, displacement is described by both magnitude and direction hence a vector quantity.

❖ Speed:
This is the rate of change of distance with time.
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
The SI unit of speed is metre per second (𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑚/𝑠).
NOTE: Speed is a scalar quantity.

Uniform speed:
This is the constant rate of change of distance with time.
A body is said to move with uniform speed if it covers equal distances in equal time intervals.
If the body moves with varying distances in unit time intervals, then the speed is non-uniform.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

❖ Velocity:
This is the rate of change of displacement with time.
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
The SI unit of displacement is metre per second (𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑚/𝑠).
NOTE: Velocity is a vector quantity.

Uniform velocity:
This is the constant rate of change of displacement with time.
A body is said to move with uniform velocity if its displacement changes by equal amounts in equal
time intervals.
The figure below shows the displacement-time graph of a student moving around the school compound.
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒎) 𝟎 𝟐 𝟒 𝟔
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔) 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒎)

𝟔
𝐕𝟑

𝟒
𝐕𝟐

𝟐
𝐕𝟏

𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)
A body whose displacement is not constant in given time intervals is said to have non-uniform velocity.
Calculating the corresponding velocities of the student, we get;
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟐−𝟎
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑽𝟏 = = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟏−𝟎
𝟒−𝟐
𝑽𝟐 = = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟐−𝟏
𝟔−𝟒
𝑽𝟑 = = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟑−𝟐

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒎) 𝟎 𝟐 𝟒 𝟔
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔) 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 ) 𝟎 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

The figure below shows the velocity-time graph for the student’s motion.

𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
𝟐

𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)
A straight-line graph is obtained showing that the velocity is constant or uniform.

Differences between Speed and Velocity

SPEED VELOCITY
• It is the rate of change of distance with time. • It is the rate of change of displacement with time.
• It is a scalar quantity. • It is a vector quantity.

TYPES OF VELOCITIES
Initial velocity, u:
This is the velocity with which the body starts its motion. i.e. it’s the starting velocity.
NOTE:
➢ If a body starts from rest, its initial velocity, 𝑢 = 0𝑚𝑠 −1 .
➢ If a stationary body starts its motion, its initial velocity, 𝑢 = 0𝑚𝑠 −1 .
➢ If a body starts with a certain velocity, 𝑥, then its initial velocity, 𝑢 = 𝑥𝑚𝑠 −1 .

Final velocity, v:
This is the velocity with which the body ends its motion. i.e. it’s the ending velocity.
NOTE:
➢ If a body is brought to rest, its final velocity, 𝑣 = 0𝑚𝑠 −1 .
➢ If a body stops with a certain velocity, 𝑥, then its final velocity, 𝑣 = 𝑥𝑚𝑠 −1.

Average velocity:
This is the average of the initial and final velocity.
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒗) + 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒖)
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝟐

❖ Acceleration:
This is the rate of change of velocity with time.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒗) − 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒖)
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

The SI unit of acceleration is metre per second squared (𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑚/𝑠 2 ).

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Question:
“A body has an acceleration of 2𝑚𝑠 −2 ”. What do you understand by the statement?
The statement means that the velocity of the body increases by 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏 every second.

Uniform acceleration:
This is the constant rate of change of velocity with time.
A body is said to move with uniform acceleration if its velocity changes by equal amounts in equal time
intervals.
NOTE:
➢ A body with uniform velocity has zero acceleration because there is no change in velocity.
➢ Acceleration is either positive or negative. If the acceleration is increasing, then it is said to be
positive and if it is decreasing (retarding or decelerating), it is said to be negative.

The figure below shows the velocity-time graph of a student moving around the school compound.
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 ) 𝟎 𝟒 𝟖 𝟏𝟐
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔) 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝟏𝟐
𝒂𝟑

𝟖
𝒂𝟐

𝟒
𝒂𝟏

𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)
A straight-line graph is obtained showing that the acceleration is uniform.
Calculating the corresponding accelerations of the student, we get;
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝟒−𝟎
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 = = 𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟏−𝟎
𝟖−𝟒
𝒂𝟐 = = 𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝟐−𝟏
𝟏𝟐 − 𝟖
𝒂𝟑 = = 𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝟑−𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

❖ Deceleration (Retardation):
When a body is moving with a decreasing velocity, then the body is said to be decelerating or retarding
and the acceleration is negative.

Converting units of velocities

Convert the following units.
(a) 108 𝑘𝑚ℎ−1 to 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝒌𝒎 𝒅
𝑽=
𝟏𝒌𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎 𝒕
𝟏𝟎𝟖𝒌𝒎 = 𝒅 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽=
𝒅 = (𝟏𝟎𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎)𝒎 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝟏 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓
𝟏𝒉𝒓 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔

(b) 60 𝑚𝑠 −1 to 𝑘𝑚ℎ−1
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟔𝟎𝒎 𝒅
𝑽=
𝟏𝒌𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎 𝒕
𝒅 = 𝟔𝟎𝒎 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔
𝟔𝟎 𝑽=
𝟏⁄
𝒅= 𝒌𝒎 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑽 = 𝟐𝟏𝟔𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝒌𝒎

𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝟏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
𝟏𝒉𝒓 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔
𝟏
𝟏𝒔 = 𝒉𝒓𝒔
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎

Examples:
1. A car starts from rest and acquires a final velocity of 60𝑚𝑠 −1 in 30𝑠. Find the acceleration of the
car.
𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝒗 = 𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝒕 = 𝟑𝟎𝒔
𝒗−𝒖
𝒂=
𝒕
𝟔𝟎 − 𝟎
𝒂=
𝟑𝟎
𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏

2. A body moving with a velocity of 80𝑚𝑠 −1 changes to 60𝑚𝑠 −1 in 2𝑠. Find the deceleration of the
body.
𝒖 = 𝟖𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝒗 = 𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝒕 = 𝟐𝒔
𝒗−𝒖
𝒂=
𝒕
𝟔𝟎 − 𝟖𝟎
𝒂=
𝟐
𝒂 = −𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

Consider a body starting with initial velocity, 𝒖𝑚𝑠 −1 and accelerates uniformly at a rate of, 𝒂𝑚𝑠 −2 to
acquire a final velocity, 𝒗𝑚𝑠 −1 in time 𝒕𝑠 and covers a displacement of 𝒔𝑚 as shown below
𝒂𝑚𝑠 −2

𝒖𝑚𝑠 −1 𝒗𝑚𝑠 −1

𝒔
First equation of linear motion:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣 − 𝑢
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 (𝒊)

Second equation of linear motion:

From the definition of displacement,
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑢+𝑣
𝑠=( )×𝑡
2
2𝑠 = (𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑡
From equation (𝑖), 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
2𝑠 = (𝑢 + 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑡
2𝑠 = (2𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑡
2𝑠 = 2𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑠= +
2 2
𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐

Third equation of linear motion:

From the definition of displacement,
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑢+𝑣
𝑠=( )×𝑡
2
From equation (𝑖), (𝑢 + 𝑣)(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝒗−𝒖 𝑠=
𝒕= 2𝑎
𝒂 2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 − 𝑢𝑣
𝑢+𝑣 𝑣−𝑢
𝑠=( )×( ) 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
2 𝑎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

In summary, the three equations of uniformly accelerated motion are;

𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟏
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝟐 𝟐
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔

Examples:
1. A car accelerated from a velocity of 10𝑚𝑠 −1 to 30𝑚𝑠 −1 in 4𝑠. Calculate
i) Acceleration of the car.
ii) Distance moved by the car.
(i) (ii)
𝒖 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 = 𝟒𝒔 𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝟐
𝒗−𝒖 𝟏
𝒂= 𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟒 + × 𝟓 × 𝟒𝟐
𝒕 𝟐
𝟑𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 𝟏
𝒂= 𝒔 = 𝟒𝟎 + × 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟔
𝟒 𝟐
𝟐𝟎 𝒔 = 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟒𝟎
𝒂=
𝟒 𝒔 = 𝟖𝟎𝒎
𝒂 = 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟐

2. A body starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to a velocity of 15𝑚𝑠 −1 at a rate of 5𝑚𝑠 −2 .
Calculate the distance moved by the body.
𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟏𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒂 = 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
𝟏𝟓𝟐 = 𝟎𝟐 + 𝟐 × 𝟓 × 𝒔
𝟐𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝒔
𝟐𝟐𝟓
𝒔=
𝟏𝟎
𝒔 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝒎

3. A body moving with a velocity of 20𝑚𝑠 −1 accelerates to a velocity of 30𝑚𝑠 −1 in 5 seconds.

Calculate;
i) Acceleration of the body.
ii) Distance moved by the body.

(i) (ii)
𝒖 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 = 𝟓𝒔 𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝟐
𝒗−𝒖 𝟏
𝒂= 𝒔 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟓 + × 𝟐 × 𝟓𝟐
𝒕 𝟐
𝟑𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎 𝟏
𝒂= 𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + × 𝟐 × 𝟐𝟓
𝟓 𝟐
𝟏𝟎 𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐𝟓
𝒂=
𝟓 𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒎
𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

4. A car moving with a velocity of 25𝑚𝑠 −1 retards uniformly at a rate of 2.5𝑚𝑠 −2. Calculate;
i) Velocity of the car after 8s.
ii) Time it takes to come to rest.
iii) Distance moved by the car.
𝒖 = 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒂 = −𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟐
(i) (iii)
𝒕 = 𝟖𝒔 𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝟐
𝒗 = 𝟐𝟓 + −𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟖 𝟏
𝒔 = 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 + × (−𝟐. 𝟓) × 𝟏𝟎𝟐
𝒗 = 𝟐𝟓 − 𝟐𝟎 𝟐
𝒗 = 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝟏
𝒔 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 + × (−𝟐. 𝟓) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐
(ii) 𝒔 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒎
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 OR
𝟎 = 𝟐𝟓 + −𝟐. 𝟓𝒕 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
−𝟐𝟓 𝟎𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟐 + 𝟐 × (−𝟐. 𝟓) × 𝒔
𝒕= 𝟎 = 𝟔𝟐𝟓 − 𝟓𝒔
−𝟐. 𝟓
𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎𝒔 𝟔𝟐𝟓
𝒔=
𝟓
𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒎
5. A car travelling at 90𝑘𝑚ℎ−1 is uniformly brought to rest in 40 seconds. Calculate its acceleration.
𝒖 = 𝟗𝟎𝒌𝒎𝒉−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 = 𝟒𝟎𝒔 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝒗−𝒖
Converting initial velocity to 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝒂=
𝒕
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟗𝟎𝒌𝒎 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝟏𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝟎 − 𝟐𝟓
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒎) 𝒂=
𝟒𝟎
𝒖= −𝟐𝟓
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔) 𝒂=
𝟗𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟎
𝒖= 𝒂 = −𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒖 = 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏

6. A driver of a bus initially travelling at 72𝑘𝑚ℎ−1 applies the brakes on seeing crossing elephants.
The bus comes to rest in 5 seconds. Calculate;
i) the retardation of the bus.
ii) Distance travelled in this interval.

𝒖 = 𝟕𝟐𝒌𝒎𝒉−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝟏
𝒗−𝒖 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
= 𝟓𝒔 𝒂= 𝟐
𝒕 𝟏
Converting initial velocity to 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎 𝒔 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟓 + × (−𝟒) × 𝟓𝟐
𝒂= 𝟐
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟕𝟐𝒌𝒎 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝟏𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝟓 𝟏
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒎) −𝟐𝟎 𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + × (−𝟒) × 𝟐𝟓
𝒖= 𝒂= 𝟐
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔) 𝟓 𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎
𝟕𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒂 = −𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝒔 = 𝟓𝟎𝒎
𝒖=
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒖 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

EXERCISE:
1. A body starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to a velocity of 25𝑚𝑠 −1 at a rate of 2.5𝑚𝑠 −2.
Calculate the distance moved by the body.

2. A particle initially moving with a velocity of 5𝑚𝑠 −1 accelerates uniformly at 4𝑚𝑠 −2 . Find
i) the velocity of the particle after 8s.
ii) the displacement of the particle after 10s.
iii) displacement by the time its velocity is 25𝑚𝑠 −1.

3. A car moving with a velocity of 25𝑚𝑠 −1 retards uniformly at a rate of 2.5𝑚𝑠 −2. Calculate;
i) Velocity of the car after 8s.
ii) Time it takes to come to rest.
iii) Distance moved by the car.
4. A body traveling at 90𝑘𝑚ℎ−1 is retarded to rest at 20𝑚𝑠 −2 . Calculate the distance covered.

5. A car on a straight road accelerates from rest to a speed of 30𝑚𝑠 −1 in 5s. it then travels at the same
speed for 5 minutes and then brakes for 10s in order to come to stop. Calculate the;
i) acceleration of the car during the motion.
ii) deceleration of the car.
iii) total distance travelled.

6. Calculate the final (maximum) velocity of a body travelling at 4𝑚𝑠 −1 , when it accelerates at 2𝑚𝑠 −2
and covers a distance of 5m.

7. A car travelling at 40𝑚𝑠 −1 is uniformly decelerated to 25𝑚𝑠 −1 for 5s. Calculate the total distance
covered.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

MOTION GRAPHS
These are graphs that represent the motion of the body moving in a straight line.
They include;
(a) DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPHS
These are graphs of motion with displacement of a body along the vertical axis and time along the
horizontal axis.
The graphs below show displacement-time graphs for a body;
i) Uniform velocity: ii) Uniform acceleration:
(Non-uniform velocity)

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒎)
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒎)

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔) 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)

iii) Uniform deceleration: iv) Body at rest:

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒎)
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒎)

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔) 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)

(b) VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS

These are graphs of motion with velocity of a body along the vertical axis and time along the
horizontal axis.
The graphs below show velocity-time graphs for a body;
i) Uniform velocity: ii) Body at rest:
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔) 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

iii) Uniform acceleration: iv) Uniform deceleration:

𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔) 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)

(c) ACCELERATION-TIME GRAPHS

These are graphs of motion with acceleration of a body along the vertical axis and time along the
horizontal axis.
The graphs below show acceleration-time graphs for a body;
i) Uniform velocity: ii) Uniform acceleration:
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔) 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)

iii) Uniform deceleration:
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

AREA UNDER A VELOCITY-TIME GRAPH

Consider a body starting from rest and accelerates uniformly to a velocity, 𝒗𝑚𝑠 −1 in time 𝒕𝑠.
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
𝒗

𝟎 𝒕 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑦
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = ( ) × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
2
𝑣+𝑢
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = ( )×𝑡
2
𝑣+0
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = ( )×𝑡
2
𝟏
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 = 𝒗𝒕 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉
𝟐
NOTE:
❖ Therefore, distance covered by the body is equal to the area under the velocity-time graph.
❖ Average velocity of the body under motion is given by;
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

Examples:
1. Describe the motion of the car for the graphs below.
a)
𝑽(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
𝟏𝟓

𝟎
𝟑 𝒕(𝒔)
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝟏𝟓 − 𝟎
𝒗−𝒖 𝒂=
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝒂= 𝟑
𝒕 𝟏𝟓
𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟏𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 = 𝟑𝒔 𝒂=
𝟑
𝒂 = 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟐
A car starts from rest (with velocity of 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 ) and accelerates uniformly at a rate of 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟐 to a
velocity of 𝟏𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 in 3 seconds.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

b)
𝑽(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
𝟐𝟎

𝟎 𝟓 𝒕(𝒔)
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟓
𝒗−𝒖 𝒂=
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝒂= 𝟓
𝒕 𝟏𝟓
𝒖 = 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 = 𝟓𝒔 𝒂=
𝟓
𝒂 = 𝟑𝒎𝒔−𝟐
A car starts from with a velocity of 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 and accelerates uniformly at a rate of 𝟑𝒎𝒔−𝟐 to a
velocity of 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 in 5 seconds.
OR
A car moving with a velocity of 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 accelerates uniformly to a velocity of 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 with an
acceleration of 𝟑𝒎𝒔−𝟐 .

c)
𝑽(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝟏𝟎

𝟎 𝟐 𝟔 𝟗
𝒕(𝒔)

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒗−𝒖 𝒗−𝒖
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎, 𝒂= 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎, 𝒂=
𝒕 𝒕
𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 = 𝟐𝒔 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 = (𝟗 − 𝟔) = 𝟑𝒔
𝟏𝟎 − 𝟎 𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎
𝒂= 𝒂=
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏𝟎 −𝟏𝟎
𝒂= 𝒂=
𝟐 𝟑
𝒂 = 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝒂 = −𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝒎𝒔−𝟐

A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at a rate of 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟐 to velocity of 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 in 2s.
It maintains this velocity for 4s and it then finally decelerates uniformly at a rate of 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝒎𝒔−𝟐 to
rest in 3 seconds.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

2. The figure below is a velocity-time graph of a car.

𝑽(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝒕(𝒔)
Use the graph to find;
i) the acceleration of the car.
ii) the deceleration of the car.
iii) the total distance covered by the car.
iv) the average velocity of the car.

i) 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 ii) 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒗−𝒖 𝒗−𝒖
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎, 𝒂= 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎, 𝒂=
𝒕 𝒕
𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 = 𝟏𝒔 𝒖 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 = (𝟒 − 𝟐. 𝟓) = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒔
𝟐−𝟎 𝟎−𝟐
𝒂= 𝒂=
𝟏 𝟏. 𝟓
𝟐 −𝟐
𝒂= 𝒂=
𝟏 𝟏. 𝟓
𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝒂 = −𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝒎𝒔−𝟐

iii) 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 iv) 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚

𝟏. 𝟓
𝟐
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝟒 𝟓. 𝟓
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒛𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟒
𝟏 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒉(𝒂 + 𝒃)
𝟐
𝟏
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = × 𝟐(𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟒)
𝟐
𝟏𝟏
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 =
𝟐
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟓. 𝟓𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

3. Sketch the velocity-time graphs for the information below and calculate the distance covered.
a) A boat is moving with a velocity of 15𝑚𝑠 −1 for 10𝑠. It is then brought to rest.

𝑽(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝟏𝟓

𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟔 𝒕(𝒔)
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 OR
𝟏𝟎

𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟓 𝑨 + 𝟏𝟓 𝑩
𝟏𝟎 𝟔
𝟏𝟔
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒛𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 + 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇
𝟏 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑨 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑩
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒉(𝒂 + 𝒃)
𝟐 𝟏
𝟏 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = (𝒍 × 𝒘) + 𝒃𝒉
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = × 𝟏𝟓(𝟏𝟎 + 𝟏𝟔) 𝟐
𝟐 𝟏
𝟑𝟗𝟎 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = (𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟓) + × 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟓
𝟐
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 + 𝟒𝟓
𝟐
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟏𝟗𝟓𝒎 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟒𝟓𝒎

b) A car starts with a velocity of 10𝑚𝑠 −1 and accelerates uniformly for 20𝑠 to a velocity of
30𝑚𝑠 −1 . It then maintains this velocity for 60𝑠 and finally decelerates uniformly to rest for 10𝑠.
𝑽(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝟑𝟎

𝟏𝟓

𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝟖𝟎 𝟗𝟎
𝒕(𝒔)
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝟏 𝟏
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒉(𝒂 + 𝒃) + (𝒍 × 𝒘) + 𝒃𝒉
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝟓
= × 𝟐𝟎(𝟏𝟓 + 𝟑𝟎) + (𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟓) + × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟓
𝑨 𝟑𝟎 𝑩 𝟏𝟓 𝑪 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏𝟓 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝟐𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = + 𝟗𝟎𝟎 +
𝟐 𝟐
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎 + 𝟗𝟎𝟎 + 𝟕𝟓
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 + 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 + 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟓𝒎
𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒛𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝑨 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑩 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑪

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

4. A boat traveling at 10𝑚𝑠 −1 uniformly accelerated for 4𝑠 at 2𝑚𝑠 −2 to a maximum speed. It then
moves with this maximum speed for 5𝑠 after it is uniformly brought to rest in another 3𝑠.
i) Draw a velocity-time graph for the motion of the boat.
ii) Calculate the maximum speed.
iii) Calculate the deceleration of the boat.
i)
𝑽(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝟏𝟎

𝟎 𝟒 𝟗 𝟏𝟐
𝒕(𝒔)
ii) 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 ii) 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒂𝒕
𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝒕 = 𝟒𝒔 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 = 𝟑𝒔 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟖𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐 × 𝟒 𝟎 = 𝟏𝟖 + 𝒂 × 𝟑
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟖 −𝟏𝟖
−𝟏 𝒂=
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟖𝒎𝒔 𝟑
𝒂 = −𝟔𝒎𝒔−𝟐
5. The velocity-time graph below represents the motion of two cars P and Q which start from the same
place and move in the same direction. Use the graph to answer the following questions.
𝑽(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝟔𝟎

𝟒𝟎

𝟐𝟎
𝑷

𝑸
𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝒕(𝒔)
i) Calculate the accelerations of cars P and Q.
ii) Determine how far the cars are from each other at the end of their accelerations.
iii) Find the distance covered by car P between the 20th and 40th seconds.
iv) Describe the motion of car Q.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

i) 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒓 𝑷 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒓 𝑸

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
−𝟏
𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔 𝒗 = 𝟒𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝒔 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔 −𝟏
𝒗 = 𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝒔
𝟒𝟎 = 𝟎 + 𝒂 × 𝟐𝟎 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟎 + 𝒂 × 𝟐𝟎
𝟒𝟎 𝟔𝟎
𝒂= 𝒂=
𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎
𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝒂 = 𝟑𝒎𝒔−𝟐

ii) 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒓 𝑷 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒓 𝑷

𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎, 𝑺𝑷 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎, 𝑺𝑸 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝒔 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒂 = 𝟑𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝒔
𝟏 𝟏
𝑺𝑷 = 𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎 + × 𝟐 × 𝟐𝟎𝟐 𝑺𝑸 = 𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎 + × 𝟑 × 𝟐𝟎𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑺𝑷 = 𝑺𝑸 =
𝟐 𝟐
𝑺𝑷 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎 𝑺𝑸 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎
Difference between the distance of the cars at the end of their accelerations.
𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = (𝟔𝟎𝟎 − 𝟒𝟎𝟎)𝒎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎

(iii) 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆

𝟒𝟎 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒍 × 𝒘
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟒𝟎
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝟐𝟎
iv) 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑄
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
−𝟏
𝒖 = 𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒔 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 = (𝟔𝟎 − 𝟒𝟓) = 𝟏𝟓𝒔
𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎 + 𝒂 × 𝟏𝟓
−𝟔𝟎
𝒂=
𝟏𝟓
𝒂 = −𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟐
A car P starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at a rate of 𝟑𝒎𝒔−𝟐 to velocity of
𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 in 2s. It maintains this velocity for 15s and it then finally decelerates uniformly at
a rate of 𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟐 to rest in 15 seconds.

6. The table below represents the velocity of a vehicle after a given time.
Velocity (𝑚𝑠 −1 ) 0 3 6 9 12 15 15 15 15 15
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
i) Plot a velocity-time graph representing the motion of the vehicle.
ii) Find the slope of the vehicle (slope is equal to acceleration of the vehicle)
iii) Find the total displacement for the whole vehicle.
iv) Use the graph to describe the motion of the vehicle.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

i)
𝑽(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
𝟏𝟔

𝟏𝟐

𝟎
𝟎 𝟐 𝟒 𝟔 𝟖 𝟏𝟎
𝒕(𝒔)
ii) 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆) iii) 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒗−𝒖 𝟒
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎, 𝒂=
𝒕
𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟏𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒕 = 𝟓𝒔 𝟏𝟓
𝟏𝟓 − 𝟎
𝒂=
𝟓 𝟗
𝟏𝟓 𝟏
𝒂= 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒉(𝒂 + 𝒃)
𝟓 𝟐
𝒂 = 𝟑𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝟏
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = × 𝟏𝟓(𝟒 + 𝟗)
𝟐
𝟏𝟗𝟓
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 =
𝟐
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟓𝒎

iv) A vehicle starting from rest accelerates uniformly at a rate of 𝟑𝒎𝒔−𝟐 to a velocity of
𝟏𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 in 5 seconds. It then maintains this new velocity for 4 seconds.

7. A car of mass 20kg travelling with a uniform velocity of 25𝑚𝑠 −1 for 5𝑠 brakes and then comes to
rest under a uniform deceleration in 8𝑠.
i) Sketch a velocity-time graph for the motion.
ii) Find the retardation.
iii) Calculate the retarding force of the car.
iv) Find the total distance travelled.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

i)
𝑽(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝟐𝟓

𝟎 𝟓 𝟖 𝒕(𝒔)
ii)Retardation ii) Retarding force iii) Total distance
𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒎 = 𝟐𝒌𝒈 𝟓
−𝟐
𝒕 = 𝟑𝒔 𝒖 = 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒂 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝒎𝒔 𝟐𝟓
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
𝟎 = 𝟐𝟓 + 𝒂 × 𝟑 𝑭 = 𝟐 × 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 𝟖
−𝟐𝟓 𝑭 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟕𝑵 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒛𝒊𝒖𝒎
𝒂= 𝟏
𝟑 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒉(𝒂 + 𝒃)
𝒂 = −𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = × 𝟐𝟓(𝟓 + 𝟖)
𝟐
𝟑𝟐𝟓
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 =
𝟐
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟏𝟔𝟐. 𝟓𝒎
8. A car accelerated uniformly from a velocity of 10𝑚𝑠 −1 to a velocity of 30𝑚𝑠 −1 in 20𝑠. It then
moved with a constant velocity for 5𝑠. It accelerates uniformly again to a velocity of 70𝑚𝑠 −1 in
15𝑠. The brakes are then applied and it comes to rest uniformly in a further 8𝑠.
i) Draw a velocity-time graph for the motion of the car.
ii) Calculate the distance covered by the car.
iii) Calculate the average velocity of the car.
i)
𝑽(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝟕𝟎

𝟑𝟎

𝟏𝟎

𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟓 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟖 𝒕(𝒔)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

ii)

𝟕𝟎 𝟕𝟎
𝟑𝟎 𝟑𝟎 𝟑𝟎
𝟏𝟎
𝟐𝟎 𝟓 𝟏𝟓 𝟖

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 + 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 + 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 + 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇

𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒛𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝑨 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑩 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒛𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝑪 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑫
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒉(𝒂 + 𝒃) + (𝒍 × 𝒘) + 𝒉(𝒂 + 𝒃) + 𝒃𝒉
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = × 𝟐𝟎(𝟏𝟎 + 𝟑𝟎) + (𝟑𝟎 × 𝟓) + × 𝟏𝟓(𝟑𝟎 + 𝟕𝟎) + × 𝟖 × 𝟕𝟎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟔𝟎
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = + 𝟏𝟓𝟎 + +
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎 + 𝟕𝟓𝟎 + 𝟐𝟖𝟎
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟎𝒎

EXERCISE.
1. A car moves from rest with a uniform acceleration of 1𝑚𝑠 −2 for the first 20𝑠. It continues at a
constant velocity for the next 30𝑠 and finally takes 10𝑠 to decelerate uniformly to rest.
a) Calculate the constant velocity reached after 20𝑠.
b) Sketch a velocity-time graph for the whole journey.
c) Calculate the distance travelled by the car.

2. A car starting from ret at P accelerates uniformly for 10s to a velocity of 25𝑚𝑠 −1. It then moves at
this constant velocity for 8s before retarding uniformly for 5s so as to stop at Q.
Sketch a velocity-time graph for the motion and find;
i) the distance covered during each of the parts of the journey described.
ii) the acceleration of the car.
iii) The retardation of the car.

3. The figure shows the motion of a car with an acceleration of 2𝑚𝑠 −2 .

𝑽(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝟐𝟎

𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟖𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒕(𝒔)
i) Describe the motion of the car.
ii) Find the distance moved after 50𝑠.
iii) Find the total distance travelled by the car.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

4. A car travels at a velocity of 20𝑚𝑠 −1 for 6s. It is then uniformly brought to rest in 4s.
i) Draw a velocity against time graph.
ii) Calculate the retardation.
iii) Find the total distance travelled.
iv) Calculate the average speed of the body.

5. The graph below shows motion of a body. Use it to answer the following questions;
𝑽(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝟏𝟎

𝟎 𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐
𝒕(𝒔)
i) Describe the motion of the body.
ii) Calculate the acceleration and the retardation of the body.
iii) Calculate the total distance covered by the body.
iv) Calculate the average velocity of the body.

6. Plot a velocity-time graph of the body for the information below and use it to answer the questions.
Velocity (𝑚𝑠 −1 ) 0 9 18 27 36 45 54
Time (s) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
a) Describe the motion of the body.
b) Calculate the acceleration of the body
c) Calculate the total displacement of the body.

7. The table below shows the velocity attained by a moving particle in a given time.
Velocity (𝑚𝑠 −1 ) 5 13 21 29 39 39 39 27 15 3
Time (s) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Draw a velocity-time graph and describe the motion of the particle.
Use it to find;
i) Distance move while accelerating.
ii) Acceleration and retardation of the particle.
iii) The time that would have elapsed when it comes to rest.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

When a body is moving under gravity (upwards or downwards), it attains a constant acceleration called
acceleration due to gravity (g). This constant acceleration is equal to 𝟗. 𝟖 𝑚𝑠 −2 ≈ 𝟏𝟎 𝑚𝑠 −2 .
Definition:
Acceleration due to gravity is the rate of change of velocity with time for a freely falling body
under the force of gravity.
NOTE: Acceleration due to gravity varies from place to place because;
▪ The earth is not a perfect sphere.
▪ The earth is always rotating.

Since the force of gravity acts vertically downwards;

➢ bodies moving vertically downwards are moving in the same direction as the force of gravity so,
they have a positive acceleration due to gravity (+𝒈 𝑚𝑠 −2 ).
The equations of motion are;
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕
𝟏
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒔
➢ bodies moving vertically upwards are moving in the direction opposite to the force of gravity so,
they have a negative acceleration due to gravity (−𝒈 𝑚𝑠 −2 ).
The equations of motion are;
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕
𝟏
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒔
𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝒈 = +𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝑯 𝒈 = −𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐

IMPORTANT TERMS:
Maximum height, H:
This is the greatest height reached by the body from the point of projection.
At maximum height, 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

Time of flight, T:
This is the total time taken by a body from its point of projection until it lands.
Time of flight is twice the time taken by the body to reach maximum height.
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝒕
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏; 𝑻 = 𝟐𝒕

Trajectory:
This is the path followed by a projectile.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Examples:
(𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚 (𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 )
1. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 25𝑚𝑠 −1 .
a) Determine the time taken to reach maximum height.
b) What is the maximum height reached by the stone
a) b)
𝑨𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕, 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒔
𝒖 = 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒈 = −𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝐻
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕 𝟎𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟐 + 𝟐 × −𝟏𝟎 × 𝑯
𝟎 = 𝟐𝟓 + −𝟏𝟎 × 𝒕 𝟐𝟎𝑯 = 𝟔𝟐𝟓
−𝟐𝟓 = −𝟏𝟎𝒕 𝟔𝟐𝟓
−𝟐𝟓 𝑯=
𝟐𝟎
𝒕= 𝑯 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒎
−𝟏𝟎
𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒔

2. A ball is thrown vertically upwards and reaches a maximum height of 31.25m.

Calculate;
i) Initial velocity of the ball.
ii) The time taken to return to the hands of the thrower.
i) c)
−𝟏 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕
𝑨𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑯, 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔
𝒖 =? 𝒈 = −𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝑯 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒎 𝟎 = 𝟐𝟓 + −𝟏𝟎 × 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝒕 = 𝟐𝟓
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝟐𝒈𝒔
𝟐 𝟐
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝟐𝒈𝑯 𝟐𝟓
𝟐 𝟐 𝒕=
𝟎 = 𝒖 + 𝟐 × −𝟏𝟎 × 𝟑𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟎
𝟐
𝒖 = 𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒔
𝒖 = √𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆, 𝑻 = 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟐
−𝟏
𝒖 = 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒔 𝑻 = 𝟓𝒔
NOTE:
When a body is thrown vertically upwards the time taken to reach the maximum height is equal
to the time taken for the body to fall back from maximum height to the point of projection.

3. A stone is released vertically downwards from the top of a tree and hits the ground after 3s.
Find
i) the height of the tree.
ii) the velocity with which it hits the ground.

i) ii)
𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝒉 =? 𝒕 = 𝟑𝒔 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕
𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟑
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝒗 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟏
𝒉 = 𝟎 × 𝟑 + × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟑𝟐
𝟐
𝟗𝟎
𝒉=
𝟐
𝒉 = 𝟒𝟓𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

4. A particle is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20𝑚𝑠 −1 from the edge of a cliff of height
10m. Calculate;
i) the maximum height reached by the particle.
ii) time taken to reach maximum height from the cliff top.
iii) The total time taken by the particle to hit the ground

𝒖 = 2𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒈 = −𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎 i) At maximum height 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒔
𝑯 𝟎𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟐 + 𝟐 × −𝟏𝟎 × 𝑯
𝟐𝟎𝑯 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝒚 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝑯=
𝒉 𝟐𝟎
𝑯 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎

ii) iii)
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕, 𝒚 = 𝒉 + 𝑯
𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎 + −𝟏𝟎 × 𝒕𝟏 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕, 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝒕𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎
𝟐𝟎 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝒕𝟏 = 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎 = 𝒔
𝟏𝟎
𝒕𝟏 = 𝟐𝒔 𝟏
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎 × 𝒕𝟐 + × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝒕𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
𝟑𝟎
𝒕𝟐 𝟐 =
𝟓
𝒕𝟐 = √𝟔
𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟓𝒔
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟐
= 𝟐 + 𝟐. 𝟒𝟓
= 𝟒. 𝟒𝟓𝒔

EXERCISE:
1. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 15𝑚𝑠 −1.
Calculate
i) the maximum height reached by the stone.
ii) the time taken to reach maximum height.

2. A body at a height of 20m above the ground falls freely under gravity to the ground.
Calculate
i) the time taken by the body to reach the ground.
ii) the velocity with which it hits the ground.

3. An object is dropped from a helicopter. If the object hits the ground after 2s, calculate;
i) the height from which the object was dropped.
ii) The velocity with which it hits the ground.

PROJECTILE MOTION

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

A projectile is an object which when given an initial velocity moves under the influence of force of
gravity and it is only acted upon by its weight.
The path followed by a projectile is called trajectory.
If a projectile motion, a body’s velocity consists of two parts i.e. horizontal velocity and vertical
velocity.
➢ The horizontal velocity of the body remains the same throughout the motion since its not affected by
the acceleration due to gravity.
➢ The vertical velocity of the body varies or changes since it is being affected by the acceleration due
to gravity.
Therefore, the projectile will have both horizontal and vertical motion.

Consider a ball projected horizontally with an initial velocity 𝒖𝑚𝑠 −1 from the point above the ground.
𝒖
𝒖𝒙

𝒚 𝒖𝒚

𝒙
HORIZONTAL MOTION VERTICAL MOTION
𝑎𝑥 = 0𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑔𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑢𝑦 = 0
1 1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2 2
1 1
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡 + × 0 × 𝑡 2 𝑦 = 0 × 𝑡 + × 𝑔 × 𝑡2
2 2
𝒙 = 𝒖𝒕 𝟏 𝟐
𝒚= 𝒈𝒕
𝟐

Examples:
1. A ball is thrown from the edge of the cliff with a horizontal velocity 20𝑚𝑠 −1 and hits the surface at
a distance 60m from the base of the cliff.
Calculate;
i) the time it takes to reach the surface.
ii) the height of the cliff.

i) ii)
−𝟏
𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔 𝒙 = 𝟔𝟎𝒎 𝒚 = 𝒉 𝒖 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝒙 = 𝒖𝒕 𝒚= 𝒈𝒕
𝟐
𝒉 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝒕 𝟏
𝟔𝟎 𝒉 = × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟑𝟐
𝒕= 𝟐
𝟐𝟎 𝟗𝟎
𝒉=
𝟔𝟎𝒎 𝒕 = 𝟑𝒔 𝟐
𝒉 = 𝟒𝟓𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

2. An object is released from an aircraft horizontally with a velocity of 200𝑚𝑠 −1 a height of 500m.
Find
i) how long it takes the object to reach the ground.
ii) The horizontal distance covered by the object.
i) ii)
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒚 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎 𝒖 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒙 = 𝒖𝒕
𝟏 𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎 𝒚= 𝒈𝒕
𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝟏
𝟓𝟎𝟎 = × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝒙 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟐
𝒕 =
𝟓
𝒕 = √𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎𝒔

3. A ball of mass 2kg is thrown horizontally with a speed of 15𝑚𝑠 −1 from a top of a building. If it
takes 2 seconds to reach the ground, find
i) the height of the building.
ii) the vertical velocity with which it hits the ground.
iii) the kinetic energy of the ball before it hits the ground.
𝟏𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝒙
i) ii) iii)
𝒎 = 𝟐𝒌𝒈 𝒚 = 𝒉 𝒖 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔 −𝟏
𝒕 = 𝟐𝒔 𝒖𝒚 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔 −𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒚 = 𝒖𝒚 + 𝒈𝒕 𝟐
𝒚= 𝒈𝒕 𝟏
𝟐 𝒗𝒚 = 𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐 𝑲. 𝑬 = × 𝟐 × 𝟐𝟎𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝒉 = × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒚 = 2𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑱
𝟐 OR
𝟒𝟎
𝒉= 𝑷. 𝑬 = 𝑲. 𝑬
𝟐 𝟏
𝒉 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎 𝒎𝒈𝒉 = 𝒎 𝒗𝒚 𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎 = × 𝟐 × 𝒗𝒚 𝟐
𝟐
𝒗𝒚 𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝒚 = √𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝒚 = 2𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

MOTION GRAPHS FOR BODIES UNDER GRAVITY

The following graphs describe the motion of the body that has been thrown or projected vertically
upwards.
Distance-time graph Displacement-time graph

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒎)
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒎)

𝟎 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)
𝟎 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔) The displacement increases with time and when
the body reaches maximum height, it changes
direction and start to move downwards
Speed-time graph Velocity-time graph
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
𝒖 𝒖

𝟎 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔) 𝟎
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)

The speed of the body decreases as it goes higher.

At maximum height the speed becomes 0𝑚𝑠 −1 as
−𝒖
the body rests momentarily. The speed increases
as the body starts to fall down. The velocity of the body decreases as it goes
higher until it reaches maximum height where
velocity becomes 0𝑚𝑠 −1 .The velocity increases
as the body starts to fall down.
The negative velocity means that the body has
changed direction.

EXERCISE:
1. A girl throws a ball horizontally from a window of a room onto the ground. If it takes the ball 4s to
hit the ground, find
i) the vertical height from the point of projection to the ground.
ii) the velocity with which the ball was projected given that it landed 50m away from the room.

2. A stone is thrown horizontally with a velocity of 6𝑚𝑠 −1 from the edge of the cliff 125m tall. Find
how far the stone landed from the bottom of the cliff.

3. A bomb is released from a plane 5000m high with a velocity 30𝑚𝑠 −1. Find the
i) time it takes to reach the ground.
ii) horizontal distance it covers by the time it hits the ground.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

4. A jet flying at a height of 2km with a horizontal velocity of 40m/s drops a bomb to hit a target.
Determine
a) the time taken before the bomb hits the ground.
b) the vertical velocity with which it hits the ground.
c) the horizontal distance covered by the bomb by the time it hits the ground.

5. A bomb is released from a jet fighter plane moving with a velocity of 400𝑚𝑠 −1 to hit a rebel camp
in northern Uganda. If the bomb took 10 seconds to hit the target, calculate;
i) the altitude at which the bomb was released.
ii) the horizontal distance from the vertical point of the jet fighter plane to the target.
iii) the velocity with which the bombs hits the target.
iv) The kinetic energy of the bomb before hitting the target.

Experiment to determine acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum

𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅

𝒍
𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅

𝑷𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒐𝒃

▪ Suspend a pendulum bob from a retort stand using a small piece of thread as shown in the diagram
above.
▪ Starting with length, 𝒍 = 20𝑐𝑚, displace the pendulum bob through a small angle and release it to
oscillate.
▪ Measure the time, 𝒕 for 20 oscillations of the pendulum bob using a stop clock.
𝒕
▪ Determine time, 𝑻 for one oscillation i.e. 𝑻 =
𝟐𝟎
▪ Repeat the experiment for other increasing values of 𝒍.
▪ Record the results in a suitable table including values of 𝑻𝟐 .
𝒍(𝒎) 𝒕(𝒔) 𝑻(𝒔) 𝑻𝟐 (𝒔𝟐 )

▪ Plot a graph of 𝑻𝟐 against 𝒍 and determine its slope, 𝑺.

𝑻𝟐 (𝒔𝟐 )
∆𝑻𝟐 ∆𝑻𝟐
𝑺=
∆𝒍
∆𝒍

𝒍(𝒎) 𝟒𝝅𝟐
▪ Determine the acceleration due to gravity, 𝒈 from 𝒈 = 𝑺

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

TICKER-TIMER
A ticker-timer is an electric device used in a physics laboratory to study speed, velocity and acceleration
of the body.
It consists of a vibrating arm which vibrates due to the changing current (alternating current) applied to
it. As it vibrates, it prints dots on a ticker-tape which is pulled through it. The dots printed are used to
study the motion of the body.
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒅

𝑽𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒓𝒎

𝑨𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚

𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄 𝑻𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒓 − 𝒕𝒂𝒑𝒆

Experiment to determine uniform velocity of a body using a ticker-timer.

𝑻𝒂𝒑𝒆
𝑻𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒓 − 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒓

𝑻𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒚

𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒖𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒚
▪ The ticker-tape is tied on a trolley placed on a tilted (inclined) runway.
▪ The ticker-timer is switched on and a vibrating arm of known frequency, 𝒇 moves the pin up and
down. 𝟏
▪ The time taken for one complete vibration (periodic time) is determined from 𝑻 =
𝒇
▪ The trolley is slightly pushed to make it run on the inclined runway.
▪ The ticker-tape is pulled with uniform velocity such that the dots printed are equally spaced.
▪ The tape with printed dots is removed from the trolley.
▪ The distance covered by a certain number of dots is measured and noted.

𝒅
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 (𝒅)
▪ Uniform velocity is then calculated from; 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑻) × 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

NOTE:
Before the experiment, its necessary to compensate for friction. This can be done by tilting the
runway until a certain point is reached such that when a trolley is given a slight push, it moves with
uniform velocity.

Important definitions:
❖ Frequency, f:
This is the number of number of dots printed per second.
OR
This is the number of vibrations per second.
The SI unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz)

❖ Period (Tick), T:
This is time taken to print any two successive dots on the tape.
Its SI unit is a second (s).

How to calculate velocity:

▪ First note the distance between the reference dots.
𝟏
▪ Find the period from 𝑻 =
𝒇
▪ Find the time taken to print the reference dots from;
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 (𝑻) × 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑠
𝟏
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 = × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒅𝒐𝒕𝒔
𝒇
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅
▪ Then speed or velocity =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
Examples:
1. The figure below is a tape which was pulled through a ticker- timer of frequency 50Hz.

𝟏𝟐𝒎
Find
i) the period.
ii) time taken to print the reference dots.
iii) the speed at which a tape is pulled.

i) iii)
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟐𝒎, 𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒅)
𝟏 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅, 𝑻 = 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒕)
𝒇 𝟏𝟐
𝟏 𝑽=
𝑻= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐
𝟓𝟎 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒔
ii)
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏, 𝒕 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟔
𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

2. A ticker-timer vibrates at a frequency of 50Hz. If the distance between two consecutive dots is 2cm.
Find the time that elapses between two consecutive and average speed of the tape.

𝒅 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎, 𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 OR

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏, 𝒕 = 𝑻 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒅)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝟏 𝑽=
𝒕 = × 𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒕)
𝟏 𝒇
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅, 𝑻 = 𝟐
𝒇 𝟏 𝑽=
𝒕= ×𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝟏
𝑻= 𝟓𝟎 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟓𝟎 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒔
𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒔
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒅)
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒕)
𝟐⁄
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝑽 = 𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟏

3. The ticker tape below was pulled through a ticker-time of frequency 50Hz. Calculate the speed at
which the tape was pulled.

𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝟐𝟎 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒅)
𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒅 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒕)
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏, 𝒕 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝟎. 𝟐
𝟏 𝑽=
𝒕 = × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝟎. 𝟏
𝒇 𝑽 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟏
𝒕= ×𝟓
𝟓𝟎
𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒔

4. The ticker-tape shown below was pulled through a ticker-timer which makes 100 dots every second.

𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎
Find the speed at which the tape is pulled.

𝟏𝟎 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒅)
𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒅 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒕)
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏, 𝒕 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝟎. 𝟏
𝟏 𝑽=
𝒕 = × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒
𝒇 𝑽 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟏
𝒕= ×𝟒
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 31

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Experiment to determine acceleration of a body using a ticker-timer.

𝑻𝒂𝒑𝒆
𝑻𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒓 − 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒓

𝑻𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒚

𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒖𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒚
▪ The ticker-tape is tied on a trolley placed on a tilted (inclined) runway.
▪ The ticker-timer is switched on and a vibrating arm of known frequency, 𝒇 moves the pin up and
down. 𝟏
▪ The time taken for one complete vibration (periodic time) is determined from 𝑻 =
𝒇
▪ The trolley is slightly pushed to make it run on the inclined runway.
▪ The ticker-tape is pulled through the ticker-timer such that the dots are printed on it as shown below.

𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝑨 𝑩 𝑪 𝑫
▪ The distances 𝒅𝟏 and 𝒅𝟐 covered by the selected number of dots is measured and noted.
▪ If there are 𝒏1 spaces between region AB, then the time taken to print them is 𝑻𝒏1 .
𝒅
▪ The initial velocity, 𝒖 is then calculated from; 𝒖 = 𝟏
𝑻𝒏𝟏
▪ If there are 𝒏2 spaces between region CD, then the time taken to print them is 𝑻𝒏2.
𝒅𝟐
▪ The final velocity, 𝒗 is then calculated from 𝒗 =
𝑻𝒏𝟐
𝒗−𝒖
▪ The acceleration of the trolley can be calculated from 𝒂 =
𝒕
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒕 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑨𝑩 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑪𝑫

How to calculate acceleration:

▪ First note the distances between the reference dots.
𝟏
▪ Find the period from 𝑻 =
𝒇
▪ Find the times taken 𝒕𝟏 and 𝒕𝟐 to print the reference dots from;
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 (𝑻) × 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑠
𝟏
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 = × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒅𝒐𝒕𝒔
𝒇
▪ Calculate the initial velocity, 𝒖 and final velocity, 𝒗 from;
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝒖= 𝒗=
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐
𝒗−𝒖
▪ Calculate the acceleration of the trolley from 𝒂 =
𝒕
NOTE: To calculate time taken, 𝒕, the spaces are measured from middle of initial distance to the middle
of final distance.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 32

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Examples:
1. The figure below shows dots printed by a ticker-timer of frequency 100Hz, calculate the acceleration
of the ticker-tape.

𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝟐𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝒏 = 𝟓𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝒅𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏
𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟒𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟔𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕= ×𝒏
𝒇
𝟏
𝒕𝟏 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝟐 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕= ×𝟓
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒕𝟏 = × 𝒏𝟏 𝒕𝟐 = × 𝒏 𝟐 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒔
𝒇 𝒇
𝟏 𝟏 𝒗−𝒖
𝒕𝟏 = ×𝟒 𝒕𝟐 = ×𝟔 𝒂=
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒕
𝒕𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝒔 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝒔 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟓
𝒂=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝟓
𝒖= 𝒗= 𝒂=
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔 𝒂 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝒖= 𝒗=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔
𝒖 = 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

2. The figure below shows dots printed by a ticker-timer. If the ticker-timer prints 100 dots per second,
calculate the acceleration of the tape pulled through it.

𝟒𝒄𝒎 𝟐𝟒𝒄𝒎
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟒 𝒏 = 𝟕. 𝟓𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝒅𝟏 = 𝟒𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏
𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟓𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟔𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕= ×𝒏
𝒇
𝟏
𝒕𝟏 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝟐 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕= × 𝟕. 𝟓
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒕𝟏 = × 𝒏𝟏 𝒕𝟐 = × 𝒏 𝟐 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝒔
𝒇 𝒇
𝟏 𝟏 𝒗−𝒖
𝒕𝟏 = ×𝟓 𝒕𝟐 = ×𝟔 𝒂=
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒕
𝒕𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒔 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝒔 𝟒−𝟖
𝒂=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟓
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐 −𝟒
𝒖= 𝒗= 𝒂=
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟓
𝟎. 𝟒 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝒂 = −𝟓𝟑. 𝟑𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝒖= 𝒗=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔
𝒖 = 𝟖𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 = 𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 33

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

NOTE:
The ticker-tapes below shows the dots printed for bodies in motion.

❖ If the body is moving with constant or uniform velocity, the dots are equally spaced along the
tape.
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

❖ If the body is moving with uniform acceleration, the spacing between the dots increase
progressively.
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

❖ If the body is moving with uniform deceleration, the spacing between the dots decrease
progressively.
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

Further examples:
3. The figure below shows a tape produced by a ticker-timer operating at a frequency of 50Hz.
𝑨 𝑩
𝟑. 𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝟎. 𝟖𝒄𝒎
If the body or trolley was uniformly decelerating,
a) In which direction was it moving?
It was moving from B to A since spacing of the dots reduce progressively from B to A.
b) Calculate the deceleration of the trolley that pulled the tape through the ticker timer.
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝟑. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟖 𝒏 = 𝟐𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝒅𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓𝒎 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏
𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟑𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟏𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒕= ×𝒏
𝒇
𝟏
𝒕𝟏 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝟐 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕= ×𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟓𝟎
𝒕𝟏 = × 𝒏𝟏 𝒕𝟐 = × 𝒏 𝟐 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝒔
𝒇 𝒇
𝟏 𝟏 𝒗−𝒖
𝒕𝟏 = ×𝟑 𝒕𝟐 = ×𝟏 𝒂=
𝟓𝟎 𝟓𝟎 𝒕
𝒕𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝒔 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒔 𝟎. 𝟒 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝟖
𝒂=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟒
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐 −𝟎. 𝟏𝟖
𝒖= 𝒗= 𝒂=
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒
𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖 −𝟏
𝒂 = −𝟒. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝒖= = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟖𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗= = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎𝒔
𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 34

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

4. A trolley is pulled from rest with a constant force down an inclined plane. The trolley pulls a tape
through a ticker-timer vibrating at 50Hz. The following measurements were made as follows.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 16𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 20𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑜𝑡 = 20𝑐𝑚
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 40𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 50𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑜𝑡 = 62𝑐𝑚
Calculate the acceleration of the trolley.
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝟐𝟎 𝟔𝟐 Spaces in between
𝒅𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟔𝟐𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒏𝟑 = 𝒏 𝒕𝒉 − 𝒎 𝒕𝒉
𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒏𝟑 = 𝟒𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎
𝒏𝟏 = 𝒏 𝒕𝒉 − 𝒎 𝒕𝒉 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏 𝒕𝒉 − 𝒎 𝒕𝒉 𝒏 = 𝟐 + 𝒏𝟑 + 𝟓
𝒏𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟒𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟓𝟎 − 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒏 = 𝟐𝟕𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝟏
𝒕𝟏 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝟐 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕= ×𝒏
𝟏 𝟏 𝒇
𝒕𝟏 = × 𝒏𝟏 𝒕𝟐 = × 𝒏𝟐 𝟏
𝒇 𝒇 𝒕= × 𝟐𝟕
𝟏 𝟏 𝟓𝟎
𝒕𝟏 = ×𝟒 𝒕𝟐 = × 𝟏𝟎 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝒔
𝟓𝟎 𝟓𝟎
𝒕𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝒔 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒔 𝒗−𝒖
𝒂=
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒕
𝒖= 𝒗= 𝟑. 𝟏 − 𝟐. 𝟓
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐 𝒂=
𝟎. 𝟓𝟒
𝟎. 𝟐 −𝟏
𝟎. 𝟔𝟐 −𝟏 𝟎. 𝟔
𝒖= = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒔 𝒗= = 𝟑. 𝟏𝒎𝒔 𝒂=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒
𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟐
5. The figure below shows a tape pulled by a trolley through a ticker-timer. Describe the motion of the
trolley if the frequency of the timer is 50Hz.

𝟖𝒄𝒎 𝟐𝒄𝒎
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝟐 𝟖 𝒏 = 𝟓𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝒅𝟏 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟖𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏
𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟏𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟏𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒕= ×𝒏
𝒇
𝟏
𝒕𝟏 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝟐 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕= ×𝟓
𝟏 𝟏 𝟓𝟎
𝒕𝟏 = × 𝒏𝟏 𝒕𝟐 = × 𝒏 𝟐 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒔
𝒇 𝒇
𝟏 𝟏 𝒗−𝒖
𝒕𝟏 = ×𝟏 𝒕𝟐 = ×𝟏 𝒂=
𝟓𝟎 𝟓𝟎 𝒕
𝒕𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒔 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒔 𝟒−𝟏
𝒂=
𝟎. 𝟏
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝟑
𝒖= 𝒗= 𝒂=
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐 𝟎. 𝟏
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 𝒂 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝒖= = 𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗= = 𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 35

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

In the first 0.02s, the trolley was moving with a speed of 𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟏 . It accelerated uniformly at a rate of
𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 to a final velocity of 𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟏 in the last 0.02s.

EXERCISE:
1. A tape was pulled through a ticker-timer which made one dot every second. If it made three dots and
the distance between the three dots is 16cm, find the velocity of the tape.
2. A paper tape was attached to a moving trolley and allowed to run through a ticker-timer. The figure
below shows a section of the tape.
𝟏. 𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝟑. 𝟐𝒄𝒎

If the frequency of the tape is 100Hz, determine;

i) initial and final velocities of the trolley.
ii) average acceleration of the trolley.
3. In a ticker-timer experiment, the distance occupied by a 6-dot space on the tape is 5.1cm, while the
adjacent 6-dot space occupies 6.3cm. Find the acceleration of the body to which the tape is attached,
if the ticker frequency is 50Hz.
4. The figure below shows a tape that was pulled through a ticker-timer of frequency 50Hz.

𝟒𝒄𝒎 𝟖𝒄𝒎
Describe the motion of the body pulling the tape.
5. The figure below shows dots produced on a tape pulled through a ticker-timer by a moving body.

𝟐𝒄𝒎 𝟓𝒄𝒎
a) State the type of motion in the figure above.
b) Calculate the acceleration of the moving body.
6. A paper tape dragged through a ticker timer by a trolley has the first ten dots covering a distance of
4cm and the next ten dots covering a distance of 7cm. if the frequency of the ticker-timer is 5oHz,
calculate the acceleration of the trolley.
7. The distance between the 15th dot and the 18th dot is 10cm. If the ticker-timer is vibrating at 20Hz.
Calculate the:
i) time taken to print the dots.
ii) average speed of the tape.
8. The figure below shows a piece of tape pulled through a ticker-timer by a trolley down an inclined
plane. The frequency of the ticker-timer is 50Hz.

𝟎. 𝟔𝒄𝒎 𝟒𝒄𝒎 𝟐. 𝟓𝒄𝒎

Calculate the acceleration of the trolley.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 36

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

CIRCULAR MOTION
Circular motion is the motion in which a body moves in a circle about a fixed point.
In circular motion;
❖ The speed of the body is always constant.
❖ The direction of the body is always changing.
❖ The velocity of the body keeps on changing due to the changing direction. This is because velocity is
a vector quantity which depends on the direction.
❖ The body has an acceleration due to the changing velocity. This acceleration (centripetal acceleration)
acts towards the centre of the circle.

TERMS USED IN CIRCULAR MOTION

The figure below shows a whirled body tied on the string.

𝑩𝒐𝒅𝒚
𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒖𝒈𝒂𝒍
𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

Tension:
This is the force exerted by a string on the body moving in circular motion. The tension force
provides the centripetal force.

Centripetal force:
This is the force acting on the body towards the centre of the circular path.

Centripetal acceleration:
This is the acceleration that acts on a body towards the centre of the circular path. It is provided
by the centripetal force.

Centrifugal force:
This is the force acting on the body away from the centre of the circular path.

Weight:
This is the force acting on the body vertically downwards towards the centre of the earth.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 37

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

NOTE:
Experimental results show that the force required to keep the body moving in a circular path i.e.
centripetal force increases with;
i) an increase in the mass of the body.
ii) an increase in the speed of the body.
iii) a decrease in radius of the circular path.

APPLICATION OF CIRCULAR MOTION IN REAL LIFE SITUATION

Bending of a cyclist round a curve:

A cyclist going round a curve has to lean inwards (bend slightly towards the centre of circular path) in
order to take a safe turn without slipping. This slight bending provides the necessary centripetal force so
as to be able to go along the curved track.

𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

Banking of tracks:
When a car is going round a circular path, the centripetal force required to keep the car in circular
motion is provided by the frictional force between the tyres and the road. This centripetal force prevents
the car from sliding even if it is moving fast.
In order for a car not to fully depend on the frictional force, the circular paths are given a small banking
i.e. the outer edge of the road is slightly raised above the inner surface. This helps to increase the
centripetal force required for a body not to slide.

𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

Other examples or applications of circular motion include;

• A stone tied to one end of a string and the other end is rotated about a fixed point.
• An aircraft (plane) making a circular turn.
• Planets or satellites orbiting the earth.
• Electrons orbiting the nucleus.
• Centrifuge used to separate liquids of different densities.
• Washing machines for clothes.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 38

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

EXERCISE:
1. A stone attached to a string is swung in a vertical circular path in air as shown in the figure below.

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆

a) Copy the above diagram and on it indicate all the forces acting on the body.
b) Describe all the forces indicated above.

2. a) Define the term centripetal force.

b) Explain how a cyclist avoids slipping off the road when moving round a circular path.
c) State five applications of circular motion in daily life situations.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 39

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Sir Isaac Newton carried out very many experiments and through these experiments, he formulated three
laws that relate the forces acting on the body and the motion of the body. These laws are known as
Newton’s laws of motion.

❖ Newton’s first law of motion:

It states that every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted
upon by an external force.
The first is also referred to as the “law of inertia.”

INERTIA:
This is the tendency of a body at rest to remain at rest or to continue moving in a straight if it
was already moving.
OR
This is the reluctance of a body to start moving or stop moving if it was already moving.

Factors affecting inertia of a body:

a) Mass of a body:
A body with a large mass requires a large force to make it move and it requires a large force to stop
it if it was already moving. Hence a body with a large mass has a greater inertia.

b) Force applied on a body:

When the force applied on a body is increased, its tendency to remain at rest is also reduced. This
would result to movement of the body from its resting state. Thus, a large force applied on the body
reduces its inertia.

c) Friction acting on a body:

The law of inertia states that a body will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight
line unless acted upon by an external force. An example of such a force is the friction force. This
force will slow down the motion of the body even though it is moving fast.

Examples or applications of Newton’s first law of motion:

▪ A person riding a bicycle along a level road does not come to rest immediately when he or she stops
pedaling i.e. the bicycle continues to move forward for sometime and eventually comes to rest.
𝑫𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒊𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒍 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒖𝒑𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒂 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒚𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆
𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 𝒊𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕.

▪ Passengers in a fast-moving vehicle jerk forward when the vehicle tops suddenly and jerk backward
when the vehicle starts moving.
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒐𝒏, 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒅𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒇𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒔𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚 𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒂
𝒗𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒏
𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈. 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒑𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎 𝒕𝒐 𝒂𝒗𝒐𝒊𝒅 𝒈𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒏𝒋𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒋𝒆𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 40

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Demonstration of Newton’s first law of motion:

𝑪𝒐𝒊𝒏

𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒅

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒅

▪ Place a playing card on top of a beaker.

▪ Put a coin on top of the playing card.
▪ Pull the card quickly towards you or hit the card out with a sharp flick.
Observation:
It is observed that the coin drops into the beaker.
Explanation:
The coin has inertia meaning that it doesn’t change its state of rest when the card is quickly pulled. So, it
just drops vertically into the beaker at the same position.
Pulling the card quickly provides a large force to overcome the friction force between the card and the
coin.
NOTE: If the card is pulled away at a slow pace, the coin will move together with the card. This is
because pulling it slowly provides a less force to overcome the friction force between the card
and the coin.

❖ Newton’s second law of motion:

It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force
and it takes place in the direction of force.
Mathematically;
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∝ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∝
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∝
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑢
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
𝐹∝
𝑡
𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝐹∝
𝑡
(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑎 =
𝑡
𝐹 ∝ 𝑚𝑎
𝑭 = 𝒌𝒎𝒂 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐼𝑓 𝐹 = 1𝑁, 𝑚 = 1𝑘𝑔, 𝑎 = 1𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑘 = 1
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 41

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

NOTE:
The SI unit of force is a Newton (N).
A Newton is the force which gives a mass of 1𝑘𝑔 an acceleration of 1𝑚𝑠 −2 .

Examples:
1. An object of mass 4𝑘𝑔 accelerates at a rate of 5𝑚𝑠 −2 . Calculate the resultant force acting on it.
𝒎 = 𝟒𝒌𝒈, 𝒂 = 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑭=𝟒×𝟓
𝑭 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵
2. Calculate the acceleration produced by a force of 25N on an object of mass 2tonnes.
𝒎 = 𝟐𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒔 = (𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎) = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈, 𝑭 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
𝟐𝟓 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝒂
𝟐𝟓
𝒂=
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟐

3. A resultant force of 40N acts on a body of 500g initially at rest for 4s. Calculate
i) acceleration on the body.
ii) final velocity of the body.
i) ii)
𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝒕 = 𝟒𝒔
𝒎 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒌𝒈, 𝑭 = 𝟒𝟎𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 𝒗 = 𝟎 + 𝟖𝟎 × 𝟒
𝟒𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝒂 𝒗 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟒𝟎
𝒂=
𝟎. 𝟓
𝒂 = 𝟖𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐

4. Two forces of 3N and 4N act on the object of mass 2kg as shown below. Find the acceleration of the
body.
𝟑𝑵

𝟒𝑵

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑭𝟐 = 𝑭 𝟏 𝟐 + 𝑭𝟐 𝟐 𝟓=𝟐×𝒂
𝑭𝟐 = 𝟑𝟐 + 𝟒𝟐 𝟓
𝑭𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓 𝒂=
𝟐
𝑭 = √𝟐𝟓 𝒂 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝑭 = 𝟓𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 42

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Examples or applications of Newton’s second law of motion:

In Newton’s second law acceleration depends on two variables i.e. the net force acting on the body and
the mass of the body. 𝑭
𝒂=
𝒎
Therefore, acceleration is directly proportional to force acting on the body and inversely proportional to
mass of the body. This means an increase in force increases the acceleration of the body and an increase
in mass reduces the acceleration of the body.
The following are some of daily-life applications of Newton’s second law of motion.
▪ When playing football, the stronger the ball is kicked, the more the increase in velocity it will move
with. This is because a stronger kick increases the force acting on the ball thus increasing its
acceleration.
▪ When in a supermarket, its easier to push an empty cart than to push a loaded one. This is because
the loaded cart has more mass thus a decrease in its acceleration. So, it will require a large force to
accelerate it any further.
▪ Among two people walking, if one is heavier than the other one, the heavier person will walk slows
than the lighter person.
▪ In formula one racing, the mass of the cars is kept as low as possible. This implies that low mass will
increase their acceleration.

❖ Newton’s third law of motion:

It states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Consider a ball placed on the table as shown below;

𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒍

𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 (𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)

The ball exerts a force equal to its weight onto the table. This force is called an action.
At the same time, the table exerts an equal force on the ball but the force acts in an opposite direction.
This force is called a reaction.

NOTE:
Since 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕, 𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈
Then also, 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 43

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Applications of Newton’s third law of motion:

MOTION IN A LIFT (ELEVATOR)
When a body of mass, 𝒎 is placed on the floor of a lift which is moving with an acceleration, 𝒂𝑚𝑠 −2, it
exerts its weight onto the floor of the lift. At the same time the, lift exerts a reaction force in an opposite
direction.

𝒎𝒈

a) If the lift is moving upwards:

𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 − 𝒎𝒈 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 + 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 𝑹 = 𝒎(𝒈 + 𝒂)
𝒂
The Reaction (Apparent weight of the body), R is
greater than the actual weight of the body.
➢ This explains why a person standing in a lift feels
𝒎𝒈
heavier when the lift is moving upwards.

b) If the lift is moving downwards:

𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
𝒎𝒈 − 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 𝑹 = 𝒎(𝒈 − 𝒂)
𝒂
The Reaction (Apparent weight of the body), R is less
than the actual weight of the body.
➢ This explains why a person standing in a lift feels
𝒎𝒈
lighter when the lift is moving downwards.

c) If the lift is stationary or moving with uniform velocity:

𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
Considering upward motion of the lift.
𝑹 − 𝒎𝒈 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 + 𝒎 × 𝟎
𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈
𝒂=𝟎
The Reaction (Apparent weight of the body), R is equal
to the actual weight of the body.
𝒎𝒈
NOTE:

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 44

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

If the cable or rope of the lift breaks, the lift will fall freely under the influence of gravity.
Therefore, the acceleration of the lift is equal to the acceleration due to gravity, 𝑔.
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
𝒎𝒈 − 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝒎𝒈
𝑹=𝟎
𝒂=𝒈
The Reaction (Apparent weight of the body), R is 0N.
➢ This explains why a person standing in a lift feels
𝒎𝒈
weightless when the lift is falling freely.

Examples:
1. A girl of mass 50𝑘𝑔 stands in a stationary lift on earth. Calculate her apparent weight when the lift
i) accelerates upwards at 2𝑚𝑠 −2 .
ii) accelerates downwards at 2𝑚𝑠 −2 .
iii) falls freely under gravity.
𝑹 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
i) 𝑹 − 𝒎𝒈 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 + 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟐
𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝑹 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝒎𝒈
𝒎 = 𝟓𝟎𝒌𝒈 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑵

𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
ii) 𝒎𝒈 − 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟐
𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝑹 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝒎𝒈
𝒎 = 𝟓𝟎𝒌𝒈 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑵

𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
iii) 𝒎𝒈 − 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝒂 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝑹 = 𝟎𝑵
𝒎𝒈
𝒎 = 𝟓𝟎𝒌𝒈 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝟎𝑵

2. A person of mass 78𝑘𝑔 is standing inside an electric lift. What is the apparent weight of the person
if the;
i) lift is moving upwards with an acceleration of 4𝑚𝑠 −2 .
ii) lift is descending with an acceleration of 4𝑚𝑠 −2

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 45

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
i) 𝑹 − 𝒎𝒈 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 + 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 = 𝟕𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟕𝟖 × 𝟒
𝒂 = 𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟐𝑵
𝒎𝒈
𝒎 = 𝟕𝟖𝒌𝒈 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟐𝑵

.
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
ii) 𝒎𝒈 − 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝒎𝒂
𝑹 = 𝟕𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟕𝟖 × 𝟒
𝒂 = 𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝑹 = 𝟒𝟔𝟖𝑵
𝒎𝒈
𝒎 = 𝟕𝟖𝒌𝒈 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝟒𝟔𝟖𝑵

3. A block of mass 40𝑘𝑔 is pulled from rest along a horizontal surface by a rope connected to one face
of the block as shown below.

𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝟒𝟎𝒌𝒈
𝟏𝟒𝟎𝑵
Given that the tension in the rope is 200N and that the frictional force between the block and the
horizontal surface is 140N, find;
i) the acceleration of the block.
ii) The distance moved in 5s.
i) 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝒕 = 𝟓𝒔
𝑻 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑭𝑹 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝑵 𝟏
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎, 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 𝟏
𝑻 − 𝑭𝑹 = 𝒎𝒂 𝒔 = 𝟎 × 𝟓 + × 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟓𝟐
𝟐
𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟒𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎𝒂 𝟑𝟕. 𝟓
𝟔𝟎 𝒔=
𝒂= 𝟐
𝟒𝟎 𝒔 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟓𝒎
𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒎𝒔 −𝟐

Other applications of Newton’s third law include:

▪ Recoiling of a gun when a bullet is fired:
When a bullet is fired from a gun, the gun exerts a force on the bullet in the forward direction. This
is the action force. The bullet also exerts an equal force on the gun in the backward direction. This is
the reaction force. Due to the large mass of the gun, it moves a small distance backward giving a jerk
at the shoulder of the gunman. This backward movement of the gun is called recoil of the gun.
▪ Rowing of a boat.
During rowing of a boat, the boatman pushes the water backwards with the oars (action force). The
water also apply an equal and opposite push on the boat which moves the boat forward (reaction)
▪ Rocket propulsion:
During propulsion of a rockets, fuels are burnt, and the engine produces hot exhaust gases which
flow out from the back of the engine (action). In reaction, a thrusting force is produced in an
opposite direction.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 46

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

EXERCISE:
1. A car of mass 5000kg initially moving at a velocity of 50𝑚/𝑠 accelerates to 100𝑚/𝑠 in 2 seconds.
Calculate the engine force on the car that caused the velocity change.

2. A lift moves up and then down with an acceleration of 3𝑚𝑠 −2 . Calculate the reaction by the floor on
the passenger of mass 60kg standing in the lift in each case.

3. A block of mass 8kg rests on a rough horizontal surface. It is being pulled from rest by a rope
connected to one end of the block. Given that the tension in the rope is 20N and the friction force
between the surface and the block is 4N, calculate;
i) Acceleration of the system.
ii) Distance moved by the block in 10s.

4. A girl of mass 500𝑔 stands in a stationary lift on earth. Calculate her apparent weight when the lift
i) accelerates upwards at 2𝑚𝑠 −2 .
ii) accelerates upwards at 2𝑚𝑠 −2 .
iii) falls freely under gravity.

5. A spring balance carrying a mass of 4.0𝑘𝑔 on its hook is hanged from the ceiling of a lift.
Determine the spring balance reading when the lift is
i) ascending with an acceleration of 4𝑚𝑠 −2 .
ii) descending with an acceleration of 4𝑚𝑠 −2 .
iii) ascending with a uniform velocity of 4𝑚𝑠 −2 .

6. A block of mass 10𝑘𝑔 accelerates uniformly at a rate 3𝑚𝑠 −2 along a horizontal table when a force
of 40N acts on it. Find the frictional force between the block and the table.

7. A trolley of mass 2kg is pulled from rest by a horizontal force of 5N for 1.2 seconds. If there is no
frictional force between the horizontal surface and the wheels of the trolley, calculate the
i) acceleration and velocity of the trolley after 1.2 seconds.
ii) distance covered by the trolley.
iii) kinetic energy gained by the trolley.

8. A man with a mass of 85kg steps onto a weighing balance placed on the floor of the lift (Elevator).
a) What would be the initial reading of the weighing balance?
b) If the elevator accelerates up at 2.5𝑚𝑠 −2 , what is the new weighing balance reading?
c) If the elevator accelerates downwards at 2.5𝑚𝑠 −2, what is the new weighing balance reading?

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 47

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

LINEAR MOMENTUM
In the game of football, a player with a more momentum is hard to stop. The player has the ability to
continue moving because of his mass and velocity. Therefore, any moving body possess momentum.
Definition:
Momentum is the product of mass of a body and its velocity.
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑝=𝑚×𝑣
𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
The SI unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second (𝒌𝒈𝒎𝒔−𝟏 ).
❖ Momentum is a vector quantity and its direction is the same as that of the velocity.

Factors affecting momentum of a body:

Mass of a body:
The momentum of a body increases with increase in its mass.
This explains why;
• A heavy hammer can drive a nail deeper into a piece of wood than a lighter hammer.
• A heavy footballer is harder to stop once in motion than a small footballer.

Velocity of a body:
The momentum of a body increases with increase in its velocity.
This explains why;
• A fast-moving ball is not easier to stop than a slow-moving ball.
• A fast-moving car causes more damage when it makes an accident than a slow-moving car.

Examples:
1. Find the momentum of a car of mass 600𝑘𝑔 moving with a constant velocity of 30𝑚𝑠 −1 .
𝒎 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈, 𝒗 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
𝒑 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟑𝟎
𝒑 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎𝒔−𝟏

2. An object has a mass of 200kg and a momentum of 3800𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1. At what velocity is it moving?
𝒎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈, 𝒑 = 𝟑𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
𝟑𝟖𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝒗
𝟑𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝒗=
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝒗 = 𝟏𝟗𝒎𝒔−𝟏
3. A truck of mass 1200kg initially moving with a velocity of 15𝑚𝑠 −1 accelerated uniformly at a rate
of 1.5𝑚𝑠 −2 for 10s. Find;
i) its initial momentum.
ii) its final velocity after 10s.
iii) its final momentum.
iv) the difference in momentum.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 48

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

𝒎 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈, 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎𝒔 iii) 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎

𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝒑𝟐 = 𝒎𝒗
i) 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒑𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟑𝟎
𝒑𝟏 = 𝒎𝒖 𝒑𝟐 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝒑𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟓
𝒑𝟏 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎𝒔−𝟏 iv) 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
𝒑𝟐 − 𝒑𝟏 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎
ii) 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒑𝟐 − 𝒑𝟏 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝒗 = 𝟏𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎
𝒗 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

4. Calculate the kinetic energy possessed by a body of mass 10𝑘𝑔 moving with a momentum of
200𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 .
𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝒌𝒈, 𝒑 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝟏
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗 𝟐
𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝒗 𝟏
𝑲. 𝑬 = × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎𝟐
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟐
𝒗= 𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱
𝟏𝟎
−𝟏
𝒗 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔

Principle of conservation of linear momentum:

It states that when two or more bodies collide, their total linear momentum remains constant provided no
external force is acting.
i.e. 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

COLLISIONS:
When bodies come into contact with each other, they are said to have collided. Therefore, they
experience a force from each other which changes their momentum.
However, if there are no external forces participating in the collision, the total momentum after collision
remains the same as before collision.

Types of collisions:
There are two types of collisions namely;
▪ Elastic collision.
▪ Inelastic collision.

ELASTIC COLLISION:
This is the type of collision where the colliding bodies separate after collision and move with different
velocities.
During elastic collision;
➢ Momentum is conserved i.e. total momentum before collision is equal to total momentum after
collision.
➢ Kinetic energy is also conserved i.e. total kinetic energy before collision is equal to total kinetic
energy after collision.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 49

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Consider two bodies of masses 𝒎𝟏 and 𝒎𝟐 moving with initial velocities, 𝒖𝟏 and 𝒖𝟐 respectively. After
their collision, they move with final velocities, 𝒗𝟏 and 𝒗𝟐 respectively.
𝒖𝟏 𝒖𝟐 𝒗𝟏 𝒗𝟐

𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

From the principle of linear conservation of momentum;
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐
For kinetic energy;
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

INELASTIC COLLISION:
This is the type of collision where the colliding bodies stay together after collision and move with the
same velocity.
During inelastic collision;
➢ Momentum is conserved i.e. total momentum before collision is equal to total momentum after
collision.
➢ Kinetic energy is not conserved i.e. total kinetic energy before collision is not equal to total kinetic
energy after collision.

Consider two bodies of masses 𝒎𝟏 and 𝒎𝟐 moving with initial velocities, 𝒖𝟏 and 𝒖𝟐 respectively. After
their collision, they move with the same final velocity, 𝒗.
𝒖𝟏 𝒖𝟐 𝒗

𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

From the principle of linear conservation of momentum;

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒎𝟏 𝒖 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖 𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = (𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 )𝒗

For kinetic energy;

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 ≠ 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 𝟐 ≠ 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎 𝒖 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 𝟐 ≠ (𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 )𝒗𝟐
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 50

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Causes of kinetic energy losses in inelastic collision include;

• Some kinetic energy is converted into heat energy leading to increase in temperature of the colliding
bodies.
• Some kinetic energy is converted in sound energy as the bodies collide.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ELASTIC AND INELASTIC COLLISION

Elastic collision Inelastic collision
▪ Bodies separate after collision. ▪ Bodies stick together after collision.
▪ Both momentum and kinetic energy are ▪ Kinetic energy is not conserved but
conserved. momentum is conserved.
▪ Bodies move with different velocities after ▪ Bodies move with the same velocity after
collision. collision.

Examples:
Note: The bodies should have the same units of mass and velocity.
1. Ball A of mass 400𝑔 moving with a velocity of 20𝑚𝑠 −1 collided with ball B of mass 50𝑔 at rest. If
ball B moves with a velocity of 10𝑚𝑠 −1 after collision in the direction of ball A.
Find
i) the velocity of ball A after collision.
ii) kinetic energy after collision.
𝒖𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒖𝟐 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗𝟏 =? 𝒗𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝑨 𝑩 𝑨 𝑩
𝒎𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟓𝟎𝒈 𝒎𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟓𝟎𝒈

i) 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝟒𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 × 𝒗𝟏 + 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒗𝟏 + 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒗𝟏
𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝟏 =
𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝟏 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏
ii) Kinetic energy after collision
𝟏 𝟏
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝟓𝟎
𝑲. 𝑬 = × ( ) × 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟓𝟐 + × ( ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟐
𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟒𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝟓
𝑲. 𝑬 = +
𝟐 𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓 + 𝟐. 𝟓
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟕𝟐. 𝟖𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑱

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 51

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

2. A trolley P of mass 150𝑔 moving with a velocity of 20𝑚𝑠 −1 collides with another stationary trolley
Q of mass 100𝑔. If the two trolleys move together after collision, calculate their common velocity.
𝒖𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒖𝟐 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 =?

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷 𝑸
𝒎𝟏 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈 𝒎𝟏 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = (𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 )𝒗
𝟏𝟓𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎 = (𝟏𝟓𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎)𝒗
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝒗
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒗=
𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝒗 = 𝟏𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏
3. A body of mass 3𝑘𝑔 travelling at 5𝑚𝑠 −1 collides with a 2𝑘𝑔 body moving at 8𝑚𝑠 −1 in the same
direction. If after collision the two bodies moved together, calculate the velocity with which the two
bodies move after collision.
𝒖𝟏 = 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒖𝟐 = 𝟖𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 =?

𝒎𝟏 = 𝟑𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟐𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟏 = 𝟑𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟐𝒌𝒈

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = (𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 )𝒗
𝟑 × 𝟓 + 𝟐 × 𝟖 = (𝟑 + 𝟐)𝒗
𝟑𝟏 = 𝟓𝒗
𝟑𝟏
𝒗=
𝟓
𝒗 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏
4. A body of mass 4𝑘𝑔 moving with a velocity of 25𝑚𝑠 −1 collided with another body of mass 5𝑘𝑔
moving with a velocity of 40𝑚𝑠 −1 from the opposite direction. If the 4𝑘𝑔 mass moves with a
velocity of 10𝑚𝑠 −1 after collision, find the velocity of the 5𝑘𝑔 mass after collision.
𝒖𝟏 = 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒖𝟐 = −𝟒𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗𝟐 =?

𝒎𝟏 = 𝟒𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟓𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟏 = 𝟒𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟓𝒌𝒈

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝟒 × 𝟐𝟓 + 𝟓 × −𝟒𝟎 = 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟓 × 𝒗𝟐
−𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟓𝒗𝟐
−𝟏𝟒𝟎 = 𝟓𝒗𝟐
−𝟏𝟒𝟎
𝒗𝟐 = The negative sign shows
𝟓
−𝟏
𝒗𝟐 = −𝟐𝟖𝒎𝒔 a change in direction

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 52

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

5. An object of mass 2𝑘𝑔 moving at 5𝑚𝑠 −1 collides with another of mass 3𝑘𝑔 which is at rest. Find
i) velocity of the two bodies if they stick together after collision.
ii) loss in kinetic energy.
𝒖𝟏 = 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒖𝟐 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 =?

𝒎𝟏 = 𝟐𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟑𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟏 = 𝟐𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟑𝒌𝒈

a) 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = (𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 )𝒗
𝟐 × 𝟓 + 𝟑 × 𝟎 = (𝟐 + 𝟑)𝒗
𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓𝒗
𝟏𝟎
𝒗=
𝟓
𝒗 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏
b) Loss in kinetic energy
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = [ 𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 𝟐 ] − [ (𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 )𝒗𝟐 ]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = [ × 𝟐 × 𝟓𝟐 + × 𝟑 × 𝟎𝟐 ] − [ × (𝟐 + 𝟑) × 𝟐𝟐 ]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟎
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = [ ] − [ ]
𝟐 𝟐
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝟏𝟎
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝑱

6. A particle P of mass 1𝑘𝑔 moving with a velocity of 2𝑚𝑠 −1 is knocked directly from behind by
another particle Q moving at 4𝑚𝑠 −1 . If the velocity of P increases to 4.5𝑚𝑠 −1 and velocity of Q
reduces to 2.75𝑚𝑠 −1 , find the mass of particle Q.
𝒖𝟏 = 𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒖𝟐 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝑸 𝑷 𝑸 𝑷
𝒎𝟏 =? 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟏 =? 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝒌𝒈

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝒎𝟏 × 𝟒 + 𝟏 × 𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 × 𝟐. 𝟕𝟓 + 𝟏 × 𝟒. 𝟓
𝟒𝒎𝟏 + 𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟓𝒎𝟏 + 𝟒. 𝟓
𝟒𝒎𝟏 − 𝟐. 𝟕𝟓𝒎𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟓 − 𝟐
𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟓
𝟐. 𝟓
𝒎𝟏 =
𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝒎𝟏 = 𝟐𝒌𝒈

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 53

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

7. An arrow of mass 100𝑔 moving at a velocity of 16𝑚𝑠 −1 horizontally enters a block of wood of
mass 540𝑔 lying at rest on a smooth surface.
a) State the type of collision.
b) Find the common velocity after the impact.
c) Calculate the loss in kinetic energy.
𝒖𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒖𝟐 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗 =?

𝒎𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟓𝟒𝟎𝒈 𝒎𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟓𝟒𝟎𝒈

a) Inelastic collision
b) 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = (𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 )𝒗
𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟔 + 𝟓𝟒𝟎 × 𝟎 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟓𝟒𝟎)𝒗
𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝒗
𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒗=
𝟔𝟒𝟎
𝒗 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏

c) Loss in kinetic energy

𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟒𝟎
𝒎𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒌𝒈, 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟓𝟒𝟎𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝒌𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = [ 𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 𝟐 ] − [ (𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 )𝒗𝟐 ]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = [ × 𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟔 + × 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒 × 𝟎𝟐 ] − [ × (𝟎. 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒) × 𝟐. 𝟓𝟐 ]
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝟓. 𝟔 𝟒
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = [ ]−[ ]
𝟐 𝟐
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟖 − 𝟐
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟖 𝑱

8. The figure below shows a system where vehicle A of mass 1500𝑘𝑔 travelling at a velocity of
72𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 towards a stationary vehicle B of mass 900𝑘𝑔.
𝑩 𝑨

If A collides with B, the two move together at a constant velocity for 20 seconds, calculate;
i) the common velocity.
ii) the distance moved after the impact.

𝟕𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒖𝟐 = 𝟕𝟐𝒌𝒎/𝒉𝒓 = = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒖𝟏 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 54

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ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

𝒖𝟏 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒖𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝒗 =?
𝑩 𝑨 𝑩 𝑨

𝒎𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈

i) 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = (𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 )𝒗
𝟗𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎 = (𝟗𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎)𝒗
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒗
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒗=
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝒗 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏

ii) 𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝒔, 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝒂 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

𝟏
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎, 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟐𝟎 + × 𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎𝟐
𝟐
𝒔 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝒎
9. A moving ball P of mass 100g collides with a stationary ball Q of mass 200g. After collision, P
moves backwards with a velocity of 2𝑚𝑠 −1 while Q moves forward with a velocity of 5𝑚𝑠 −1 .
Calculate;
i) the initial velocity of P.
ii) the force exerted by P on Q if the collision took 5s.
𝒖𝟏 =? 𝒖𝟐 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗𝟐 = 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷 𝑸
𝒎𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒈 𝒎𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒈

i) 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝒖𝟏 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟓
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒖𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝒖𝟏 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒖𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏
ii) Force exerted by P on Q
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑷, 𝒖𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝒗𝟏 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝒕 = 𝟓𝒔, 𝒎𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒌𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝟏 − 𝒖𝟏 𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐
𝒂= = = −𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟐 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟐 (𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)
𝒕 𝟓
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟐
𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 55

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

IMPULSE
When a force is applied on a free object for some amount of time, it changes it velocity thus changing
the momentum of the body. This impact created by the force is referred to as impulse.
Definition:
Impulse is the product of force and its time of action on the body.
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑰 = 𝑭𝒕
The SI unit of impulse is Newton second (Ns).
From Newton’s second law of motion, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑡
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑎𝑡
(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝐼=𝑚 ×𝑡
𝑡
𝐼 = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝑰 = 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖

Therefore, Impulse can be defined as the change in momentum of the body.

The other unit of Impulse is 𝒌𝒈𝒎𝒔−𝟏 .

Examples:
1. A body of mass 2𝑘𝑔 changes its velocity from 10𝑚𝑠 −1 to 45𝑚𝑠 −1 after a period of time. Calculate
the impulse on the body.
𝒎 = 𝟐𝒌𝒈, 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝒗 = 𝟒𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝑰 = 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖
𝑰 = (𝟐 × 𝟒𝟓) − (𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎)
𝑰 = 𝟗𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎
𝑰 = 𝟕𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎𝒔−𝟏

2. A body of mass 4.5kg accelerates uniformly at 2𝑚𝑠 −2 for 5 seconds. Calculate the impulse on the
body.
𝒎 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝒌𝒈, 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟐 , 𝒕 = 𝟓𝒔
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 𝑰 = 𝑭𝒕
𝑭 = 𝟒. 𝟓 × 𝟐 𝑰=𝟗×𝟓
𝑭 = 𝟗𝑵 𝑰 = 𝟒𝟓𝑵𝒔

3. An object is acted upon by a force of 50N for 2 minutes. Calculate the impulse on the object.
𝑭 = 𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝒕 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔 = 𝟐 × 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒔
𝑰 = 𝑭𝒕
𝑰 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝑰 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒔

4. A footballer kicks a ball of mass 0.25kg initially at rest with a force of 200N that acts on the ball for
0.5s. Find;
a) the impulse of the force on the ball.
b) the takeoff velocity of the ball

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 56

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

a) 𝑭 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒔, 𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒌𝒈 b) 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝒗 =?

𝑰 = 𝑭𝒕 𝑰 = 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖
𝑰 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝒗 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟎
𝑰 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒔 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒗 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒗=
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓
𝒗 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

EFFECTS OF IMPULSIVE FORCES ON THE BODY

Though impulsive forces act for a short period of time, they are sometimes disadvantageous to a body on
which they act. Some of the negative effects include;
• Impulsive forces tend to change the shape of colliding bodies.
• Impulsive forces tend harm bodies e.g. pain after knocking a stone.

In order to reduce the above negative effects, the time of action of the force on the body is increased or
prolonged.
This explains the following applications:
❖ A goal keeper draws his hands towards his body when catching a fast-moving ball. This increases
the time of action of the force on the ball thus reducing the pain that would be felt by the goal keeper
after catching the ball.

❖ Goal keepers wear soft gloves that absorb shocks on their hands. The soft gloves reduce the force on
the hands by increasing the time of action of the force.

❖ The nets at the back of a goal post are made loose to increase the time of action of the impact as the
ball hits the net. This prevents the net from getting torn.

❖ Shock absorbers are put in vehicles to reduce the force exerted on the vehicles as they move over pot
holes. The shock absorbers increase the time of action of the impact of force.

❖ High jumpers usually bend their knees on landing. This increases the time of impact hence reducing
injuries on the jumpers.

❖ High jumpers land in sand or soft cushions that increase the time of action of the impact thus
absorbing the shocks on the jumper.

❖ In golf, players follow the ball as it is hit. This reduces the reaction force the player feels on hitting
the ball by increasing the time of contact.

❖ Cars are fitted with air bag. During an accident, air bags increase the time of action of the impact
thus a less force is exerted on a person over a long period of time. This reduces injuries.

❖ Objects that easily break like eggs are packed in soft, shock-absorbing boxes. This reduces the
possibility of them cracking on sudden stop or start of motion. The shock-absorbing boxes increase
the time of impact on the eggs.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 57

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

The principle of conservation of linear momentum is applied in:
Rockets:

During propulsion of a rockets, fuels are burnt in the rocket engine, and
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
the engine produces hot exhaust gases which escape through the engine
nozzle with a large velocity hence a large momentum.
In turn, the escaping gases produce a force which impart an equal but
opposite momentum to the rocket. This momentum propels the rocket to
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 move forward with a very high velocity.

𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒙𝒉𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒕
𝒈𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔

Jet planes:

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

During movement of jet planes, fuels are burnt in the jet engines, and the engine produces hot exhaust
gases which escape through the exhaust pipes with a large velocity hence a large momentum.
In turn, the escaping gases produce a force which impart an equal but opposite momentum to the jet
plane. This momentum forces the jet plane to move forward with a very high velocity.

Explosion of a bomb:

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

Before a bomb explodes, its total momentum is zero since it is at rest. When it explodes, the bomb
breaks into very many fragments (parts) with each fragment having a particular momentum.
A fragment moving in one direction with a particular momentum has another fragment with the same
momentum moving in an opposite direction. Therefore, the total momentum of the fragments is also
zero thus momentum before explosion is equal to momentum after collision.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 58

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Recoil of a gun:
Before firing a bullet from a gun, the gun and the bullet are at rest. After firing, the gun exerts a force a
force on the bullet in the forward direction (action) but also the bullet exerts an equal force on the gun in
the backward direction (reaction) thus the gun moves backward i.e. recoiling.
Therefore, the bullet receives an equal but opposite momentum to that of the gun.
𝒖𝒈 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒖𝒃 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 −𝒗𝒈 𝒗𝒃

𝒎𝒈 𝒎𝒃
𝒎𝒈 𝒎𝒃

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

From the principle of linear conservation of momentum;

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒎𝒈 𝒖𝒈 + 𝒎𝒃 𝒖𝒃 = 𝒎𝒈 𝒗𝒈 + 𝒎𝒃 𝒗𝒃
𝒎𝒈 × 𝟎 + 𝒎𝒃 × 𝟎 = 𝒎𝒈 × −𝒗𝒈 + 𝒎𝒃 𝒗𝒃
𝟎 = −𝒎𝒈 𝒗𝒈 + 𝒎𝒃 𝒗𝒃
𝒎𝒈 𝒗𝒈 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒗𝒃

NOTE:
➢ The velocity of the gun, 𝒗𝒈 is called the Recoil velocity.
➢ The velocity of the bullet, 𝒗𝒃 is called the muzzle velocity.

Examples:
1. A bullet of mass 8𝑔 is fired from a gun of mass 500𝑔. If the muzzle velocity of the bullet is
500𝑚 𝑠−1, calculate the recoil velocity of the gun.
𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟖
𝒎𝒈 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝒃 = 𝟖𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝒌𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝒈 =? 𝒗𝒃 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒖𝒏 = 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒕

𝒎𝒈 𝒗𝒈 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒗𝒃
𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝒗𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖 × 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟎. 𝟓𝒗𝒈 = 𝟒
𝟒
𝒗𝒈 =
𝟎. 𝟓
𝒗𝒈 = 𝟖𝒎𝒔−𝟏

2. A bullet of mass 20𝑔 is fired from a gun of mass 0.4𝑘𝑔, if the gun recoils with the velocity of
40𝑚𝑠−1 , calculate the velocity of the bullet.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 59

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

𝟐𝟎
𝒎𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝒃 = 𝟐𝟎𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒌𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝒈 = 𝟒𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗𝒃 =?

𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒖𝒏 = 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒕

𝒎𝒈 𝒗𝒈 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒗𝒃
𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝒗𝒃
𝟏𝟔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒗𝒃
𝟏𝟔
𝒗𝒃 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝒗𝒃 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

3. A bullet of mass 20g is fired from the gun of mass 0.4𝑘𝑔. If the velocity of the bullet is 400𝑚𝑠−1 ,
calculate;
i) the recoil velocity of the gun.
ii) the kinetic energy gained by the gun.
𝟐𝟎
𝒎𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝒃 = 𝟐𝟎𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒌𝒈 𝒗𝒃 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗𝒈 =?
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
i) ii)
𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒖𝒏 = 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝟏
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎 𝒗 𝟐
𝒎𝒈 𝒗𝒈 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒗𝒃 𝟐 𝒈 𝒈
𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝒗𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟏
𝑲. 𝑬 = × 𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝟐𝟎𝟐
𝟎. 𝟒𝒗𝒈 = 𝟖 𝟐
𝟏𝟔𝟎
𝟖 𝑲. 𝑬 =
𝒗𝒈 = 𝟐
𝟎. 𝟒 𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟖𝟎 𝑱
𝒗𝒈 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

4. A bullet of mass 6𝑔 is fired from a gun of mass 500𝑔. If the muzzle velocity of the bullet is
300𝑚 𝑠−1, calculate the recoil velocity of the gun.
𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟔
𝒎𝒈 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝒃 = 𝟔𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝒌𝒈 𝒗𝒃 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝒗𝒈 =?
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒖𝒏 = 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒕

𝒎𝒈 𝒗𝒈 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒗𝒃
𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝒗𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔 × 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝟎. 𝟓𝒗𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟖
𝟏. 𝟖
𝒗𝒈 =
𝟎. 𝟓
𝒗𝒈 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 60

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

5. A bullet of mass 12𝑔 travelling at 150𝑚 𝑠−1 penetrates deeply into a fixed soft wood and is brought to
rest in 0.015s. calculate how deep the bullet penetrates the wood.
𝟏𝟐 𝟏
𝒎𝒃 = 𝟏𝟐𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝒌𝒈 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐
𝒖𝒃 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝒗𝒃 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝒔 𝟏
𝒗𝒃 − 𝒖 𝒃 𝒔 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓 + × −𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟐
𝒂= 𝟐
𝒕 𝒔 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 − 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝟎 − 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒎
𝒂=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝒂 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐

EXERCISE:
1. A bus of mass 7500𝑘𝑔 travelling at 30𝑚𝑠 −1 collides inelastically with a van which is approaching
from the opposite side at 32𝑚𝑠 −1 . If the van has a mass of 2500𝑘𝑔, at what velocity do the van and
bus travel with after collision?
2. Car A of mass 2000𝑘𝑔 travelling at 0.5𝑚𝑠 −1 collides with another car B of half the mass of A
moving in opposite direction with a velocity of 0.4𝑚𝑠 −1. If the trucks stay together on collision,
calculate the common velocity with which they move.
3. A bullet of mass 1.5 × 10−2 𝑘𝑔 is fired from a riffle of mass 3𝑘𝑔 with a muzzle velocity of
180𝑘𝑚ℎ−1 . Calculate the recoil velocity of the riffle.
4. A trolley P of mass 150𝑔 moving with a velocity of 20𝑚𝑠 −1 collides with another stationary trolley
X of mass 100𝑔. If P and X move together after collision, calculate;
i) momentum of P before collision.
ii) the velocity of P and X with which they moved after collision.
5. A gun of mass 5𝑘𝑔 fires a bullet of mass 50𝑔 at a speed of 500𝑚𝑠 −1. Calculate the recoil velocity
of the gun.
6. A car of mass 1500𝑘𝑔 moving with a velocity of 25𝑚𝑠 −1 collides directly with another car of mass
1400𝑘𝑔 at rest so that the two stick and move together. Find their common velocity.
7. A bullet of mass 30𝑔 is fired into a stationary block of wood of mass 480𝑔 lying on a smooth
horizontal surface. If the bullet gets embedded in the block and the two move together at a speed of
15𝑚𝑠 −1 . Find;
i) the speed of the bullet before it hits the block.
ii) The kinetic energy lost.
8. A moving ball A of mass 200𝑔 collides directly with a stationary ball B of mass 300𝑔 so that A
bounces with a velocity of 2𝑚𝑠 −1 while B moves forward with a velocity of 3𝑚𝑠 −1 . Calculate the
initial velocity of A.
9. A particle X of mass 2𝑘𝑔 originally moving with a velocity of 3𝑚𝑠 −1 collides directly with another
particle Y of mass 2𝑘𝑔 which is moving at a velocity of 2𝑚𝑠 −1 in the opposite direction so that the
velocity of X becomes 1𝑚𝑠 −1 after the impact. Find the velocity of Y after the impact.
10. A bullet of mass 40𝑔 is fired with a velocity of 200𝑚𝑠 −1 from a gun of mass 5𝑘𝑔. What is the
recoil velocity of the gun?

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 61

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

11. A one-tonne car travelling at 20𝑚𝑠 −1 is accelerated at 2𝑚𝑠 −2 for 5 seconds. Calculate the;
i) change in momentum.
ii) rate of change of momentum.
iii) accelerating force acting on the body.
12. A man of mass 6𝑘𝑔 jumps from a high wall and lands on a hard floor at a velocity of 6𝑚𝑠 −1 .
Calculate the force exerted on the man’s legs if;
a) he bends his knees on landing o that it takes 1.2𝑠 for his motion to be stopped.
b) he does not bend his knees and it takes 0.06𝑠 to stop his motion.
13. a) Explain why a passenger standing on the floor of a lorry jerks backwards when the lorry starts
moving forwards.
b) A 7-tonne truck initially moving at a velocity of 50𝑚𝑠 −1 accelerates to 80𝑚𝑠 −1 in 3 seconds.
Calculate the force on the truck that caused the velocity change.
14. A van of mass 1.5 tonnes travelling at 20𝑚𝑠 −1 hits a wall and is brought to rest as a result in 0.5
seconds. Calculate the;
i) impulse.
ii) average force exerted on the wall.
15. A goal keeper is to catch a ball of mass 0.25𝑘𝑔 travelling at 250𝑚𝑠 −1. Find the impulsive force
exerted on the goal keeper’s hands
i) if the impact lasts for 0.2𝑠.
ii) if the impact lasts for 1𝑠 when the goal keeper draws his hands towards his body as he catches
the ball.
16. A car of mass 2000𝑘𝑔 travelling at 5𝑚/𝑠 collides with a mini-bus of mass 5000𝑘𝑔 travelling in the
opposite direction at 7𝑚/𝑠. The vehicles stick and move together after collision. If the collision lasts
0.1 seconds.
a) Determine the velocity of the system after collision to 3 decimal places.
b) Calculate the impulsive force on the mini-bus.
17. Explain the following observations:
i) a water jet directed to a spot on the ground digs a hole in the ground after sometime.
ii) A goal keeper draws hands to his body when catching a fast-moving ball.
iii) A fast- moving vehicle causes more damage than a slow-moving vehicle when they both a hit an
obstacle.
18. A truck of mass 4 × 104 𝑘𝑔 moving at a velocity 3𝑚/𝑠 collides with another truck of mass
2 × 104 𝑘𝑔 which is at rest. The couplings join and the trucks move off together.
a) State the type of collision.
b) Calculate the common velocity of the trucks after collision.
c) Calculate the loss in kinetic energy.
19. A bullet of mass 10𝑔 is shot from a gun of mass 20𝑘𝑔 with a muzzle velocity osf 100𝑚/𝑠. If the
barrel (tube of the gun) is 0.2m long, determine;
i) the acceleration of the bullet.
ii) recoil velocity of the gun.
20. A car X of mass 1000𝑘𝑔 travelling at a speed of 20𝑚𝑠 −1 in the direction due east collides heads-on
with another car Y of mass 1500𝑘𝑔 travelling at 15𝑚𝑠 −1 in the direction due west. If the two cars
stick together, find their common velocity after collision.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 62

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

WAVES
A wave is a disturbance through a medium which transfers energy from one point to another
without causing any permanent displacement of medium itself.

Waves can be seen when;

▪ A stone is thrown into water.
▪ Oscillating a spring.
▪ A rope is fixed at one end and then jerked at another end.

CLASSIFICATION OF WAVES:
There are two classes of waves namely;
▪ Mechanical waves.
▪ Electromagnetic waves.

MECHANICAL WAVES:
These are waves that require a material medium to transfer energy from one point to another.
These waves are produced by vibrating bodies.
These waves can’t travel through a vacuum.
They normally have a low velocity.
Examples of mechanical waves include;
• Sound waves.
• Water waves.
• Waves in stretched strings.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:
These are waves that do not require a material medium to transfer energy from one point to
another.
They are produced by varying electric and magnetic fields.
They can travel through a vacuum.
All electromagnetic waves travel at a speed of light (𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
Examples of electromagnetic waves include;
• Gamma rays
• X-rays
• Radio waves
• Infrared
• Visible light
• Ultra-violet light (UV), etc

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Differences between mechanical and electromagnetic waves.

Mechanical waves Electromagnetic waves

▪ They require a material medium for ▪ Don’t require a material medium for
their transmission. their transmission.
▪ They can’t travel through a vacuum. ▪ They can travel through a vacuum.
▪ They are produced by vibrating bodies ▪ They are produced by varying electric
and magnetic fields.
▪ They are slower. ▪ They are faster since they travel at a
speed of light.

REPRESENTATION OF A WAVE:
Waves are normally represented in form of oscillations or cycles.
Definition:
An oscillation is a complete to and fro movement of a wave.
𝑾𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉, 𝝀
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑪𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒂

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆/𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝒂

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅, 𝑻 𝑻𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉

Rest position:
This is the undisturbed position of a wave.
Amplitude, a:
This is the maximum displacement of a wave particle from the rest position.
Crest:
This is the maximum displacement of a wave above the rest position.
Trough:
This is the maximum displacement of a wave below the rest position.
Wavelength, 𝝀:
This is the distance between two successive crests or troughs of a wave.
OR
This is distance covered in one complete oscillation/cycle.
Wavelength is measured in metres.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Period, T:
This the time taken to complete one oscillation.
𝟏
𝑻=
𝒇
It is measure in seconds.
Frequency, f:
This is the number of oscillations per second.
𝟏
𝒇=
𝑻
It is measured in Hertz (Hz)
Wave form:
This is the shape of the wave.
Wave phase:
This is the timing of one oscillation of a wave in comparison with another oscillation of another
wave.
Wave particles are in phase if they are exactly at the same point at the same time at same
distance from rest position and are moving in the same direction.

B G
C H

D I
A F K

E J

Particles A and F and K are in phase.

Particles B and G are in phase.
Particles C and F are not in phase.
Particles A and D are not in phase.

VELOCITY OF A WAVE
This is the distance travelled by a wave per unit time.
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
Since in one complete cycle/oscillation, a wave travels a distance equal to wavelength, 𝝀 in time
equal to period, T.
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝜆 1
𝑉= 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑇 =
𝑇 𝑓
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 , 𝑽 = 𝝀𝒇

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
If the number of oscillations is not known then,
𝒕
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑, 𝑻 =
𝒏
Where t – time taken for 𝒏 oscillations.
Examples:
1. Calculate the frequency of the wave if its velocity and wave are 5ms-1 and 0.5m respectively.
𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝟓 = 𝒇 × 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟓
𝒇=
𝟎. 𝟓
𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎
2. A vibrator of frequency 50Hz produces circular waves. If the distance between the two
successive crests is 5cm. find the speed of the waves.
𝟓
𝝀= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝑽 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝑽 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏
3. A vibrator with a frequency of 20Hz vibrates for a distance of 25cm in 5 seconds. Find
(i) The speed of the wave produced
(ii) Wave length of the wave produced
(i) (ii)
𝟐𝟓 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝒅= = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒎, 𝒕 = 𝟓𝒔
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 = 𝟐𝟎𝝀
𝒅 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝑽= 𝝀=
𝒕 𝟐𝟎
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓𝒎
𝑽=
𝟓
𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏

4. A vibrator produces waves which travel a distance of 35cm in 2 seconds. If the distance
between two successive crests is 5cm. find
(i) The velocity of the waves
(ii) The frequency of the waves

(i) (ii)
𝟑𝟓 𝟓
𝒅= = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝒎 𝒕 = 𝟐𝒔 𝝀 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒅 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟓 = 𝒇 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝑽= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟓
𝒕 𝒇=
𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝑽= 𝒇 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝑯𝒛
𝟐
𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. The figure below shows circular waves produced by a vibrator of frequency 32Hz. Calculate
their speed.

𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝟓𝒄𝒎

𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇
𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔
𝟓
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 = 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒐 𝝀 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝒎𝒔−𝟏

6. A radio station produces radio waves of wavelength 10m.

(i) Calculate the frequency of the wave.
(ii) Period of the wave
(iii) Number of oscillations in 10s.
(iv) State any assumption taken.

(i) (ii) (iii)

𝟏 𝒕
𝑻= 𝑻=
𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀 𝒇 𝒏
𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 = 𝒇 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟏 𝟏𝟎
𝑻= 𝟑. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 =
𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒏
𝒇= 𝑻 = 𝟑. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎 𝒏=
𝒇 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑯𝒛 𝟑. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖
𝒏 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔.

(iv) Radio waves are electromagnetic waves so they travel at a speed of light (𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

7. The diagram below represents a wave travelling from left to right with a velocity of 300𝑚𝑠 −1
𝟒𝒎
𝒚(𝒎)
𝟐𝒎

𝒙(𝒎)
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

Find
(i) Amplitude in metres.
(ii) Frequency of the wave.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(i) (ii)
𝟐 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝝀 = 𝟒𝒎
𝒂 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝒇 × 𝟒
𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝒇=
𝟒
𝒇 = 𝟕𝟓𝑯𝒛
8. The wave below has a velocity of 320𝑚𝑠 −1.
𝒚(𝒎)
𝟒
𝟐

𝟏𝟐 𝒙(𝒎)

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

Find;
(i) The amplitude.
(ii) Wavelength.
(iii) Frequency of the wave

(i) Amplitude, 𝒂 = 𝟒𝒎
(ii) (iii)
𝝀 = 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝝀 = 𝟖𝒎
𝟑 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐𝒎
𝟐 𝟑𝟐𝟎 = 𝒇 × 𝟖
𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟏 𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = = 𝟖𝒎 𝒇=
𝟑⁄ 𝟖
𝟐 𝒇 = 𝟒𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝝀 = 𝟖𝒎
NOTE:
If the distance, d between n successive crests or troughs then;
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆,𝒅
Wavelength, 𝝀 =
𝒏−𝟏
𝒅
𝝀=
𝒏−𝟏

9. If the distance between 9 successive crests is 48cm.find the wavelength of the wave.
𝟒𝟖
𝒅 = 𝟒𝟖𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝒎, 𝒏=𝟗
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒅
𝝀=
𝒏−𝟏
𝟎. 𝟒𝟖
𝝀=
𝟗−𝟏
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

10. Water waves are produced at a frequency of 50Hz and the distance between 10 successive
troughs is 18cm. Calculate the velocity of the waves.
𝟏𝟖 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟖𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝒎,
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑽 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 = 𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎
𝒅
𝝀=
𝒏−𝟏
𝟎. 𝟏𝟖
𝝀=
𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎

WAVE MOTION
When a wave is setup in a medium, the particles of the medium vibrate from their rest position
while carrying energy. The energy is passed from one particle to another until when the final
destination is reached.

Types of waves according to their motion:

There are two types of waves which include:
▪ Progressive waves.
▪ Stationary/standing waves.

PROGRESSIVE WAVES
These are waves which carry energy away from the source and spread out continuously.
There are two forms of progressive waves namely;
▪ Transverse waves.
▪ Longitudinal waves.

TRANSVERSE WAVES
These are waves in which particles of a medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of a wave.
They form crest and troughs.
Examples include;
✓ Water waves.
✓ Waves from vibrating strings.
✓ Electromagnetic waves.
A transverse wave is represented in the figure below.
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑪𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

𝑻𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

LONGITUDINAL WAVES:
These are waves in which particles of a medium vibrate parallel to the direction of propagation
of a wave.
OR
These are waves in which particles of a medium vibrate in the same direction as the direction of
propagation of a wave.

Longitudinal waves form compressions and rare factions.

Examples include;
✓ Sound waves
✓ Waves from compressed or stretched strings.

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

R C R C R C R
Where 𝑪 − 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑹 − 𝑅𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Compression: This is a region where particles of a wave are close together.

Rare faction: This is a region where particles of a wave are far apart from each other.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
Wavelength of a longitudinal wave is the distance between two successive compressions
or rarefactions of a wave.

Example: The distance between two successive compressions is 20m. Find the speed of a wave
if its frequency is 16Hz.
𝝀 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎, 𝒇 = 𝟏𝟔𝑯𝒛
𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟐𝟎
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE WAVES.

Transverse waves Longitudinal waves

▪ Particles vibrate perpendicular to ▪ Particles vibrate parallel to direction
direction of propagation of a wave. of propagation of a wave.
▪ Forms crests and troughs. ▪ Forms compressions and rare factions.
▪ Distance between successive crests or ▪ Distance between successive
troughs is the wavelength. compressions or rare factions is
wavelength.

Question; State differences between light waves (transverse) and sound waves (longitudinal)

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM/BAND
Electromagnetic waves are categorized in terms of their wavelength.
𝐕𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞
𝐆𝐚𝐦𝐦𝐚 𝐫𝐚𝐲 𝐗 − 𝐫𝐚𝐲 𝐔𝐥𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐭 𝐈𝐧𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐌𝐢𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐑𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐨𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞
𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭

𝑺𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑳𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚

Gamma rays:
▪ They have the shortest wavelength.
▪ They have the highest frequency.
▪ They have the greatest penetrating power.
▪ They destroy body tissues if exposed for a long time.
▪ They harden rubber solutions.
▪ They are emitted from radioactive substances.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

X-rays:
▪ They have a longer wavelength than the gamma rays.
▪ They are produced by fast moving electrons (cathode rays) on hitting the metal target in
the X-ray tube.
▪ They destroy body tissues if exposed for a long time.
▪ They are used in industries to detect leakages in pipes and in hospitals to detect fractures
of bones.

Ultra violet light (UV):

▪ These are radiations got from very hot bodies (e.g. sun) and also through gases (e.g.
mercury vapour)
▪ It causes sun burn.
▪ Causes blindness if there is too much exposure.
▪ It causes electrons to give off electrons by the process called photo-electric emission.
▪ Used to detect forged bank notes.

Visible light:
▪ This is the light that enables us to see.
▪ It’s got from lamps, flames etc.
▪ It determines the colour and appearance of an object.
▪ It makes objects appear bent due to refraction.
▪ Used in photosynthesis.

Infrared:
▪ All objects emit infrared radiations.
▪ They cause the body temperature to rise because most of the heat in light is carried by
infrared. Infrared enables us to get vitamin D.
▪ Used in production of night vision cameras.
▪ Used in T.V remotes.

Micro-waves:
▪ They are used to cook food in micro-ovens.
▪ They transmit information in radar systems.

Radio waves:
▪ They are produced when electrons are accelerated in an aerial.
▪ They have the longest wavelength and shortest frequency.
▪ Used in broadcasting radio and T.V signals.

Properties of electromagnetic waves:

• They are transverse waves.
• They can travel through a vacuum.
• They travel at a speed of light (3 × 108 )𝑚𝑠 −1
• They carry energy.
• They do not need a material medium for their propagation.
• They can be reflected, refracted and diffracted.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Similarities between mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves:

• Both carry energy from one place to another.
• Both are subject to interference.
• Both can be reflected, refracted and diffracted

WAVE FRONT
This is the surface of a wave in which every particle is at the same distance from the source of
the wave.
OR
This is a line that joins particles of a wave that are in phase.

There are two types of wave fronts namely;

Circular wave fronts

𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

Plane/straight wave fronts

𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔
𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

NB: The distance between successive wave fronts is equal to wavelength.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

RIPPLE TANK

Dipper

A ripple tank is an instrument used to study the properties of water waves.

It has a transparent glass trough containing water.
The images of the waves are formed on the white screen placed below it.
The ripple tank is illuminated with a source of light (lamp) in order to observe the wave patterns
clearly.
The waves are produced by means of a dipper when it hits the surface of the water.
The dipper is vibrated by an electric motor which is connected to it.
The stroboscope helps to make the waves stationary so they can be studied very well.

How to produce wave fronts:

▪ Circular wave fronts are produced when a spherical dipper is vibrated on the surface of water
by an electric motor.
▪ Plane wave fronts are produced when a straight rod dipper is vibrated on the surface of water
by an electric motor.

PROPERTIES OF WAVES
Waves undergo the following properties;
• Reflection.
• Refraction.
• Diffraction.
• Interference.

REFLECTION OF WAVES.
This is the bouncing off of waves as they meet a barrier.
The shape of the reflected waves depends on the shape of the barrier.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Reflection of plane waves:

(a) On a plane surface.
Plane wave fronts are reflected as plane wave fronts.

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒓

𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆
𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

(b) On curved surfaces.

Plane wave fronts incident on a concave reflector are reflected as concave wave fronts.
𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆
𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝐒
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

Plane wave fronts incident on a convex reflector are reflected as convex wave fronts.

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝐒 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒙
𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Reflection of circular waves;

(a) On plane surfaces.
Concave wave fronts incident on a plane surface are reflected as convex wave fronts.

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕
𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
𝐒 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

Convex wave fronts incident on a plane surface are reflected as concave wave fronts.

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕
𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
𝐒 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕
(b) On curved surfaces.
(i) Concave reflector: Concave circular wave fronts incident on a concave reflector are
reflected as plane wave fronts
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆
𝐒 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

Convex circular wave fronts incident on a concave reflector are

reflected as concave wave fronts.

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕
𝐒 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆
𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(ii) Convex reflector: Convex circular wave fronts incident on a convex reflector are
reflected as plane wave fronts.

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒙
𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝐒

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

Concave circular wave fronts incident on a convex reflector are

reflected as convex circular wave fronts.

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒙
𝐒 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

REFRACTION OF WAVES:
This is the change in direction of a wave as it moves from one medium to another of different
depth.
Water waves can be refracted in a ripple tank by placing a sheet of glass in water to make it
shallow.
𝝀𝟏 𝝀𝟐

𝑺𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑫𝒆𝒆𝒑 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
When a wave is refracted, there is change in wavelength and speed but frequency remains
constant.
NOTE:
When waves move from deep water to shallow water, it’s;
▪ Wavelength decreases
▪ Speed decreases in the shallow water.
▪ Frequency remains constant
▪ Waves bend towards the normal.
Wave fronts become close to one another in shallow water than in deep water as shown in
the diagram below.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝑫𝑬𝑬𝑷 𝑾𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹

𝑺𝑯𝑨𝑳𝑳𝑶𝑾 𝑾𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

When waves move from shallow water to deep water, it’s;

▪ Wavelength increases.
▪ Speed increases in the deep water.
▪ Frequency remains constant
▪ Waves bend away from the normal.
Wave fronts become further apart from one another in deep water than in shallow water as
shown in the diagram below.

𝑺𝑯𝑨𝑳𝑳𝑶𝑾 𝑾𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹

𝑫𝑬𝑬𝑷 𝑾𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹

𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒆𝒆𝒑 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝑽𝟏 )

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 =
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝑽𝟐 )
𝝀𝟏 𝒇
∩=
𝝀𝟐 𝒇
𝝀𝟏
∩=
𝝀𝟐
Refraction of plane wave fronts at lenses:
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝑫𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔
DIFFRACTION OF WAVES:
This is the spreading of waves as they as they pass through holes, around corners or edges of an
obstacle.
In a ripple tank, diffraction can be made by placing two barriers with a gap between them.
▪ If the gap between two barriers is small (narrow), then plane wave fronts with a circular
shape and then spread out.
▪ If the gap between the two barriers is wide, then plane wave fronts emerge when slightly bent
at the edges.
Small (Narrow) gap Wide gap

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝑵𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔
𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔
At a corner or edge of an obstacle:

EFFECT OF LONG AND SHORT WAVELENGTH:

▪ Waves are greatly diffracted (spread out more) when the wavelength is longer and they
are less diffracted (spread out less) when the wavelength is small.

QUESTION 1: Explain why sound can be heard in corners yet light can’t be seen in corners
(corners are always dark)
This is because sound waves are more diffracted than light waves since they
have a longer wavelength than the light waves. Therefore, light can’t spread
out to all the corners of the room since it has a shorter wavelength hence the
darkness.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ Waves of short wavelength are easily scattered than waves of long wavelength i.e. blue
light are more scattered when it strikes different molecules than red light.

QUESTION 2: Explain why the sky appears red during sun-rise or sun-set.
When rising/setting of the sun, light rays travel a longer distance in the earth’s
atmosphere to reach our eyes. So blue light scatters away easily and is removed
before reaching our eyes. Therefore, only light of longer wavelength reach
straight to our eyes and that light is red.

QUESTION 3: Explain why the sky appears blue during day-time.

During day, the sun is overhead the atmosphere so light travels a shorter
distance to reach our eyes. The blue light which has a short wavelength is
easily scattered throughout all directions in the atmosphere hence the blue
appearance of the sky.

When two or more gaps are in a barrier, the waves will be diffracted and interference occurs.

INTERFERENCE OF WAVES:
This is the superposition of two identical waves travelling in the same direction to form a single
wave with lower or greater amplitude.
OR
This is the overlapping of two identical waves travelling in the same direction to form a single
wave with lower or greater amplitude.

Conditions for interference to occur:

▪ The two waves should have the same frequency.
▪ The two waves should have the same speed.
▪ The two waves should have the same wave length.
▪ The two waves should have the same amplitude.
▪ The two waves should be moving in the same direction

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Types of interference:
There are two types of interference namely;
• Constructive interference.
• Destructive interference.

CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
This is the type of interference which occurs when a crest of one wave meets a crest of another
wave or a trough of one wave meets a trough of another wave forming a single wave with greater
amplitude.

𝒂 + 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒂 𝒂 + 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒂

For light: Constructive interference would give increased brightness.

For sound: Constructive interference would give increased loudness.

DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
This is the type of interference which occurs when a crest of one wave meets a trough of another
wave forming a single wave with no amplitude.
+ =
For light: Destructive interference gives darkness or reduced brightness.
For sound: Destructive interference gives reduced loudness or no sound at all.

NOTE:
When two sources of waves are placed close to each other, both destructive and
constructive interference occur.

𝑨𝒏𝒕𝒊 − 𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔

𝑺𝟏

𝑺𝟐 𝑵𝒐𝒅𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔

Anti-nodal lines: These are lines joining points of constructive interference.

Nodal lines: These are lines joining points of destructive interference.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. The wave length of a radio wave is 10m. Given that the speed of the radio wave
is 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 . Find the frequency and period of the wave
Ans: (𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑯𝒛, 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔)
2. The frequency of a radio wave is 6.0 x 107Hz. Given that the speed of the radio wave is
3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 . Find the wave length of the wave.
Ans: (𝟓𝒎)
3. Water waves travel a distance of 36cm in 6 seconds and the separation between two successive
troughs is 3.0cm. Calculate the velocity and the frequency of the waves
Ans: (𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝟐𝑯𝒛)
4. A source produces waves which travel a distance of 140cm in 0.08 seconds and the separation
between two successive crests is 20cm. Calculate the velocity and the frequency of the waves.
Ans: (𝟏𝟕. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝟖𝟕. 𝟓𝑯𝒛)
5. Water waves of frequency of 6Hz travel a distance of 24m in 10 seconds. Calculate the velocity
and wave length of the waves
Ans: (𝟐. 𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎)
6. A vibrator in a ripple tank vibrates at 500Hz. If the distance between 10 successive crests is
37.8Cm. Calculate the wave length and the velocity of the waves
Ans: (𝟒. 𝟐𝒄𝒎, 𝟐𝟏. 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
7. A vibrator produces waves which travel a distance of 315cm in 20 seconds and the separation
between two successive crests is 20cm. Calculate the velocity and the frequency of the waves
Ans: (𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟕𝟓𝑯𝒛)
8. The frequency of a sound wave is 6.8 x 105Hz. Given that the speed of the sound wave is
340ms-1. Find the wave length of the wave.
Ans: (𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎)

SOUND WAVES
This is the form of energy produced by vibrating objects.
Sound waves are produced when particles of a medium are set into vibrations e.g. plucking a
guitar string, drumming etc.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves and mechanical waves so they require a medium for their
transmission e.g. solids, liquids and gases.

PROPERTIES OF SOUND WAVES:

▪ They are longitudinal waves.
▪ They require a material medium to travel so they can’t travel through a vacuum.
▪ They can be reflected, refracted and diffracted.
▪ They undergo interference.
▪ They travel at a lower speed.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

TRANSMISSION OF SOUND
Sound is a mechanical wave; therefore, it requires a material medium for its transmission so it
cannot travel through a vacuum.

Experiment to show that sound waves need a material medium for its transmission:
(Describe an experiment to show that sound is a mechanical wave)
𝑾𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒚

𝑩𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝒋𝒂𝒓

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒍
𝑯𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓
𝑮𝒐𝒏𝒈

𝑻𝒐 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑

▪ When an electric bell inside a bell jar is switched on, a loud sound is heard.
▪ When the air inside the bell jar is gradually removed by means of a vacuum pump, the
loudness starts to fade out/ die away.
▪ When all the air is completely removed from the bell jar, no sound is heard even though the
hammer is seen hitting the gong.
▪ When air is again allowed in the bell jar, sound is heard again.
▪ This shows that sound requires a material medium for its transmission.

Factors that affect the speed of sound in a medium:

The speed of sound in a medium depends on; -

Temperature:
Increase in temperature increases the speed of sound. This is because temperature increases the
speed of molecules of the medium.
Sound travels faster in hot air than in cold air.

Density of medium:
Speed of sound is more in denser medium than in a less dense medium.
Sound travels faster in solids than in liquids and gases. This is because molecules of a solid are
closely packed together; therefore, movement of sound energy from one molecule to another is
very easy.

Wind:
Speed of sound is increased if sound travels in the same direction of wind.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Altitude:
Sound travels faster at lower altitude and slower at higher altitudes because temperature is higher
at low altitudes than at high altitudes.

Humidity:
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the air.
The higher the humidity, the higher the speed of sound.

QUESTION: Explain why a person hears sound of a moving train at a distance further away
from where he is when he places his ears on the rails.
The rails are solids, sound from the train travels faster in solids because the
molecules of solids are closely packed together so it is easy for sound to move
from one molecule to another.

REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVES:

This is the bouncing off of sound waves as they meet a barrier.

Laws of reflection of sound:

1st law: The incident wave, reflected wave and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.
2nd law: The angle of incidence of the wave is equal to angle of reflection of the wave.

ECHOES
An echo is a reflected sound.
Echoes are produced when sound waves are move to and fro from the reflecting surface e.g. on
walls, mountains, etc.
The time taken before an echo returns back depends on; -
▪ Distance from the reflecting surface.
▪ Speed of sound in the medium.

QUESTION: Explain why echoes are not heard in small rooms.

In small rooms, echoes are not heard because reflected sound from the walls
of the room returns very quickly and mix up with the original sound so the
ear cannot differentiate between the two sounds.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXPERIMENT TO MEASURE THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR BY ECHO METHOD

▪ Two people stand at a distance, d from a tall vertical wall.

▪ One person claps and the other immediately starts a stop clock.
▪ On hearing the echo, a stop clock is stopped and time, t is noted.
▪ The speed of sound is then calculated from;
𝟐𝒅
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅, 𝑽 =
𝒕

EXAMPLES:
1. A man stands at 495m away from a cliff and makes a loud sound, he hears the echo after 3
seconds. Calculate the speed of sound.
𝟐𝒅
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝒕
𝟐 × 𝟒𝟗𝟓
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑽=
𝟑
𝑬𝒄𝒉𝒐 𝟗𝟗𝟎
𝑽=
𝒅 = 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝒎, 𝒕 = 𝟑𝒔 𝟑
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
2. A girl stands 34m away from a wall. She makes sound and hears an echo 0.2seconds after.
Find the velocity of sound.
𝟐𝒅
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝒕
𝟐 × 𝟑𝟒
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑽=
𝟎. 𝟐
𝑬𝒄𝒉𝒐 𝟔𝟖
𝑽=
𝒅 = 𝟑𝟒𝒎, 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒔 𝟎. 𝟐
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟒𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
3. A gun was fired and an echo from a cliff was heard 8 seconds later. If the velocity of sound is
340𝑚𝑠 −1, how far was the gun from the cliff.
𝟐𝒅
𝑽=
𝒕
𝟐𝒅
𝟑𝟒𝟎 =
𝟖
𝟑𝟒𝟎 × 𝟖
𝒅=
𝟐
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. A man stands between two cliffs and makes a loud sound. He hears the first echo after one
second and the second echo after 2 seconds. Find the distance between the two cliffs if the
speed of sound in air is 330𝑚𝑠 −1.

𝟏𝒔 𝟐𝒔
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐

For first echo; For second echo; Total distance

𝟐𝒅𝟏 𝟐𝒅𝟐 𝒅 = 𝒅𝟏 + 𝒅𝟐
𝑽= 𝑽=
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐 𝒅 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓 + 𝟑𝟑𝟎
𝟐𝒅𝟏 𝟐𝒅𝟐 𝒅 = 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝒎
𝟑𝟑𝟎 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎 =
𝟏 𝟐
𝒅𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓𝒎 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎
5. A man is standing midway between two cliffs. He claps his hands and hears an echo after 3
seconds. Find the distance between the two cliffs. (speed of sound in air is 330𝑚𝑠 −1 )
V= 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝟐𝒅𝟏 Total distance
𝑽= 𝒅 = 𝒅𝟏 + 𝒅𝟐
𝒕𝟏
𝒕𝟏 = 𝟑𝒔 𝟐𝒅𝟏 𝒅 = 𝟒𝟗𝟓 + 𝟒𝟗𝟓
𝟑𝟑𝟎 = 𝒅 = 𝟗𝟗𝟎𝒎
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝟑𝟑
𝒅𝟏 = 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝒎

6. A sound wave of frequency 200Hz is produced 300m away from a high wall. If the echo is
received after 2s. Find the wavelength of the sound wave.
𝒇 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒅 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎, 𝒕 = 𝟐𝒔 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝟐𝒅 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝝀
𝑽=
𝒕 𝝀 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒎
𝟐 × 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝑽=
𝟐
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

EXERCISE:
1. A person standing 𝟗𝟗𝒎 from a tall cliff claps his hands and hears an echo 𝟎. 𝟔𝒔 later.
Calculate the velocity of sound in air.
Ans: (𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏)
2. A gun was fired and an echo from the cliff was heard 𝟖𝒔 later. If the velocity of sound is
𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔, how far was the gun from the cliff?
Ans: (𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎𝒎)
3. A girl standing between two cliffs hears the first echo after 𝟐𝒔 and hears another after a
further 𝟑𝒔. If the velocity of sound is 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔, calculate the distance between the two cliffs.
Ans: (𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟓𝒎)
4. A child stands between 2 cliffs and makes a loud sound, if the child hears the first echo after
1.5s and the second after 𝟐𝒔. Find the distance between the two cliffs if the speed of sound in
air is 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔.
Ans: (𝟓𝟔𝟎𝒎)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. A boy standing between two cliffs 𝑨 and 𝑩 claps his hands and hears the first echo from 𝑨
after 𝟒𝒔 and the second echo from 𝑩 after 𝟓𝒔. If the velocity of sound in air is 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔, find
the distance between 𝑨 and 𝑩.
6. A sound wave is produced 600m away from a high wall. If an echo is received after 4
seconds. Find the frequency of sound wave with the wavelength of 2m.
7. A man standing midway between two cliffs makes sound. He hears the first echo after 3s.
Calculate the distance between the two cliffs. (velocity of sound is 330m/s)
8. A man stands between two cliffs and fires a gun. He hears the first echo after 2 seconds and
1
second echo after 3 2 seconds. Calculate the distance between the two cliffs. (speed of sound
in air is 330m/s)

USES/APPLICATION OF ECHOES:
▪ Used in measurement of speed of sound.
▪ Used in echo sounding.
▪ Used in ultrasound scanning e.g. scanning womb in pregnant women.
▪ Used in radar equipment e.g. determining speed of vehicles by traffic officers.

ECHO SOUNDING:
Echo sounding is used in measurement of depth of a sea.
The device used is called an echo sounder.
An echo sounder consists of a transmitter and a hydrophone (microphone)
MEASUREMENT OF DEPTH OF A SEA

𝑩𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒂

▪ The transmitter of an echo sounder sends out sound of very high frequency to the bottom of
the sea at regular time intervals.
▪ The echo from the bottom of sea is received by the hydrophone which is connected to an
electric timing circuit.
▪ The circuit automatically calculates the depth of sea from the graph plotted.

ULTRASONIC SOUNDS:
This is the sound of very high frequency which the human can’t hear.
The human ear has a range of sound frequencies which it can hear.
𝑨𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆
𝑰𝒏𝒇𝒓𝒂 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒓𝒂 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚

𝟐𝟎 𝑯𝒛 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛
The lowest limit of audibility of human ear is 20Hz and the highest limit of audibility is 20 kHz.
Therefore, sounds above 20 kHz cannot be heard by the ear.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Applications of ultrasonic sounds:

▪ They are used in measuring the depth of the sea.
▪ They are used in ultrasonic scanning e.g. scanning the womb of a pregnant woman.
▪ They enable bats and dogs to communicate and navigate.
The bats send out repeated ultrasonic sounds, hear and process the echo. This enables
them to;
✓ Distinguish between an obstacle and flying insects.
✓ Determine direction, speed and size of flying objects

REVERBERATION
This occurs in large halls with many reflecting surfaces or walls where many echoes are
produced due to multiple reflections. Therefore, sound lasts longer and it appears as if it is
prolonged.
If the time taken to hear the echo is less than 0.1s, the human ear cannot distinguish between the
original sound and the echo. If the time is just 0.1s, the original sound appears to be prolonged.
This prolonged sound is called reverberation.

𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑳𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓

𝑴𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

Definition:
Reverberation is the prolonged sound due to multiple reflections.
Advantage of reverberation:
▪ Reasonable reverberation makes speeches audible.

Disadvantage of reverberation:
▪ Unreasonable reverberation produces disorganized sound so sound becomes unclear.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Reverberation in large halls is minimized by using sound absorbing materials e.g. soft boards,
curtains, carpets and cushioning seats.

QUESTION: Explain why reverberation time in a church filled with people is less than when
the church is empty.
In an empty church, only the roof, walls, floor and furniture can absorb the
sound but when the church is filled with people, human bodies and clothes
are included to absorb sound.

REFRACTION OF SOUND WAVES:

Refraction occurs when the speed of sound waves changes as it crosses the boundary between
two media. The speed of sound is affected by temperature.

Refraction of sound waves during day:

During day, air around the ground is warm (less dense) and air above the ground is cold (more
dense). The sound waves move from a less dense medium to a more dense medium hence they
are refracted away from the ground thus moving upwards.
This explains why;
▪ Sound is not easily heard during day.
▪ Radio signals are not clear during day.

Cold air

Warm air
Ground

Refraction of sound waves during day:

During night, air around the ground is cold (more dense) and air above the ground is warm (less
dense). The sound waves move from a more dense medium to a less dense medium hence they
are refracted towards the ground after undergoing through total internal reflection.
This explains why;
▪ Sound is easily heard during night.
▪ Radio signals are clear during clear.

Warm air

Cold air
Ground

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Differences between sound waves and light waves:

Sound waves Light waves

▪ They are longitudinal waves. ▪ They are transverse waves.
▪ They are mechanical waves so they ▪ They are mechanical waves so they
require a material medium for their travel. require a material medium for their travel.
▪ They can’t ravel through a vacuum. ▪ They can travel through a vacuum.
▪ They have a longer wavelength. ▪ They have a short wavelength.
▪ They travel at a low speed i.e. 330𝑚𝑠 −1 ▪ They travel at a high speed i.e. 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1

MUSICAL SOUNDS
These are sounds of regular and uniform vibrations.
Musical sounds are also called musical notes or tones.
Definition:
A musical note is a sound of regular frequency produced by a musical instrument.
A combination of musical notes gives out music.

MUSIC AND NOISE:

Music: This is an organized sound produced by regular vibrations.
Noise: This is a disorganized sound produced by irregular vibrations.
Characteristics of musical sounds:
There are properties of music namely; -
• Pitch
• Loudness
• Quality/timbre

Pitch:
This is the loudness or softness of sound.
It depends on the frequency of sound produced. The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Loudness of sound:
This is the amount of sound energy that enters the ear per second.
It depends on the:
▪ Amplitude i.e. a loud note has higher amplitude and a soft note has a low amplitude.
▪ Sensitivity of the ear i.e. a more sensitive ear will hear a soft note as being loud.
▪ Intensity of sound i.e. rate of flow of sound per unit area.

Quality/Timbre:
This is the characteristic which helps the ear to differentiate between sounds of same pitch and
loudness.
It depends on the frequency and amplitude of a note therefore, the number of overtones produced
by a musical instrument determines the quality of music.

VIBRATING STRINGS
Many musical instruments produce sound by plucking their strings e.g. guitar, violins

Violin Guitars

FACTORS AFFECTING FREQUENCY OF STRETCHED VIBRATING STRINGS

(a) Length, L:
Frequency is inversely proportional to length of the string. Increasing the length of a string
produces a note of low frequency and decreasing the length gives a note of high frequency.

Experiment to show how length affects frequency of sound waves using a sonometer:
𝑇𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑳

▪ Known masses are hung at the end of the string passing over the bridges A and B.
▪ A tuning fork of known frequency, f is sounded.
▪ Keeping A fixed, B is moved until a note heard by plucking in the middle of the string
is same as that from the fork.
▪ The length between A and B is measured and recorded.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ The experiment is repeated with tuning forks of different frequencies.

▪ A graph of 𝑓 against 𝐿 is plotted and it is a non-straight graph showing that frequency
is inversely proportional to length.
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇∝ , 𝒇=𝑲
𝑳 𝑳
𝒇𝑳 = 𝑲 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝟏 𝑳𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐 𝑳𝟐

EXAMPLES:
1. A string has length of 0.75m and the first frequency of 200Hz. Find the new frequency if the
length is increased to 1m.
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝑳𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒎 𝒇𝟐 =? 𝑳𝟐 = 𝟏𝒎
𝒇𝟏 𝑳𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐 𝑳𝟐
𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 = 𝒇𝟐 × 𝟏
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛
2. A musical note has frequency of 420Hz and length, L. If the length of the string reduced by a
half. Find the new frequency.
𝑳
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝑳𝟏 = 𝑳 𝒇𝟐 =? 𝑳𝟐 =
𝟐
𝒇𝟏 𝑳𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐 𝑳𝟐
𝑳
𝟒𝟐𝟎 × 𝑳 = 𝒇𝟐 ×
𝟐
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟒𝟐𝟎 × 𝟐
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟖𝟒𝟎𝑯𝒛
(b) Tension, T:
The higher the tension in the string, the higher the frequency of the note produced. Therefore,
increasing tension increases the frequency.
In the above experiment, adding more masses will increase the frequency of note.
Note: This explains why drummers first warm their drums before using them.
(c) Mass per unit length (thickness of string):
Thin strings/wires normally produce notes of high frequency while thick strings/wires
normally produce notes of low frequency.

WAVES PRODUCED BY A VIBRATING STRING

When the ends of a string are fixed and it is plucked in the middle, two transverse waves are
formed and travel in opposite directions along the string forming a stationary wave.
STATIONARY (STANDING) WAVE:
This is the wave formed when two progressive waves of the same frequency and wavelength
travelling in opposite direction meet.
Stationary waves produce nodes and antinodes.

𝐀 𝐀 𝐀 𝐀 𝐀
𝐍 𝐍 𝐍 𝐍 𝐍 𝐍

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NODE (N): This is a point on a stationary wave where wave particles are at rest.
The amplitude of a wave is zero at this point.
ANTINODE: This is a point on a stationary wave where wave particles have maximum
displacement.
The amplitude of a wave at this point is maximum.

NOTE:
𝟏
The distance between two successive nodes or antinodes is equal to half of wavelength ( 𝟐 𝝀)

EXAMPLES:
1. The distance between two successive nodes is 12cm. Find the wavelength of the wave.
𝟏
𝝀 = 𝟏𝟐
𝟐
𝝀 = 𝟐𝟒𝒄𝒎
Conditions necessary for stationary waves to be formed:
▪ The waves should have the same frequency.
▪ The waves should have the same speed.
▪ The waves should have the same wavelength.
▪ The waves should have the same amplitude.
▪ The waves should be moving in opposite directions.

IMPORTANT TERMS:
Fundamental note:
This is the lowest audible note produced by a musical instrument.
Fundamental frequency(𝒇𝟏 ):
This is the frequency of the fundamental note.
Overtone:
This is the note whose frequency is higher than the fundamental frequency.
▪ Overtones are used to determine the quality of sound.
Harmonic:
This is a note whose frequency is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency.
i.e. 𝒇𝟏 , 𝟐𝒇𝟏 , 𝟑𝒇𝟏 , 𝟒𝒇𝟏 …
Octave:
This is the interval between one note and another note which is half or double its frequency. i.e.

𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒏 𝒇𝟏 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒇𝟏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

𝒇𝟐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝒏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠.
Examples:
1. Find the frequency of a note four octaves above a note of frequency 20Hz.
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒇𝟐 =? , 𝒏 = 𝟒
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒏 𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟐𝟎
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝑯𝒛

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 31

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. Find the frequency of a note 2 octaves below a note of frequency 512Hz.

𝒇𝟐 = 𝟓𝟏𝟐𝑯𝒛, 𝒇𝟏 =? , 𝒏 = 𝟐
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒏 𝒇𝟏
𝟓𝟏𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐 × 𝒇𝟏
𝟓𝟏𝟐
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟒
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝑯𝒛

NOTE:
Consider a string of length, L fixed at both ends.
𝑳
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

1st harmonic (fundamental note):

This is produced when the string is plucked half-way from one end (middle). The frequency of
the note is the fundamental frequency, 𝑓1 .
𝟏
𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹ 𝝀 = 𝟐𝑳
𝟐
𝑳 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟏 𝝀
𝐍 𝐍 𝑽
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟏 𝝀
𝟐
𝝀 𝑽
𝒇𝟏 = … … … … … … (𝒊)
𝟐𝑳

2nd harmonic (first overtone):

This is produced when the string is plucked quarter-way from one end.
The frequency of the note is 𝑓2 .
𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹𝝀=𝑳
𝑳 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟐 𝝀
𝑽
𝐍 𝐍 𝒇𝟐 =
𝝀
𝝀 𝑽
𝒇𝟐 = … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊)
𝑳

Combining equations (𝒊) and (𝒊𝒊)

Making V the subject in equation (𝒊) 𝑽 = 𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏 … … … … .. **
Substitute equation ** into (𝒊𝒊)
𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝟐 =
𝑳
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒇𝟏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 32

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

3rd harmonic (second overtone):

This is produced if the string is plucked a sixth-way from one end.
The frequency of the note is 𝑓3 .
𝟑 𝟐𝑳
𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹𝝀=
𝟐 𝟑
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟑 𝝀
𝑳 𝑽
𝐍 𝒇 𝟑 =
𝐍 𝝀
𝟑
𝑽
𝝀 𝒇𝟑 =
𝟐 𝟐𝑳
𝟑
𝟑𝑽
𝒇𝟑 = … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊𝒊)
𝟐𝑳
𝟑×𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏
Substitute equation ** into (𝒊𝒊𝒊): 𝒇𝟑 =
𝟐𝑳
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
NOTE:
From the above, the harmonics are 𝒇𝟏 , 𝟐𝒇𝟏 , 𝟑𝒇𝟏 , 𝟒𝒇𝟏 , 𝟓𝒇𝟏 , 𝟔𝒇𝟏 , 𝟕𝒇𝟏 … … ….
Therefore, a vibrating string produces both odd and even harmonics and overtones.

EXAMPLES:
1. The frequency of the third harmonic produced by a vibrating string is 660Hz. Find the length
of the string if the speed of sound is 330m/s
𝑳
Alternatively:
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝟑 𝟔𝟔𝟎 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝝀 𝟔𝟔𝟎
𝟐
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟑 𝟐𝑳 𝟑
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹𝝀= 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝟐 𝟑 𝑽
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟑 𝝀 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝒇𝟏 =
𝑽 𝑽 𝟐𝑳
𝒇𝟑 = ⟹ 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎
𝝀 𝟐𝑳 𝟐𝟐𝟎 =
𝟑 𝟐𝑳
𝟑𝑽 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒎
𝒇𝟑 =
𝟐𝑳
𝟑 × 𝟑𝟑𝟎
𝟔𝟔𝟎 =
𝟐𝑳
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎𝑳 𝟗𝟗𝟎
=
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 33

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. Find the frequency of the second harmonic produced by a vibrating string whose
fundamental frequency is 300Hz.
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐 × 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛
3. The frequency of the second overtone is 300Hz. Find the fundamental frequency.
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄, 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟑
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛

WAVES PRODUCED IN PIPES

Pipes used are either closed and open.
Closed pipes:
These are pipes which are closed at one end and open at the other end.
The wave formed has a node at closed end and the antinode at open end
The length of the tube is L.
1st harmonic (fundamental note):
This is the first position of resonance.
The frequency is the fundamental frequency, 𝑓1 .
𝟏
𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹ 𝝀 = 𝟒𝑳
𝑳 𝟒
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟏 𝝀
𝑽
𝐍 𝐀 𝒇𝟏 =
𝝀
𝑽
𝟏 𝒇𝟏 = … … … … … … (𝒊)
𝝀 𝟒𝑳
𝟒

3rd harmonic (first overtone):

This is the second position of resonance.
The frequency of the note is 𝑓3 .
𝟑 𝟒𝑳
𝑳= 𝝀, ⟹𝝀=
𝑳 𝟒 𝟑
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟑 𝝀
𝐍 𝐀 𝑽
𝒇𝟑 =
𝟑 𝝀
𝝀 𝑽
𝟒 𝒇𝟑 =
𝟒𝑳
𝟑
𝟑𝑽
𝒇𝟑 = … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊)
𝟒𝑳

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 34

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Combining equations (𝒊) and (𝒊𝒊)

Making V the subject in equation (𝒊) 𝑽 = 𝟒𝑳𝒇𝟏 … … … … .. **
Substitute equation ** into (𝒊𝒊)
𝟑(𝟒𝑳𝒇𝟏 )
𝒇𝟑 =
𝟒𝑳
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏

5th harmonic (second overtone):

This is the third position of resonance.
The frequency of the note is 𝑓5 .
𝟓 𝟒𝑳
𝑳= 𝝀, ⟹𝝀=
𝟒 𝟓
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟓 𝝀
𝑳 𝑽
𝒇𝟓 =
𝐍 𝐀 𝝀
𝑽
𝟓 𝒇𝟓 =
𝝀
𝟒𝑳
𝟒 𝟓
𝟓𝑽
𝒇𝟓 = … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊𝒊)
𝟒𝑳
Substitute equation ** into (𝒊𝒊𝒊):
𝟓 × (𝟒𝑳𝒇𝟏 )
𝒇𝟓 =
𝟒𝑳

𝒇𝟓 = 𝟓𝒇𝟏

NOTE:
Closed pipes only produce odd harmonics i.e. 𝒇𝟏 , 𝟑𝒇𝟏 , 𝟓𝒇𝟏 , 𝟕𝒇𝟏 , 𝟗𝒇𝟏 , 𝟏𝟏𝒇𝟏 , … …
Open pipes:
Open pipes are open at both ends.
Antinodes are formed at both ends.

1st harmonic (fundamental note):

This is the first position of resonance.
The frequency of the note is the fundamental frequency, 𝑓1 .
𝟏
𝑳 𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹ 𝝀 = 𝟐𝑳
𝟐
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟏 𝝀
𝑽
𝒇𝟏 =
𝝀
𝟏 𝑽
𝝀 𝒇𝟏 = … … … … … … (𝒊)
𝟐 𝟐𝑳

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 35

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2nd harmonic (first overtone):

This is the second position of resonance.
The frequency of the note produced is 𝑓2 .
𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹𝝀=𝑳
𝑳 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟐 𝝀
𝑽
𝐀 𝐀 𝒇𝟐 =
𝝀
𝝀 𝑽
𝒇𝟐 = … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊)
𝑳
Combining equations (𝒊) and (𝒊𝒊)
Making V the subject in equation (𝒊) 𝑽 = 𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏 … … … … .. **
Substitute equation ** into (𝒊𝒊)
𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝟐 =
𝑳
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒇𝟏

3rd harmonic (second overtone):

This is the third position of resonance.
The frequency of the note produced is 𝑓2 .
𝟑 𝟐𝑳
𝑳= 𝝀, ⟹𝝀=
𝟐 𝟑
𝑳 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟑 𝝀
𝑽
𝒇𝟑 =
𝐀 𝐀 𝝀
𝑽
𝟑 𝒇𝟑 =
𝝀 𝟐𝑳
𝟐 𝟑
𝟑𝑽
𝒇𝟑 = … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊𝒊)
𝟐𝑳
Substitute equation ** into (𝒊𝒊𝒊):
𝟑 × 𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝟑 =
𝟐𝑳

𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏

NOTE:
Open pipes produce both odd and even harmonics i.e.
𝒇𝟏 , 𝟐𝒇𝟏 , 𝟑𝒇𝟏 , 𝟒𝒇𝟏 , 𝟓𝒇𝟏 , 𝟔𝒇𝟏 , 𝟕𝒇𝟏 … … ….

QUESTION: Explain why open pipes are preferred more than closed pipes in making music.
Open pipes are preferred more than closed pipes because they produce high
quality sound since they produce both odd and even harmonics.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 36

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXAMPLES:
1. The frequency of the third harmonic in an open pipe is 750Hz. Find the speed of sound if the
length of pipe is 0.8m.
Alternatively:
𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝒎 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝒎
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝐀 𝐀 𝟕𝟓𝟎 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝟕𝟓𝟎
𝟑 𝒇𝟏 =
𝝀 𝟑
𝟐
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝟑 𝟐𝑳 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟖 𝟖 𝑽
𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹𝝀= = = 𝒎 𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝟏 =
𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏𝟓 𝟐𝑳
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟑 𝝀 𝑽 = 𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏
𝟖 𝑽 = 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝑽 = 𝟕𝟓𝟎 ×
𝟏𝟓 𝑽 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
−𝟏
𝑽 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔

2. A pipe closed at one end has length 10cm. if the velocity of sound is 340m/s. find
(i) Fundamental frequency
(ii) Frequency of third harmonic.
Alternatively:
𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝑽
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟒𝑳
𝟑𝟒𝟎
𝐍 𝐀 𝒇𝟏 =
𝟒 × 𝟎. 𝟏
𝟏
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟖𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝝀
(i) 𝟒
(ii)
𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹ 𝝀 = 𝟒𝑳 = 𝟒 × = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎
𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑 × 𝟖𝟓𝟎
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟏 𝝀 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝑽
𝒇𝟏 =
𝝀
𝟑𝟒𝟎
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟎. 𝟒
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟖𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛

3. A pipe open at both ends has length 40cm. If the velocity of sound is 340m/s. Find the
frequency of the;
(i) Fundamental note.
(ii) First overtone.
𝟒𝟎
𝑳 = 𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎, 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟒𝟎𝒎/𝒔
𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 37

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎 Alternatively:
𝑽
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟐𝑳
𝟑𝟒𝟎
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟒
𝟏 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟒𝟐𝟓𝑯𝒛
𝝀
𝟐 (i) First overtone (2nd harmonic)
(i) 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒇𝟏
𝟏 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐 × 𝟒𝟐𝟓
𝑳= 𝝀, ⟹ 𝝀 = 𝟐𝑳 = 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟒 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟖𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝟐
= 𝟎. 𝟖𝒎
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟏 𝝀
𝑽
𝒇𝟏 =
𝝀
𝟑𝟒𝟎
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟎. 𝟖
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟒𝟐𝟓𝑯𝒛

4. The frequency of third harmonic in an open pipe is 660Hz, if the speed of sound in air is
330m/s. Find;
(i) the length of the air column
(ii) the fundamental frequency

𝑳 (ii)
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝐀 𝐀 𝒇𝟑
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟑 𝟑
𝝀 𝟔𝟔𝟎
𝟐 𝒇𝟏 =
(i) 𝟑
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟑 𝝀
𝑽
𝝀=
𝒇𝟑
𝟑𝟑𝟎
𝝀=
𝟔𝟔𝟎
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎

𝟑
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝑳= 𝝀
𝟐
𝟑
𝑳= × 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟐
𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 38

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. A third harmonic (first overtone) of a closed pipe occurs when the length of the air column is
30cm, if the speed of sound in air is 330m/s. Find the;
(i) frequency of the sound wave
(ii) fundamental frequency
𝟑𝟎
𝑳 = 𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝒎, 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔
𝟏𝟎𝟎

(ii) Fundamental frequency

𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝒎 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝟑
𝐍 𝐀 𝒇𝟏 =
𝟑
𝟑 𝟖𝟐𝟓
𝝀 𝒇𝟏 =
𝟒 𝟑
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟕𝟓𝑯𝒛
(i)
𝟑 𝟒𝑳 𝟒 × 𝟎. 𝟑
𝑳= 𝝀, ⟹𝝀= =
𝟒 𝟑 𝟑
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟑 𝝀
𝑽
𝒇𝟑 =
𝝀
𝟑𝟑𝟎
𝒇𝟑 =
𝟎. 𝟒
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟖𝟐𝟓𝑯𝒛

6. The frequency of the 4th overtone in an open pipe is 900Hz when the length of the air column
is 0.4m. Find the
(i) Frequency of the fundamental note
(ii) Speed of sound in air.
𝟒𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒇𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒉 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄 (ii)
(i) 𝒇𝟓 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎 𝑽
𝒇𝟏 =
𝒇𝟓 = 𝟓𝒇𝟏 𝟐𝑳
𝒇𝟓 𝑽 = 𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝟏 = 𝑽 = 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝟓
𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟓
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝑯𝒛

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 39

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

RESONANCE
This occurs when a body is set into vibrations at its own natural frequency by another nearby
body vibrating at the same frequency.
The resonating body will then vibrate strongly with a greater amplitude.

Examples of resonance in daily life.

• Shaking of window glasses as a heavy vehicle passes by.
• Swinging of legs in a swing so as to swing higher.
• Breaking of wine glass by an opera singer’s sound.
• A working generator makes dust to move up and down
• Tuning a radio changes the frequency of the radio waves until it is exactly same as
frequency of the waves at transmitting station.
NOTE:
Resonance may lead to collapse of tall buildings, bridges when they resonate with strong
winds or earthquakes.

Experiment to demonstrate resonance using coupled pendulum and tubes:

Taut string

A D

▪ Hang four pendulum bobs on the same taut string such that pendulum, A has a variable
length and other pendulums B, C and D have different fixed lengths.

▪ Set pendulum, A to the same length as D and make it to swing. It is observed that
pendulum, D swings with a larger amplitude but pendulums B and C swing with smaller
amplitudes.

▪ Set pendulum, A to the same length as B and make it swing. It is observed that
pendulum, B swings with noticeable amplitude but pendulums C and D just jiggle
without a noticeable amplitude.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 40

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Experiment to demonstrate resonance using a closed air tube:

𝑻𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒌
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑪𝒍𝒊𝒑
𝑹𝒖𝒃𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒈
▪ A resonance tube is almost filled with water.
▪ A tuning fork is sounded near and above the mouth of the tube.
▪ Water level is allowed to fall gradually by means of a clip.
▪ It is observed that at some level of water, the sound suddenly becomes louder. Resonance is
said to have occurred.

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR BY RESONANCE TUBE

▪ A tuning fork of known frequency, f is held over the mouth of a resonance tube and then
sounded.
▪ The tube is slowly raised until a first loud sound is heard. This is the first position of
resonance.
▪ The length, 𝐿1 of the air column is measured.

𝒄
𝑻𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒌

𝑻𝒖𝒃𝒆 𝑳𝟏

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝟏
𝑳𝟏 + 𝒄 = 𝟒 𝝀 … … … … … . (𝑖)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒄 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒.
▪ The tube is again raised until a second loud sound is heard. This is the second position of
resonance.
▪ The length, 𝐿2 of the air column is measured.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 41

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑻𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒌
𝒄

𝑻𝒖𝒃𝒆
𝑳𝟏

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝟑
𝑳𝟐 + 𝒄 = 𝝀 … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝟒
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖) 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖𝑖)
𝟑 𝟏
[𝑳𝟐 + 𝒄 = 𝝀] − [𝑳𝟏 + 𝒄 = 𝝀]
𝟒 𝟒
𝟑 𝟏
𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 = 𝝀 − 𝝀
𝟒 𝟒
𝟏
𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 = 𝝀
𝟐
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝝀 = 𝟐(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 )
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝑽 = 𝟐𝒇(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 )
▪ Hence velocity can be calculated from 𝑉 = 2𝑓(𝐿2 − 𝐿1 ).

EXAMPLES:
1. A tube is partially immersed in water and a tuning fork of frequency 425Hz is sounded
above it. If the tube is gradually raised, find the length of the tube when first resonance
occurs. (velocity of sound is 340m/s and neglect end correction)
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑳𝟏 + 𝒄 = 𝝀 𝑳𝟏 + 𝒄 = 𝝀
𝟒 𝟒
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀 𝟏
𝑳𝟏 = 𝝀
𝟑𝟒𝟎 = 𝟒𝟐𝟓 × 𝝀 𝟒
𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝟏
𝝀= = 𝟎. 𝟖𝒎 𝑳𝟏 = × 𝟎. 𝟖
𝟒𝟐𝟓 𝟒
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝒎 𝑳𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 42

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. A tube closed at one end resonates first at length 28.5cm and again at 88.5cm when a
tuning fork of frequency 285Hz is held near the open end. Find the velocity of sound.
𝟐𝟖. 𝟓 𝟖𝟖. 𝟓
𝒇 = 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝑯𝒛 𝑳𝟏 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝒎 𝑳𝟐 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟓𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽 = 𝟐𝒇(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 )
𝑽 = 𝟐 × 𝟐𝟕𝟓 × (𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟓)
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

3. A tuning fork produces resonance in a tube at a length of 15.0cm and also at length 40.0cm.
Find the frequency of the tuning fork if the speed of sound is 330m/s.
𝟏𝟓 𝟒𝟎
𝑳𝟏 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒎 𝑳𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽 = 𝟐𝒇(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 )
𝟑𝟑𝟎 = 𝟐 × 𝒇 × (𝟎. 𝟒 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓)
𝟑𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒇
𝒇 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛

4. A tuning fork of frequency 256Hz was used to produce resonance at a length 32.5cm and
also at length 95.0cm. Calculate the speed of sound in air.
𝟑𝟐. 𝟓 𝟗𝟓
𝒇 = 𝟐𝟓𝟔𝑯𝒛 𝑳𝟏 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟓𝒎 𝑳𝟐 = 𝟗𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽 = 𝟐𝒇(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 )
𝑽 = 𝟐 × 𝟐𝟓𝟔 × (𝟎. 𝟗𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟓)
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

5. In an experiment the velocity of sound in air using a resonance tube, the following results
were obtained:
Length of 1st resonance = 16.1cm
Length of 2nd resonance = 51.1cm
Frequency of tuning fork = 480 Hz
Calculate:

(i) Wavelength of sound (ii) Speed of sound (iii) End correction of

tube
𝟏𝟔. 𝟏 𝑽 = 𝟐𝒇(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 ) 𝟏
𝑳𝟏 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟏𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑽 = 𝟐 × 𝟒𝟖𝟎 × (𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟏) 𝑳𝟏 + 𝒄 = 𝝀
𝟓𝟏. 𝟏 𝟒
𝑳𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟏𝒎 𝑽 = 𝟐 × 𝟒𝟖𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟏 + 𝒄 = × 𝟎. 𝟕
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝟒
𝝀 = 𝟐(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 ) 𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟏
𝝀 = 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟏) 𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟒𝒎
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 43

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

COMMUNICATION BETWEEN EARTH AND MOON

Moon does not have an atmosphere so there is a vacuum (space without air) around it.
So, communication is possible between earth and moon by use of electromagnetic waves called
radio waves.

QUESTION: Describe how communication is possible between moon and earth yet the moon
has no atmosphere.
• Radio waves from a transmitter on earth are directed towards the moon. They are
able to travel through vacuum around the moon since they are electromagnetic waves.
• On reaching the surface of the moon, they are reflected back to the earth’s receiver.
• Through this process communication is possible.

𝑴𝒐𝒐𝒏

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔

𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓

𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉

QUESTION: Describe how communication in radios and televisions.

• Radio stations have transmitters which convert electrical signals into radio waves
and send them over a wide area.
• On reaching the radios, the antennas (aerials) on radios convert the radio waves
back to electrical signals which can be heard by a person

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 44

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. A stretched wire adjusted to a length of 48cm produces the same note as a tuning fork whose
frequency is 256Hz. If the wire is adjusted to 32cm, what frequency of the tuning fork would
be in tune with the wire?
Ans: (𝟑𝟖𝟒𝑯𝒛)
2. The frequency of a vibrating wire is 280Hz, when its length is 75cm. Find its frequency when
the length is reduced to 50cm
Ans: (𝟒𝟐𝟎𝑯𝒛)
3. The frequency of the third harmonic in an open pipe is 590Hz. Find the length of the air
column if the speed of sound in air is 330𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: (𝟎. 𝟖𝟒𝒎)
4. The length of air column in an open pipe is 1.6m. Find the frequency of the third harmonic if
the speed of sound in air is 320𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: (𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛)
5. A pipe closed at one end has a length of 10cm. If the velocity of sound in air of the pipe is
340𝑚𝑠 −1, calculate the fundamental frequency and the frequency of the first overtone
Ans: (𝟖𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛)
6. The frequency of the second harmonic produced in a vibrating string is 600Hz. Find the
length of the string given that the speed of sound is 320𝑚𝑠 −1.
Ans: (𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝒎)
7. The frequency of the fourth overtone produced by a vibrating string of length 25cm given
that speed of sound in air is 320𝑚𝑠 −1 .
Ans: (𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛)
8. The length of air column in a closed pipe is 150cm. Find the frequency of the third
harmonic if the speed of sound in air is 330𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: (𝟏𝟔𝟓𝑯𝒛)
9. The frequency of the third overtone in an open pipe is 750Hz. Find the length of the air
column if the speed of sound in air is 300𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: (𝟎. 𝟖𝒎)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 45

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS:
1. a) Define the following terms;
i) Wavelength
ii) Reverberation
iii) Stationary waves
b) i) What is meant by resonance
ii) State three examples and one hazard caused by resonance
c) Describe an experiment to determine the velocity of sound in air by resonance tube
method
d) Calculate the frequency of vibration of the fundamental note and the second
overtone in an open tube of 25cm long if the velocity of sound is 330𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟎𝑯𝒛.
e) Given the factors which affect the frequency of vibrations of a stretched string
2. a) What do you understand by the following terms;
i) Anti-node
ii) Resonance
b) State the factors which affect the frequency of wave produced by a vibrating string
c) A sound wave of frequency 300Hz is produced 160m away from a high wall. Calculate
i) The wavelength of the sound wave.
ii) The time taken for the sound wave to travel to the wall and back to the source.
Ans: i) 𝟏. 𝟏𝒎 ii) 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝒔
d) A boy standing some distance from a cliff claps his hands and hears an echo after 5
seconds
i) What is distance between the boy and the cliff?
ii) How long would it take the boy to hear the echo if there was a wind blowing
towards the cliff at a speed of 20𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: i) 𝟖𝟐𝟓𝒎 ii) 𝟒. 𝟕𝟏𝒔
3. a) What is a wave
b) As regards to a wave, what is meant by the following
i) Frequency
ii) Wavelength
c) State four properties of waves
d) Describe how a resonance tube may be used to determine the velocity of sound in air
e) A boy stands between two parallel cliffs but nearer to one of them. When he claps hard
once he hears the first echo after 1 second and a second echo 1 second after the first. If
the distance between the cliffs is 510m, find the speed of sound.
Ans: 𝟑𝟒𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
4. a) Define the following terms as applied to waves
i) Amplitude
ii) Frequency
b) i) What is meant by interference of waves
ii) Using a labeled diagram show how circular waves are reflected from a straight barrier
c) Use a labeled diagram to show the bands of electromagnetic waves.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 46

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. a) i) Define an echo.
ii) State the conditions required for a stationary wave to be formed
b) List the factors on which the frequency of a wave in a vibrating string depends
c) Describe an experiment to demonstrate resonance in a closed pipe
d) A child stands between two cliffs and makes a loud sound. If he hears the first echo
after 1.5 seconds and the second echo after 2.0 seconds, find the distance between the
two cliffs, if the speed of sound in air is 330𝑚𝑠 −1 .
Ans: 𝟓𝟕𝟕. 𝟓𝒎

6. The diagram below is of a cross section of a ripple tank in which A is a straight dipper
and B a barrier with two gaps.
A B

a) Sketch a diagram showing waves produced when A vibrates perpendicular to the water
surface
b) What will happen when?
i) The gaps are made narrower
ii) The separation of the gaps is increased
iii) The frequency of the vibrator A is decreased
c) If A vibrates with a frequency of 20Hz and is 25cm from B, find
i) The speed of the wave if the wave front takes 5s from A to B
ii) The wavelength of the waves
Ans: i) 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 ii) 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎
d) State differences between water waves and light waves
7. a) Give three similarities and three differences between sound waves and radio waves
b) i) Describe how the speed of sound in air can be determined by an echo method
ii) A student standing between two vertical cliffs produces sound by clapping his hands
together. He hears the first echo after 3seconds and a second echo after 5seconds.
Calculate the distance between the two cliffs
Ans: ii) 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎𝒎
c) A radio station broadcasts at 100m band
i) What is meant by this statement?
ii) Calculate the frequency of the broadcast.
Ans: ii) 𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔𝑯𝒛.
8. a) State two differences between sound and light waves
b) i) Describe a simple experiment to determine the velocity of sound in air
ii) Explain why the speed of sound is higher in solids than in air
c) Two people X and Y stand in a line at a distance of 330m and 660m respectively from
a high wall. Find the time interval taken for X to hear the first and sounds when Y
makes a loud sound if the speed of sound in air is 330 𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: 𝟐. 𝟎𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 47

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

d) i) What is meant by a stationary wave

ii) Give any two conditions
iii) Name one musical instrument which produces stationary waves
9. a) With aid of a diagram explain the terms amplitude and wavelength as applied to wave
motion
b) i) Derive an equation relating velocity, V frequency, f and wavelength, 𝜆 of a wave
ii) A radio wave is transmitted at a frequency of 150Hz. Calculate its wavelength
Ans: 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑯𝒛.
c) i) List four properties of electromagnetic waves
ii) A long open tube is partially immersed in water and a tuning fork of frequency
425Hz is sounded and held above it. If the tube is gradually raised, find the length
of air column when resonance first occurs. Neglect end correction and take speed of
sound in air = 340𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: ii) 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎
10. a) Explain the difference between transverse and longitudinal waves. Give one example of
each
b) The diagram in the figure below represents a plane view of horizontal ripple tanks set up
to study characteristics of water waves.

The vibrators were set up to produce waves

(i) Draw diagrams to show wave patterns in A and B.
(ii) Explain what happens to plane waves in each case.
11. a) i) Describe how the speed of waves in a ripple tank can be decreased
ii) Explain the effect of decreasing the speed of the wave in (a) (i) on frequency
b) With the aid of sketch diagrams, explain the effect of size of a gap on diffraction of
waves
c) i) Give two reasons why sound is louder at night than during the day
ii) An echo-sounding equipment on a ship receives sound pulses reflected from the sea
bed 0.02 seconds after they were sent out from it. If the speed of sound in water is
1500ms-1, calculate the depth of water under the ship.
Ans: ii) 𝟏𝟓𝒎
d) Identify two differences between water and sound waves
12. a) Define the following terms as applied to waves;
i) Amplitude
ii) Frequency
b) i) What is meant by interference of waves
ii) Using a labeled diagram show how circular water waves are reflected from a straight
barrier

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 48

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

c) i) Use a labeled diagram to show the bands of an electromagnetic spectrum

ii) Calculate the frequency of a radio wave of wavelength 2m
Ans: ii) 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑯𝒛
d) i) State any three effects of electromagnetic radiation on matter
ii) State two properties that electromagnetic waves have in common
13. a) i) Explain each of the following observations;
ii) Sound from a distant source is louder at night than during day time
b) Describe an experiment to show interference of sound waves
c) A man stands between two cliffs and makes a loud sound. He hears the first echo after 1
second and the second echo after a further 1 second. Find the distance between the cliffs
Ans: 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝒎
d) Straight water waves travel from deep to shallow water as shown below

Copy and complete the wave front pattern in shallow water

14. a) State differences between sound and light waves
b) i) Explain how stationary waves are formed
ii) State three main characteristics of stationary waves
c) i) Define the terms frequency and wavelength as applied to sound
ii) Describe an experiment to demonstrate resonance in sound
d) The velocity and frequency of sound in air at a certain time were 320ms-1 and 200Hz
respectively. At a later time, the air temperature changed and the velocity of sound in air
was found to be 340ms-1. Determine the change in wavelength of sound.
Ans: 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎
15. a) List three differences between sound waves and radio waves
b) Figure below shows waves propagating towards a concave reflector

i) Draw a diagram to show how the waves are reflected

ii) If the velocity of the waves is 320ms-1 and the distance between two successive
crests is 10cm, find the period of the waves
Ans: 𝟑. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒔
c) Describe a simple echo method of determining the speed of sound in air.
16. a) What is meant by sound
b) Describe an experiment to show that sound waves require a material medium for
transmission
c) Explain briefly the following;
i) A dog is more able than a human being to detect the presence of a thief tiptoeing at

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 49

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

night
ii) An approaching train can easily be detected by human ears placed close to the rails
d) A sound frequency 250Hz is produced 120m away from a high wall. If the speed of
sound in air is 330ms-1, calculate the
i) Wavelength ii) Time it takes the sound wave to travel to and from the wall.
Ans: i) 𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝒎 ii) 𝟎. 𝟕𝟑𝒔
17. a) i) State two factors which affect the frequency of the note produced by the string
ii) Why does the quality (timbre) of the sound produced by a violin differ from that
produced by a piano?
b) Describe an experiment to show that sound waves do not travel through a vacuum
c) A pipe is closed at one end has a length of 10cm. if the velocity of sound in the
air of the pipe is 340ms-1. Calculate
i) The fundamental frequency
ii) The first overtone
Ans: i) 𝟖𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛 ii) 𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛
d) State four differences between sound waves and light waves
18. a) i) Describe a simple experiment to determine the velocity of sound in air
ii) What factors would affect the value of velocity of sound obtained from the experiment
in (i) above
b) Explain why a musical note played on a piano sounds different from that played on a
guitar
c) i) Calculate the wavelength of sound waves of frequency 3.3kHz and speed 330ms-1
ii) State four differences between sound and radio waves
Ans: i) 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎

19. a) List three differences and three similarities between sound waves and light waves
b) The diagram below shows circular waves propagating towards a plane reflector

Plane surface

i) Draw a diagram to show how the waves will be reflected

ii) Calculate the frequency of the waves if their velocity and wavelength are
5.0ms-1 and 0.5m respectively
Ans: ii) 𝟏𝟎𝑯𝒛
c) A man stands midway between two cliffs and makes a loud sound. He hears the
first echo after 3 seconds. Find the distance between the cliffs, if the velocity of
sound in air is 330ms-1.
Ans: 𝟗𝟗𝟎𝒎
20. a) Define each of the following terms as applied to wave motion
i) Wave front
ii) Wavelength

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 50

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

b) The wavelength of radio wave is 10m. Calculate

i) The frequency
ii) The period of the wave
Ans: i) 𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑯𝒛 ii) 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔
c) Why does sound travel faster in solids than in gases
d) i) What is meant by the term resonance
ii) The frequency of the third harmonic in a closed pipe is 280Hz. Find the length of
the air column in the pipe.
Ans: ii) 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 51

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics is the study of electric charges at rest.
These charges include;
• Positive charges (+)
• Negative charges (-)

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.
An atom consists of three particles namely;
▪ Electrons
▪ Neutrons
▪ Protons

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒔/𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔

𝑵𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏
𝑵𝒖𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒖𝒔 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏

Properties and location of the particles of an atom:

Particle Location Charge

Proton In the nucleus of an atom Positive charge (+)
Electron It orbits outside the nucleus of an atom Negative charge (-)
Neutron In the nucleus of an atom No charge (neutral)
Note:
In an atom, the number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the number of electrons
outside the nucleus. Therefore, an atom is said to be neutral (has no charge).
Since the nucleus has only protons and neutrons, then it is positively charged.

NB: Any material that loses electrons becomes positively charged and any material that gains
electrons becomes negatively charged.

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Conductors:
A conductor is a material with free electrons and can allow heat and electricity to pass through it
easily.
The electrons in a conductor are free to move because they are loosely held outside the nucleus
of an atom.
Examples of conductors include; all metals, carbon in form of graphite, acids, bases and salt
solutions.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Insulators:
An insulator is a material without free electrons and cannot allow heat and electricity to pass
through it easily.
The electrons in an insulator are not free to move because they are tightly or strongly held
outside the nucleus of an atom.
Examples of insulators include; rubber, dry wood, glass plastic, ebonite, fur, polythene, etc.

Differences between conductors and insulators:

Conductors Insulators
• Electrons are free to move. • Electrons are not free to move.
• Electrons are loosely held outside the • Electrons are tightly held outside the
nucleus of an atom. nucleus of an atom.
• They are good conductors of heat and • They are poor conductors of heat and
electricity. electricity.

LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS
It states that like charges repel while unlike charges attract each other.

ELECTRIFICATION (CHARGING MATERIALS)

This is the process of producing electric charges.
There various methods of charging materials and they include:
• Charging by friction/rubbing
• Charging by contact/conduction
• Charging by induction (electrostatic induction)

Charging by friction/rubbing:
This is the best method for charging insulators
▪ Two insulators are rubbed together and electrons are transferred from one insulator to another.
▪ The insulator that gains electrons becomes negatively charged and the insulator that loses
electrons becomes positively charged.
▪ Therefore, the two insulators acquire equal but opposite charges.

The table below shows insulators gaining ang losing electrons when rubbed:
Loses electrons Gains electrons
Glass Ebonite
Fur Silk
Cellulose Polythene

Example:
❖ When silk and glass are rubbed against each other, the glass atoms lose electrons hence
acquiring a positive charge and the silk atoms gain electrons hence acquiring a negative
charge.
The resulting electric force can attract small pieces of paper.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Question 1: Describe how fur and silk can be charged by friction.

• Fur and silk are rubbed against each other.
• Fur atoms lose electrons and acquire a positive charge.
• Silk atoms gain electrons and acquire a negative charge.
• Therefore, fur and silk acquire equal but opposite charges.

Question 2: Describe how ebonite and glass can be electrified.

• Glass and ebonite are rubbed against each other.
• Glass atoms lose electrons and acquire a positive charge.
• Ebonite atoms gain electrons and acquire a negative charge.
• Therefore, glass and ebonite acquire equal but opposite charges.

Charging by contact/conduction:
This method is only good for conductors. The charges are shared among the conductors.

Uncharged Charged Conductors in contact Charge is shared between

v v the conductors
▪ Bring the uncharged conductor in contact with a charged conductor.
▪ Separate the two conductors after short period of time.
▪ The uncharged conductor will acquire a similar equal charge to that of a charged conductor.

Charging by electrostatic induction:

This is the method of charging a conductor without touching it with a charged body.
It involves bringing a charged body near the body to be charged.
The uncharged body acquire a charge opposite to that of a charging body.

Charging a conductor positively by induction:

▪ Bring a negatively charged body near one side of a conductor placed on an insulated stand.
▪ Positive charges are induced on the side near the charged body and negative charges are
repelled to the other side.

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅

▪ With the charged body still in position, the other side of the conductor is earthed by
connecting it with an earth wire to the ground. Electrons flow to the ground through the earth
wire.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝒆− 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘

𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈

▪ With the charged body still in position, the earthing is removed and then the charged body is
also removed.
▪ Positive charges distribute themselves all over the conductor and the conductor is left with a
net positive charge.

Charging a conductor negatively by induction:

▪ Bring a positively charged body near one side of a conductor placed on an insulated stand.
▪ Negative charges are induced on the side near the charged body and positive charges are
repelled to the other side.
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚
𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅

▪ With the charged body still in position, the other side of the conductor is earthed by
connecting it with an earth wire to the ground. Electrons flow from the ground and neutralize
the positive charges on the conductor.

𝒆− 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅

𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈

▪ With the charged body still in position, the earthing is removed and then the charged body is
also removed.
▪ Negative charges distribute themselves all over the conductor and the conductor is left with a
net negative charge.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
Earthing a conductor may also be done by touching it with the fingers since human bodies are
good conductors of electricity.

Charging two conductors simultaneously with an opposite charge by induction:

▪ Place two conductors A and B in contact and on an insulated stand.
▪ Bring a negatively charged body near conductor A.
▪ Positive charges are induced on conductor A and negative charges repelled to conductor B.
A B

▪ With the charged body still in position, the conductors are separated. On removing the
charged body, the charges distribute all over the conductors.
▪ Conductor A acquire a net positive charge and conductor B acquire a net negative charge.
A B

Charging two conductors simultaneously with the same charge by induction:

▪ Place two conductors A and B in contact and on an insulated stand.
▪ Bring a negatively charged body near conductor A.
▪ Positive charges are induced on conductor A and negative charges repelled to conductor B.
A B

▪ With the charged body still in position, conductor B is earthed by connecting it with an earth
wire to the ground. Electrons flow to the ground.
A B

𝒆− 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅

𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ With the charged body still in position, the earthing is removed and then the charged body is
also removed.
▪ Positive charges distribute themselves all over the two conductors and the conductors are left
with a net positive charge.

GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE (GLE)

A gold leaf electroscope is an instrument used to detect the presence of charge and differentiate
between the charges.

Structure of a gold leaf electroscope:

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍/𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒑
𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍/𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒓𝒐𝒅
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍/𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒆

𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑮𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒇

𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈
It consists of a metal cap and metal plate joined together by a metal rod.
It consists of a metal case with glass windows to protect it from draught.
The metal case is always earthed to keep it at zero potential.
The electroscope is insulated so that there is no inflow and outflow of charges

Mode of action of a gold leaf electroscope:

▪ When a charged body is brought near the cap of the electroscope, the cap will acquire an
opposite charge to that on the charged body by induction.
▪ The charge on the body will repel all charges similar to it down to the metal rod, to the plate
and the leaf.
▪ Due to presence of like or similar charges on the plate and gold leaf, the leaf diverges as it is
repelled by the plate.
▪ Therefore, leaf divergence means that the body brought near with the cap carries a charge.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Charging a Gold Leaf Electroscope positively by induction:

▪ Bring a negatively charged rod near the cap of an uncharged gold leaf electroscope.
▪ Positive charges are induced on the cap and negative charges are repelled down to the plate and
the gold leaf. The leaf diverges due to presence of like charges at the plate and the leaf.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒐𝒅

▪ With the charged rod still in position, the gold leaf electroscope is earthed by connecting it
with an earth wire to the ground. Electrons flow from the plate and the leaf to the ground
through the earth wire. This causes the leaf to collapse (decrease in divergence of the leaf)

𝒆− 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 to the ground

𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈
▪ With the charged rod still in position, the earthing is removed
𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 and then the charged rod is
also removed.
▪ Positive charges distribute themselves all over the metal cap, plate and gold leaf. The leaf
diverges again due to presence of like charges at the plate and the leaf.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Charging a Gold Leaf Electroscope negatively by induction:

▪ Bring a positively charged rod near the cap of an uncharged gold leaf electroscope.
▪ Negative charges are induced on the cap and positive charges are repelled down to the plate
and the gold leaf. The leaf diverges due to presence of like charges at the plate and the leaf.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒐𝒅

𝒆− 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 from the ground

▪ With the charged rod still in position, the gold leaf electroscope is earthed by connecting it
with an earth wire to the ground. Electrons flow from the ground through the earth wire to
neutralize the positive charges at the plate and the leaf. This causes the leaf to collapse
(decrease in divergence of the leaf)

▪ With the charged rod still in position, the earthing is removed and then the charged rod is
also removed.
▪ Negative charges distribute themselves all over the metal cap, plate and gold leaf. The leaf
diverges again due to presence of like charges at the plate and the leaf.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

USES OR APPLICATIONS OF A GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE:

(i) To detect the presence of charge on a body:

▪ Bring the body to be tested near the cap of an uncharged gold leaf electroscope.
▪ If the leaf diverges, then the body has a charge.
▪ If the leaf remains unchanged, then the body has no charge (neutral).

(ii) To test the sign or nature of charge on a body:

▪ Bring the body to be tested near the cap of a charged gold leaf electroscope.
▪ If the leaf divergence increases, then the body has a charge similar to that on the
electroscope.
▪ If the leaf collapses (decrease in divergence), then the body either has a charge opposite to
that on the electroscope or the body is neutral. In this case, we cannot conclude. But the G.L.E
is discharged by touching its cap with a finger (earthing) and then given a charge opposite to
the one it had previously and the experiment is repeated. If still the leaf collapses, then the
body is neutral.

NOTE:
Increase in divergence is the only sure way of testing for sign of charge on the gold leaf
electroscope.

Charge on G. L. E Charge on a body Effect of divergence of the leaf.

+ − 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒
+ + 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒
− − 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒
− + 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒
+ 𝑁𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒

(iii) To identify whether a body is an insulator or conductor:

▪ Bring a body to be tested in contact with the cap of a positively charged gold leaf
electroscope.
▪ If the leaf collapses suddenly/immediately, then the body is a good conductor e.g. copper
▪ If the leaf collapses gradually/slowly, then the bod is a semi-conductor e.g. silicon.
▪ If there is no change in divergence of the leaf, then the body is an insulator.

(iv) To test the magnitude of charge on the body:

▪ Two bodies of different sizes are similarly charged simultaneously.
▪ Each body is brought near the cap of the uncharged gold leaf electroscope one at a time.
▪ It is observed that a smaller body causes a smaller divergence of the leaf and the bigger body
cause a greater divergence of the leaf.

(v) To compare and measure potentials:

▪ Two bodies are similarly charged simultaneously.
▪ Each body is brought in contact with the cap of a gold leaf electroscope one at a time.
▪ The divergences of the gold leaf in the two cases are noted and compared.
▪ The body which causes more divergence is at a higher potential than the other one.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Precautions taken when carrying out electrostatic experiments:

• The experiments should be carried out on a dry. This because moisture/water conducts
electricity thus giving out inaccurate values.
• The plate and the cap of a gold leaf electroscope should always be kept clean and dry.
• The apparatus used must be insulated.
• Accidental touches from hands and clothes should be avoided.

Sample questions:
1. A charged rod was brought close to the cap of a negatively charged electroscope. It is
observed that the leaf divergence increased as the rod was moved closer to the cap. Identify
the charges on the rod.
A. Positive
B. Positive and negative
C. Negative
D. No charge.

2. State and explain the observation on the leaf of a positively charged electroscope when a
negatively charged rod is brought close to its cap as shown below.

Observation: The leaf collapses.

Explanation: When a negatively charged rod was brought near the cap of the electroscope, it
induced positive charges at the cap and repelled negative charges down to the plate and the gold
leaf leading to neutralization of the positive charges thus the gold leaf collapses.

ELECTROPHORUS
This is a metal disk with an insulated handle placed on an insulating sheet previously charged by
rubbing.
An electrophorus is used to produce unlimited charges by induction.

𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄
𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

QN: Briefly describe how an electrophorus produces a positive charge.

• An insulating sheet is given a negative charge by rubbing.
• A positive charge is induced on the lower part of the metal disc and a negative charge is
repelled to the upper part.
• The upper part of the metal disc is earthed by touching it with a finger to remove the
negative charges.
• Therefore, the metal disc is left with a net positive charge.

PROOF PLANE:
This is a device used to transfer charge from one conductor to another.
It is the upper part of the electrophorus.

𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄

DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGE ON A CONDUCTOR

The distribution of charge on the surface of a conductor depends on the shape of that conductor.
Charge is more concentrated at pointed edges of a conductor thus, there is a high surface charge
density at sharp points.
Definition:
Surface charge density is the quantity of charge per unit area of the surface of a
conductor.

Charge distribution over surfaces of conductors of different shapes:

(a) Spherical conductor (b) Rectangular conductor
+ + +
+ +++ + + + + +++++
+ ++ +
+ + ++
+ + + +
+ + +++ ++ ++
+ + ++ + + + + ++++

Charges are evenly distributed Charges concentrate at sharp points

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

+ +
+
+ + + +
+ ++++ +
+++ +
+ + ++ + +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ +

Charges reside outside on the hollow

Charges concentrate at the sharp point conductor.

NOTE:
In a hollow conductor charges always reside outside the conductor. This was experimented by
Faraday.

FARADAY’S ICE-PAIL EXPERIMENT

(An experiment to shoe charge distribution in a hollow conductor)
▪ Place an uncharged metal ice pail on the uncharged gold leaf electroscope.
▪ Suspend a positively charged metal sphere on a thread and lower it into the pail without
touching the pail.
Observation: The gold leaf diverges indicating that charge has been induced on the outside of
the pail.

𝑰𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒊𝒍
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆

▪ Move the metal sphere in different positions inside the pail without touching the pail.
Observation: The divergence of the gold leaf does not change and when the metal sphere is
completely removed from the pail and tested, it had all its charge.

▪ The metal sphere is again lowered in the pail and allowed to touch the bottom of the pail.
Observation: There is no change in divergence of the leaf but when the metal sphere is
completely removed from the pail and tested, it had no charge.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Conclusion:
▪ When the positively charged metal sphere touches the inside of the pail, the induced negative
charges in the inside part of the pail neutralize the positive charge on the ball hence the ball
remains with no charge.
▪ The net charge on the hollow conductor reside outside. This shows that there is no charge
residing inside a charged hollow conductor.

Example:
1.

𝑷
The figure above shows a negatively charged ball, B inside a metal conductor, P.
(a) Describe the distribution of charge on the metal conductor.
(i) Before B touches P
Positive charges are induced on the inside part of conductor, P and negative charges are to the
outside part of conductor, P.

(ii) After B touching P

The negative charges on the ball, B neutralize the positive charges on the inside part of the
conductor, P. therefore, conductor, P remains with no charge inside.

(b) After touching conductor, P, the ball is transferred to a positively charged electroscope and
tested for its charge. State and explain what was observed.
There was no change in divergence of the gold leaf because the ball, B had lost its charge due
to neutralization when it touched conductor, P.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

ACTION AT SHARP POINTS

• The sharp points of a conductor have a high charge density which creates a strong electric
field.
• The strong electric field ionizes the air around the sharp points forming positive and negative
ions.
• Ions which have the same charge as that on the sharp points are repelled away and ions
which have an opposite charge to that on the sharp points are attracted towards the sharp
points resulting into neutralization of charge hence corona discharge.

Definition:
Corona discharge (charge leakage) is the process by which a pointed conductor
apparently loses its charge.
NOTE:
The repelled ions from the sharp points form an electric wind which can blow a candle
flame as shown below.
𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

+ − +
+
++++++ − +
+ +
++ + ++ −
+
+ 𝑪𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒂𝒘𝒂𝒚
+ − + 𝒃𝒚 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅

Sample question:
A highly charged positive sharp point is brought closer to a Bunsen burner flame.
(i) State your observation.
The flame is brown away from the sharp points.

(ii) Explain your observation.

Due to high charge density around the sharp point, the air around the sharp point is
ionized forming positive and negative ions. Negative ions are attracted to the sharp
point and positive ions are repelled away from the sharp point forming an electric wind
which blows the candle flame.

EXERCISE:
1. What is meant by action at sharp points
2. Describe how corona discharge occurs at sharp points.

Application of action at sharp points (corona discharge):

▪ Used in a lightning conductor
▪ Used in electrostatic generators e.g Van de Graaff generator
▪ Used in electrostatic photocopying machines.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

LIGHTNING
Lightning is a gigantic (very large) discharge between charges in clouds and the earth or between
charges in the atmosphere and the earth.
❖ Lightening occurs when strong negative charges in the clouds attract positive charges
from the grounds and tall buildings. Due to neutralization of charges, a strong spark is
developed which is seen as lightening.
NOTE:
In order to minimize the effects of lightning, a lightening conductor is used to minimize
the build-up of both charges at the clouds and the buildings by neutralizing them.

LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR OR ARRESTOR:

This is a device used to safe guard tall buildings from being struck/destroyed by lightning.
A lightning conductor consists of;
▪ Spikes; placed on top of a building.
▪ Copper strip; fixed to the ground and on the walls of the building from the spikes.
▪ Copper plate; buried under the ground.

How a lightning conductor works:

𝑵𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒅

𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑵𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑺𝒑𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔

𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒑

𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ When a negatively charged cloud passes over the lightning conductor, it induces positive charges
on the spikes and repels negative charges to the ground through the copper strip.
▪ Due to the high charge density on the spikes, the air around the spikes is ionized forming positive
and negative ions.
▪ Positive ions are repelled to the cloud and neutralize some of the negative charges on the cloud.
▪ Negative ions are attracted to the spikes and neutralize some of the positive charges at the spikes.
▪ This charge leakage on the clouds and building reduces the chances of lightning to occur.

Sample questions:
1. Explain why strips of a lightning conductor are made of thick copper wires.
➢ This is because copper is one of the best good conductors of electricity so it can easily
allow the negatives charges (electrons) to pass through it to the ground.
➢ When the copper wire is thick, it offers a low resistance to the flow of electrons through it.

2. Explain why it’s not advisable to touch the copper strip of a lightning conductor when it is
raining.
When a negatively charged cloud passes over a lightning conductor, negative charges
(electrons) are repelled to the ground through the copper strip. These moving electrons is
electricity which can cause electric shocks to a person touching the copper strip.

3. Explain why the handle of an umbrella is made from a plastic material.

During a lightning, electric discharge (electricity) can shock a person holding an
umbrella. Since a plastic material is an insulator, it does not allow electric discharge from
lightning to reach the hands of the person holding the umbrella.

4. Explain why a person is not advised to take shelter under a tree when it is raining.
When its raining, lightning always strike/destroy tall objects. Most trees are tall and have
pointed tips therefore, therefore there is a high charge density at these sharp points.
As lightning strikes the tall tree, it can also strike the person under it.

ELECTRIC FIELD
This is the region around an electric charge where an electric force is experienced.
Electric fields are represented by electric field lines.
Definition:
An electric field line is a line drawn at any point in an electric field to show the direction
of an electric force at that point.

Properties of electric field lines:

▪ They move from positive charge to negative charge.
▪ They do not cross each other.
▪ They repel one another side ways.
▪ They are in a state of tension.
▪ The number of electric field lines at certain point indicates the strength of the electric field.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

ELECTRIC PATTERNS:
(a) Isolated positive charge; (b) Isolated negative charge;

(c) Two unlike charges; (d) Two plates of unlike charges;

(e) Two unlike charges;

𝐗 𝐗

X is a neutral point
Definition:
A neutral point is a point in an electric field where the net electric force is zero.
(f) A positive charge near a negative (g) A negative charge near a positive
plate; plate;

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(h) Two plates of like charges;

𝐗 𝐗

Applications of electrostatic physics:

▪ Used in a lightning conductor
▪ Used in electrostatic generators e.g. Van de Graaff generator
▪ Used in electrostatic photocopying machines.
▪ Used in laser printers.
▪ Used in electrostatic precipitators for cleaning air.

EXERCISE:
1. (a) Explain why a pen rubbed with a piece of cloth attracts small pieces of places.
(b) Why is it difficult to perform electrostatic experiments under damp conditions?
(c) Explain why a handle of a proof plane is made of an insulator.
(d) State three applications of electrostatic physics in the real world.

2. (a)sketch electric field patterns for the following.

(i) Two negative charges close to each other.
(ii) A positively charged conducting spheres.
(iii) Two oppositely charged parallel plates
(b) Explain how an insulator gets charged by rubbing.
(c) Describe how lightning conductors safe guard tall buildings from being destroyed by
lightning.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Current electricity is the flow of charged particles from one point to another e.g. electrons.
Electrical devices which use electricity are called electrical appliances.
Sources of electricity/emf include;
• Batteries
• Generators
• Solar panels/solar energy.
• Wind mills

TERMS USED IN ELECTRICITY;

CHARGE(Q):
This is the quantity of electricity which passes any point in a conductor.
The SI unit of charge is a coulomb (C).

ELECTRIC CURRENT (I):

Charges move from one point to another in a given time. This rate of flow is called electric current.
Definition:
Electric current is the rate of flow of charge in a conductor.
The SI unit of current is the ampere (A).
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑸)
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑰) =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝒕)

𝑸
𝑰=
𝒕
Note:
▪ The time should always be in seconds.
▪ Current is measured by an instrument called an ammeter.

Definition:
An ampere is the constant current when a charge of 1C flows in a conductor in one second.
OR
An ampere is current which when flowing in two straight parallel wires of infinite length placed one
meter apart in a vacuum produce a force of 2 × 10−7 𝑁𝑚−1 on each of the wires.

But also 𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕 implying that 𝟏𝑪 = 𝟏𝑨 × 𝟏𝒔

Definition:
A coulomb is the quantity of charge which passes any point of a conductor in one second when a
current of one ampere is flowing in the conductor.

Other units of current include;

1𝑚𝐴 = 1 × 10−3 𝐴
1𝜇𝐴 = 1 × 10−6 𝐴

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
1. A current of 6A flows for 2 hours in a circuit. Calculate the quantity of electricity that flows in
this time.
𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕
𝑸 = 𝟔 × 𝟐 × 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑸 = 𝟒𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎C
2. A charge of 2550C flows past a point in a circuit in 25minutes. Find the current flowing.
𝑸 = 𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟎𝑪, 𝒕 = 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔 = 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒔
𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕
𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟎 = 𝐈 × 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟎
𝐈=
𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝐈 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝐀
3. A current of 6mA flows for 2 hours in a circuit. Find the quantity of charge.
𝟔
𝑸 =? , 𝒕 = 𝟐 𝒉𝒓𝒔 = 𝟐 × 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒔, 𝑰 = 𝟔𝒎𝑨 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝑨
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔 × 𝟕𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑸 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟐C
4. A charge of 20 kC crosses two sections of a conductor in 1minute. Find the current through
the conductor.
𝑸 = 𝟐𝟎𝒌𝑪 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑪, 𝒕 = 𝟏𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏 × 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎𝒔
𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝐈 × 𝟔𝟎
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝐈=
𝟔𝟎
𝐈 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝐀

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (p.d):

This is the work done in joules when one coulomb of charge moves from one point to another in a
circuit.
If two points in a conductor are of different electric potentials, then a charge can move from one
point to another and work is said to be done. Potential difference is sometimes referred to as voltage.
The instrument used to measure potential difference is a voltmeter.

The SI unit of potential difference is the Volt (V).

Definition:
A volt is the potential difference between two points in a circuit when one joule of work is done to
move one coulomb of charge from one point to another.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf):

This is the work done in joules when one coulomb of charge moves from one point to another in a
circuit in a cell is connected.
The SI unit of emf is the Volt (V).
Sources of emf include; cells, generators, solar cells etc.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE (R):

This is the opposition to flow of current in a conductor.
The SI unit of resistance is an ohm (Ω).
Definition:
An Ohm is the resistance of a conductor in which a current of 1A flows when a potential
difference of one volt is applied across its ends.

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL (r):

This is the opposition to flow of current within the cell.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR:

(i) Length:
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length of a conductor (𝑅 ∝ 𝐿).
Resistance of a conductor increases when its length increase. Therefore, the shorter the wire, the
lower the resistance and the longer the wire, the higher the resistance.
(ii) Cross-sectional area:
1
The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. (𝑅 ∝ 𝐴).
Thin wires have a high resistance while thicker wires have a low resistance.
(iii)Temperature:
The resistance of a pure metals like copper increase when their temperatures increase.
(iv) Nature of conductor:
Good conductors like metals have a lower resistance compared to the bad conductors.
Note; The first two factors can be combined as
𝑳
𝑹∝
𝑨
𝑳
𝑹=𝝆
𝑨
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝝆 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝛀𝒎
Examples:
1. A conductor of length 20m has a cross sectional area of 2 × 10−4 𝑚2. Its resistance is 0.6Ω. Find
the resistivity of the conductor.
𝑳
𝑹=𝝆
𝑨
𝟐𝟎
𝟎. 𝟔 = 𝝆 ×
𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
𝝆=
𝟐𝟎
𝝆 = 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝛀𝒎
2. A wire of cross-sectional area of 0.002𝑚2 and length 2m has its resistivity as 1.0 𝑥10−7 Ω𝑚.
What is its resistance?
𝑳
𝑹=𝝆
𝑨
𝟐
𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝛀
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT:
This is the path followed by current.
Types of circuits include;
▪ Open circuit: This a circuit in which current is not flowing to the external circuit.
𝑺𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝑪𝒆𝒍𝒍

▪ Closed circuit: This is a circuit in which current is flowing to the external circuit.

𝑪𝒆𝒍𝒍

Note:
A short circuit is a low resistance path for the flow of current.
It occurs when two points in a circuit are directly connected so that current flows through a shorter
distance. This increases the flow of current hence damaging the circuit.

ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS IN ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS.

SYMBOL NAME SYMBOL NAME

Standard resistor
G Galvanometer
A
Variable resistor Alternating current
(Rheostat) supply

Switch Bulbs/lamps

Cell Capacitor

Diode Crossing wires

Battery/accumulator Connected wires

A Ammeter V Voltmeter
A A
𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4
 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

OHM’S LAW
It states that current flowing through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across its ends provided temperature and other physical conditions are remain constant.
𝒑. 𝒅 ∝ 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑽∝𝑰
𝑽 = 𝑹𝑰

𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
Where R-resistance of conductor.
V-potential difference.
I-current.
Examples:
1. Calculate the potential difference across a 10Ω resistor carrying a current of 2A.
𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑
𝐕 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎
𝐕 = 𝟐𝟎𝐕

2. The voltage across a 2Ω resistor is 4V. What is the current flowing?

𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑
𝟒= 𝐈×𝟐
𝟒
𝐈=
𝟐
𝐈 = 𝟐𝐀
3. Find the potential difference across a conductor of resistance 2Ω if the charge of 180C flows for
2 minutes.
𝐑 = 𝟐Ω, 𝐐 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝐂, 𝐭 = 𝟐𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐬 = 𝟐 × 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝐬
𝐐 𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑
𝐁𝐮𝐭 𝐈 =
𝐭 𝐕 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟐
𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝐕 = 𝟑𝐕
𝐈=
𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝐈 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝐀

4. What voltage is needed to make a current of 0.4A flow through when the appliance has
resistance of 20Ω?
𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑
𝐕 = 𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝟐𝟎
𝐕 = 𝟖𝐕
5. A current of 4A flows through an electric kettle when the p.d. across it is 8V. Find the
resistance.
𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑
𝟖=𝟒×𝐑
𝟖
𝐑=
𝟒
𝐑 = 𝟐Ω

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Experiment to verify ohm’s law.

K 𝑪𝒆𝒍𝒍
A

𝑹𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 A

▪ The circuit is connected as shown above.

▪ Switch K is closed and the current flows through the circuit.
▪ Read and record the ammeter and voltmeter readings I and V respectively.
▪ The rheostat is adjusted to obtain several values of I and V and the results are tabulated.
▪ Plot a graph of V against I.

V(V)

I(A)
▪ A straight line is obtained showing that potential difference, V is directly proportional to current, I.

Limitations of ohm’s law:

• The law only applies when the physical conditions of a conductor are constant e.g. temperature.
• The law doesn’t apply to semiconductors e.g. diodes and electrolytes.

OHMIC AND NON OHMIC CONDUCTORS

Ohmic conductors:
These are conductors which obey ohm’s law.
They include; metals e.g. copper, iron. Zinc etc.
When a graph of I against V is plotted, a straight line is obtained.

Non-ohmic conductors:

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

These are conductors which do not obey ohm’s law.

They include; filament lamps, diodes, neon gas etc.
When a graph of I against V is plotted, a non-straight line is obtained.

Graphs of current against voltage for different conductors (characteristic curves):

Ohmic conductor; Filament lamp;

e.g. copper wire, iron, zinc.
I(A)
I(A)

V(V) V(V)
Semi-conductor diode; Vacuum or Thermionic diode;

I(A) I(A)

V(V) V(V)
Thermistor or Carbon resistor; Electrolyte;
e.g. dilute sulphuric acid
I(A)
I(A)

V(V)
V(V)
Neon gas;

I(A)

V(V)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

CIRCUITS CONNECTION

Ammeter:
This is an electrical device used to measure current in a physics laboratory.
An ammeter has a very low resistance i.e. 𝟎Ω

QN: Why is an ammeter constructed with a low resistance.

To allow all the current to be accurately measured without being affected by the resistance.
The low resistance ensures that all the current to be measured passes through the ammeter
without being opposed/resisted.

The ammeter is always connected in series i.e. it is placed in the path of current.

Ammeter:
This is an electrical device used to measure potential difference or voltage in a physics laboratory.
A voltmeter has a very high resistance.

QN: Why is a voltmeter constructed with a very high resistance.

It has a very high resistance so as to draw a very low current from the source thus not
affecting the total current in the circuit.

The voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the source of current.

V
OR
V

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

RESISTORS
A resistor is a device which opposes the flow of current in a circuit.
In a circuit, resistors are either arranged in series or in parallel.

Types of resistors:
(i) Standard resistors:
These are resistors whose resistances are known e.g. 2Ω, 5Ω, 10Ω etc.

(ii) Variable resistors/Rheostats:

These are resistors whose resistances can be varied by moving a slider.
The amount of current in the circuit can be varied by adjusting the rheostat.

Series arrangement of resistors:

Resistors are said to be in series if they are connected end to end so that the same current passes
through them.
Note: In series;
▪ The same amount of current flows through each resistor.
▪ P.d or voltage across each resistor is different.
▪ Total voltage is equal to sum of individual voltages across each resistor.

Consider three resistors 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑹𝟑 connected in series across a potential difference, V.

𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

𝑽
𝑽 = 𝑽 𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 , 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰𝑹𝟐 , 𝑽𝟑 = 𝑰𝑹𝟑
𝑰𝑹 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟑
𝑰𝑹 = 𝑰(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 )
𝑰𝑹 𝑰(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 )
=
𝑰 𝑰

𝐑 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑 Effective resistance

Note:
All electrical appliances e.g. lamps, bulbs etc. connected in series have the same amount of current
flowing through them.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Parallel arrangement of resistors:

Resistors are said to be in parallel if they are connected side by side with their adjacent ends joined
together at a common point.
Note: In parallel;
▪ P.d across each resistor is the same.
▪ Current flow in the circuit splits and therefore, current through each resistor is different.
▪ Total current is equal to sum of individual currents through each resistor.

Consider three resistors 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑹𝟑 connected in parallel across a potential difference, V.

𝑰𝟏
𝑹𝟏

𝑰𝟐
𝑹𝟐

𝑰𝟑
𝑰 𝑹𝟑

𝑰 = 𝑰 𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑰 = , 𝑰𝟏 = , 𝑰𝟐 = , 𝑰𝟑 =
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
= + +
𝑹 𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑽 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑽( + + )
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑏𝑦 𝑽 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + Where R is Effective resistance
𝑹 𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

Note:
For two resistors connected in parallel;
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
=
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹=
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

Therefore, effective resistance,

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕
𝑹=
𝑺𝒖𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
Find the effective resistance in the following diagrams.
(i) 𝐈
𝟏𝟎𝛀 𝟏𝟏𝛀
𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟏𝟏
𝑹 = 𝟐𝟏𝛀

(ii)
𝟒𝛀 𝟐𝛀
𝐈

𝟑𝛀
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛;
𝑹 𝒔 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹𝒔 = 𝟒 + 𝟐 𝑹 𝑹𝒔 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝒔 = 𝟔𝛀 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹 𝟔 𝟑
𝟏 𝟑 𝟔
= , 𝑹=
𝑹 𝟔 𝟑
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑹 = 𝟐𝛀

(iii)
𝟑𝛀
𝐈
𝟒𝛀
𝟐𝛀

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛;

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹 = 𝑹𝒑 + 𝑹𝟑
= +
𝑹 𝒑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟐 + 𝟒
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑹 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝛀
= +
𝑹𝒑 𝟑 𝟐
𝟏 𝟓 𝟔
= , 𝑹𝒑 =
𝑹𝒑 𝟔 𝟓
𝑹𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝛀
OR
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑹 = + 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝟑×𝟐
𝑹= +𝟒
𝟑+𝟐
𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟐 + 𝟒
𝑹 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝛀

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(iv)
𝟒𝛀

𝐈
𝟓𝛀 𝟑𝛀

𝟐𝟎𝛀

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛;

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹 = 𝑹𝒑 + 𝑹𝟑
= + +
𝑹 𝒑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹=𝟐+𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑹 = 𝟓𝛀
= + +
𝑹𝒑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟐𝟎
𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎
= , 𝑹𝒑 =
𝑹𝒑 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟎
𝑹𝒑 = 𝟐𝛀
(v)
𝟑𝛀 𝟒𝛀
𝐈
𝟑𝛀
𝟕𝛀

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝑹𝒔 𝑹𝟐

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑹 = + 𝑹𝟑
𝑹 𝒔 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒔 + 𝑹 𝟐
𝑹𝒔 = 𝟑 + 𝟒 𝟕×𝟕
𝑹𝒔 = 𝟕𝛀 𝑹= +𝟑
𝟕+𝟕
𝑹 = 𝟑. 𝟓 + 𝟑
𝑹 = 𝟔. 𝟓𝛀

(vi) 𝐈

𝟑𝟎𝛀 𝟐𝟎𝛀

𝟏𝟎𝛀

𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹 𝟑
𝑹 = 𝟑𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎
𝑹 = 𝟔𝟎𝛀

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(vii)
𝟔𝛀
I

𝟑𝛀

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹=
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝟔×𝟑
𝑹=
𝟔+𝟑
𝑹 = 𝟐𝛀
(viii)
𝟏𝛀 𝟑𝛀 𝟏𝟐𝛀

𝟔𝛀 𝟒𝛀

𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟓
𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + +
𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟓
𝟑 × 𝟔 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟐
𝑹=𝟏+ +
𝟑 + 𝟔 𝟒 + 𝟏𝟐
𝑹=𝟏+𝟐+𝟑
𝑹 = 𝟔𝛀
EXERCISE:
Find the effective resistance in the following diagrams.
1. 2.
𝑰
𝟐𝛀 𝟒𝛀
𝟓𝟎𝛀 𝟐𝟎𝛀
𝑰
𝟏𝛀 𝟐𝟓𝛀

𝟑𝟎𝛀 𝟏𝟎𝛀
𝟐𝛀 𝟏𝛀

3. 4.
𝑰 𝟓𝛀 𝟔𝛀 𝟏𝛀

𝟑𝛀 𝟐𝛀 𝟐𝛀 𝟒𝛀 𝟐𝛀

𝟒𝛀
𝟏𝛀

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

CONNECTION OF CELLS:
Cells provide us with emfs and these emfs can be arranged in series or in parallel.

Series arrangement of cells:

Cells are said to be in series if the positive terminal of one cell is connected to negative terminal of
another cell.
The total emf of the cells is equal to the sum of individual emfs.

Consider three cells each of emf, E and internal resistance, r connected in series as shown below.

𝐄𝟏 , 𝐫𝟏 𝐄𝟐 , 𝐫𝟐 𝐄𝟑 , 𝐫𝟑
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒎𝒇, 𝑬 = 𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐 + 𝐄𝟑
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒓 = 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 + 𝐫𝟑

Parallel arrangement of cells:

Cells are said to be in parallel if the positive terminals of the cells are connected to one point and the
negative terminals of cells are connected to another point.
The total emf is equal to one of the emfs of the cell.

Consider three cells each of emf, E and internal resistance, r connected in series as shown below.
𝐄𝟏 , 𝐫𝟏

𝐄𝟐 , 𝐫𝟐

𝐄𝟑 , 𝐫𝟑

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒎𝒇,
𝑬 = 𝐄𝟏 = 𝐄𝟐 = 𝐄𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, = + +
𝒓 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟑
Note:
Consider a cell of emf, E and internal resistance, r connected in series to a standard resistor, R.
𝑬, 𝐫

𝐈
𝑹

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍/𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = (𝐑 + 𝐫) 𝑬 = 𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒓
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒐𝒉𝒎′ 𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒘 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝐄 = 𝐈(𝐑 + 𝐫)
𝑬 = 𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒓 Terminal p.d lost p.d due to internal resistance

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Definition:
Terminal p.d is the voltage across the terminals of a cell when current is being delivered to an
external circuit.
QN: Explain why terminal p.d is less than the actual emf of a cell.
Terminal p.d is always less than the emf because of the opposition to flow of current within a cell i.e.
internal resistance.

EXAMPLES:
1. Find the total emf and total internal resistance in the following circuits if each cell has an emf of
1.5V and internal resistance of 1Ω
(i)

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐦𝐟, 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞,

𝑬 = 𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐 + 𝐄𝟑 𝒓 = 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 + 𝐫𝟑 + 𝐫𝟒
𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒓=𝟏+𝟏+𝟏+𝟏
𝑬 = 𝟔𝑽 𝒓 = 𝟒Ω
(ii)

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐦𝐟, 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞,

𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟓 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒓 = [ + + ] + 𝐫𝟒 + 𝐫𝟓 + 𝐫𝟔
𝑬 = 𝟔𝑽 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒓=[ + + ]+𝟏+𝟏+𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒓 = 𝟔Ω

2. Find the ammeter reading in the circuit diagram below.

𝟒. 𝟓𝑽, 𝟎. 𝟓Ω

𝟒. 𝟓𝑽, 𝟎. 𝟓Ω

𝟐Ω
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑬 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝑽 𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)
𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟒. 𝟓 = 𝑰(𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝒓 =
𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟒. 𝟓 = 𝑰(𝟐. 𝟐𝟓)
𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓Ω 𝟒. 𝟓
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑹 = 𝟐Ω 𝑰=
𝟐. 𝟐𝟓
𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑰 = 𝟐𝑨

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

3. Eight identical cells each of emf 1.5V and internal resistance 0.1Ω are connected in a circuit as
shown below. Find the current flowing.

𝟐Ω
𝟏Ω
𝟑Ω

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟖 = 𝟏𝟐𝑽 𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟖 𝟏𝟐 = 𝑰(𝟐. 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟖)
𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟖Ω 𝟏𝟐 = 𝑰(𝟑)
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝟐
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑹 = + 𝑹𝟑 𝑰=
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝟑
𝟐×𝟑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑰 = 𝟒𝑨
𝑹= +𝟏
𝟐+𝟑
𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟐 + 𝟏
𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟐Ω

4. A battery of 4 cells each of emf 1.5V and negligible internal resistance are connected in the
circuit with 3 bulbs each of resistance 0.8Ω. Calculate the current flowing in the circuit.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟒 = 𝟔𝑽 𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝒓 = 𝟎Ω 𝟔 = 𝑰(𝟏. 𝟐 + 𝟎)
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝟔 = 𝑰(𝟏. 𝟐)
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑹 = + 𝑹𝟑 𝟔
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑰=
𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟎. 𝟖 𝟏. 𝟐
𝑹= + 𝟎. 𝟖 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑰 = 𝟓𝑨
𝟎. 𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟖
𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟖
𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟐Ω

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL

Method 1: Using a voltmeter and standard resistor

▪ Measure the emf, E of the cell by connecting the terminals of the cell to the voltmeter.
▪ Connect a cell in series with a switch, K and a standard resistor, R.
▪ Connect a voltmeter across the standard resistor as shown below.
𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐊

𝐕
▪ Switch, K is then closed and the voltmeter reading V is noted and recorded.
𝑹(𝑬−𝑽)
▪ The internal resistance, r is got from 𝒓 = 𝑬 = 𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒓
𝑽
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑂ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠, 𝑙𝑎𝑤
𝑽
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑰 =
𝑹
𝑽
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑬 = 𝑽 + 𝒓
𝑹
𝑹(𝑬 − 𝑽)
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝒓 =
𝑽

Method 2: Using a voltmeter, ammeter and standard resistor

▪ Measure the emf, E of the cell by connecting the terminals of the cell to the voltmeter.
▪ Connect a cell in series with a switch, K, an ammeter, A and a standard resistor, R.
▪ Connect a voltmeter across the standard resistor as shown below.
𝐂𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐊

▪ Switch, K is then closed and the ammeter and voltmeter readings I and V are noted and
recorded.
𝑬−𝑽
▪ The internal resistance, r is got from 𝒓 = 𝑬 = 𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒓
𝑰
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑂ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠, 𝑙𝑎𝑤
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑬 = 𝑽 + 𝑰𝒓
𝑬−𝑽
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝒓 =
𝑰

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER

ELECTRICAL ENERGY:
Electrical energy is the work done in moving an electric charge by an electric force.
The SI unit of electrical energy is the Joule (J)
This electrical energy is accompanied with a rise in temperature so this energy may be given out as
heat energy.
This explains why wires become hot when electricity passes through them.

QN: Explain electrical wires (metals) heat up when electricity passes through them.
As current is switched on, electrons start moving through the wire. Due to resistance of the
wire, the electrons are opposed from moving and they collide with the molecules of the wire.
They lose some of their kinetic energy to the molecules of the wire which causes a rise in
temperature (heat energy).

Simple derivations for work done

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑊 = 𝑄𝑉
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑄 = It

𝑾 = 𝑽𝑰𝒕 (1)

𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑂ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 (𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1)

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑊 = 𝐼𝑅 × 𝐼 × 𝑡

𝑾 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕

𝑉
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑂ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 ⟹ 𝐼 = (𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1)
𝑅
𝑉
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑊 = 𝑉 × × 𝑡
𝑅

𝑽𝟐
𝑾= 𝒕
𝑹

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

ELECTRICAL POWER:
This is the rate of doing work on a charged particle.
Th SI unit of electrical power is the Watt (W).

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝑃=
𝑡

𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽 (2)

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑂ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 (𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2)

𝑃 = 𝐼 × 𝐼𝑅

𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹

𝑉
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑂ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 ⟹ 𝐼 = (𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2)
𝑅
𝑉
𝑃 = ×𝑉
𝑅

𝑽𝟐
𝑷=
𝑹
EXAMPLES:
1. How much energy is consumed by a 0.5kW electrical kettle in 30 minutes?
𝑃 = 0.5𝑘𝑊 = 0.5 × 1000 𝑾 = 𝑽𝑰𝒕
𝑷 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑾 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑾
𝑡 = 30 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 30 × 60 𝑾 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝒕 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒔 𝑾 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐉

2. How much energy is consumed by a 60W lamp in 10 hours?

𝑷 = 𝟔𝟎𝑾 𝑾 = 𝑽𝑰𝒕
𝑡 = 10 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 = 10 × 3600 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽 = 𝟔𝟎𝑾
𝒕 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒔 𝑾 = 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑾 = 𝟐, 𝟏𝟔𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐉

CALCULATIONS IN ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Steps and tips taken;
▪ Find the total or effective resistance in the circuit.
▪ When finding current through a resistor in parallel, first find the potential difference
(voltage) across the parallel connection.
▪ Power dissipated in any resistor is 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
▪ Power expended in the whole circuit is 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 (𝑹 + 𝒓) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑹 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXAMPLES:
1. In the diagram below, a battery of emf 12V and internal resistance 0.6Ω is connected to 3
resistors. 12V,𝟎. 𝟔𝛀

𝟒𝛀
𝟏𝛀
𝟔𝛀

Calculate;
(i) Current through the circuit.
(ii) Current through the 4Ω and 6Ω resistor.
(iii) Power dissipated in the 4Ω resistor.
(iv) Power expended in the circuit.

𝑬 = 𝟏𝟐𝑽 𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟔Ω (ii)
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝. 𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹𝒑
𝐼𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙, 𝑹𝒑 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑽 = 𝟑 × 𝟐. 𝟒
𝟒×𝟔 𝑽 = 𝟕. 𝟐𝑽
𝑹𝒑 =
𝟒+𝟔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 4Ω 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑹𝒑 = 𝟐. 𝟒Ω 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑹 = 𝟏 + 𝑹𝒑 𝟕. 𝟐 = 𝑰 × 𝟒
𝑹 = 𝟏 + 𝟐. 𝟒 𝟕. 𝟐
𝑰=
𝑹 = 𝟑. 𝟒Ω 𝟒
(i) 𝑰 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝑨
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 6Ω 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓) 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
𝟏𝟐 = 𝑰(𝟑. 𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟔) 𝟕. 𝟐 = 𝑰 × 𝟔
𝟏𝟐 = 𝑰 × 𝟒 𝟕. 𝟐
𝑰=
𝟏𝟐 𝟔
𝑰= 𝑰 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝑨
𝟒
𝑰 = 𝟑𝑨

(iii) (iv)
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 4Ω 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 4Ω 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 (𝑹 + 𝒓)
𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟐 × 𝟒 𝑷 = 𝟑𝟐 × (𝟑. 𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟔)
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟗𝟔𝑾 𝑷=𝟗×𝟒
𝑷 = 𝟑𝟔𝑾

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. In the diagram below, two cells of emf 1.5V and internal resistance of 1Ω each are connected to
a network of resistors. 1.5V,𝟏𝛀

1.5V,𝟏𝛀
𝟒𝛀
𝟑𝛀 𝟔𝛀

(i) What will be the ammeter reading when switch K is closed?

(ii) Calculate the current through the 3Ω resistor.
(iii) Calculate power dissipated in 3Ω resistor.
(iv) Calculate power developed in 4Ω resistor.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝑽 (𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙) (ii)

𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝑝. 𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝒓 =
𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹𝒑
𝟏×𝟏 𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑 × 𝟐
𝒓= = 𝟎. 𝟓Ω
𝟏+𝟏 𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝑽
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 3Ω 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
𝐼𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙, 𝑹𝒑 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔 = 𝑰 × 𝟑
𝟑×𝟔 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔
𝑹𝒑 = 𝑰=
𝟑+𝟔 𝟑
𝑹𝒑 = 𝟐Ω 𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝑨
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑹 = 𝟒 + 𝑹𝒑
(iii)
𝑹=𝟒+𝟐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 3Ω 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑹 = 𝟔Ω
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
(i)
𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟐 × 𝟑
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟖𝑾
𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)
𝟏. 𝟓 = 𝑰(𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟓)
(iv)
𝟏. 𝟓 = 𝑰 × 𝟔. 𝟓
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 4Ω 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝟏. 𝟓
𝑰= Since it is in series, the current passing through it is
𝟔. 𝟓 the current through the whole circuit.
𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝑨
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
The ammeter reading will be 0.23A.
𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟐 × 𝟒
𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟐𝑾

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

3. A battery of emf 2V and negligible internal resistance is connected as shown below. Find
the ammeter reading. 2V

𝑨 𝟐𝛀
𝟎. 𝟖𝛀
𝟑𝛀

𝑬 = 𝟐𝑽 𝒓 = 𝟎Ω The ammeter is reading the current through

𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 the 2Ω.
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑝. 𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐼𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙, 𝑹𝒑 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹𝒑
𝟐×𝟑 𝑽 = 𝟏 × 𝟏. 𝟐
𝑹𝒑 =
𝟐+𝟑 𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝑽
𝑹𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟐Ω
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟖 + 𝑹𝒑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 2Ω 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟖 + 𝟏. 𝟐 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
𝑹 = 𝟐Ω 𝟏. 𝟐 = 𝑰 × 𝟐
𝟏. 𝟐
𝑰=
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝟐
𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓) 𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝑨
𝟐 = 𝑰(𝟐 + 𝟎) The ammeter reading is 𝟎. 𝟔𝑨
𝟐=𝑰×𝟐
𝟐
𝑰=
𝟐
𝑰 = 𝟏𝑨
4. A battery of emf 10V and internal resistance 1.0Ω is connected to a system of resistors as
shown below. 10V,1Ω

𝟐. 𝟎𝛀 𝑨

𝑽 𝟐. 𝟓𝛀

𝟔. 𝟎𝛀
(i) Calculate the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
(ii) Find the current through the 2Ω resistor.
(iii) Find the power dissipated in 2Ω resistor.
(iv) Find also the total power expended in the circuit.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎𝑽 𝒓 = 𝟏Ω 𝑝. 𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 Since the voltmeter is connected across the
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 resistors in parallel, it is reading the p.d across
𝐼𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙, 𝑹𝒑 = the parallel connection.
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝟐×𝟔 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹𝒑
𝑹𝒑 =
𝟐+𝟔 𝑽 = 𝟐 × 𝟏. 𝟓
𝑹𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟓Ω 𝑽 = 𝟑𝑽
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟓 + 𝑹𝒑 The voltmeter reading is 3V.
𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟓 (ii)
𝑹 = 𝟒Ω 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 2Ω 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
(i) 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝟑=𝑰×𝟐
Since the ammeter is in series with the battery, 𝟑
𝑰=
it reads the total current through the whole 𝟐
circuit. 𝑰 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝑨
𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓) (iii)
𝟏𝟎 = 𝑰(𝟒 + 𝟏) 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 2Ω 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝟏𝟎 = 𝑰 × 𝟓 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
𝟏𝟎
𝑰= 𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐 × 𝟑
𝟓 𝑷 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝑾
𝑰 = 𝟐𝑨
(iv)
The ammeter reading is 2A
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 (𝑹 + 𝒓)
𝑷 = 𝟐𝟐 × (𝟒 + 𝟏)
𝑷 = 𝟐𝟎𝑾

5. Three resistors are connected as shown in the circuit diagram below.

1.5V,𝟏𝛀

1.5V,𝟏𝛀

𝑨
𝑲𝟏
𝟑𝛀 𝟒𝛀

𝑲𝟐
𝟔𝛀

Calculate;
(i) The ammeter reading when 𝑲𝟏 and 𝑲𝟐 are closed.
(ii) The ammeter reading only if 𝑲𝟏 is closed.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝑽 (𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙) (ii)

𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ only 𝑲𝟏 is closed,
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝒓 =
𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 current only flows through the 3Ω and 2Ω
𝟏×𝟏 resistors
𝒓= = 𝟎. 𝟓Ω
𝟏+𝟏 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
(i) 𝑹=𝟑+𝟒
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑲𝟏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑲𝟐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 , 𝑹 = 𝟕Ω
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝟏. 𝟓 = 𝑰(𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟓)
𝐼𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙, 𝑹𝒑 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝟏. 𝟓 = 𝑰 × 𝟕. 𝟓
𝟑×𝟔 𝟏. 𝟓
𝑹𝒑 = 𝑰=
𝟑+𝟔 𝟕. 𝟓
𝑹𝒑 = 𝟐Ω 𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝑨
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑹 = 𝟒 + 𝑹𝒑 The ammeter reads 0.2A.
𝑹=𝟒+𝟐
𝑹 = 𝟔Ω
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)
𝟏. 𝟓 = 𝑰(𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟓)
𝟏. 𝟓 = 𝑰 × 𝟔. 𝟓
𝟏. 𝟓
𝑰=
𝟔. 𝟓
𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝑨
The ammeter reads 0.23A.

6.
E, r
𝑨

𝟔𝛀 𝑲 𝟐𝛀

𝟒𝛀
In the diagram above, when the switch is open the ammeter reads 2A and when its closed, the
ammeter reads 2.64A. Calculate;
(i) Explain what happens when the switch is left open and then closed.
(ii) The emf E and internal resistance of the battery.
(iii) Rate at which electrical energy is converted to when the switch is open.
(iv) Lost voltage (potential drop) when the switch is open.

(i)
When the switch is left open, current from the battery flows only through the 4Ω and 2Ω resistors
and the 6Ω resistor is left out since its circuit is not complete.
When the switch is closed, current flows through all the resistors.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(ii) Solving equations 1 and 2 simultaneously.

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑬 − 𝟐𝒓 = 𝟏𝟐
−
Current only flows through 4Ω and 2Ω resistors 𝑬 − 𝟐. 𝟔𝟒𝒓 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝟔
and they are in series 𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟒
𝑰 = 𝟐𝑨 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟒
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝒓=
𝟎. 𝟔𝟒
𝑹=𝟒+𝟐 𝒓 = 𝒐. 𝟔Ω
𝑹 = 𝟔Ω
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1, 𝑬 − 𝟐𝒓 = 𝟏𝟐
𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓) 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐𝒓
𝑬 = 𝟐(𝟔 + 𝒓) 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟔
𝑬 = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐𝒓 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟐
𝑬 − 𝟐𝒓 = 𝟏𝟐 (𝟏) 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟐𝑽

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 (iii)

Current only flows through all the resistors and 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑰 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟒𝑨 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 (𝑹 + 𝒓)
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑷 = 𝟐𝟐 × (𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟔)
𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑷 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟒𝑾
𝑹= + 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝟔×𝟒 (iv)
𝑹= +𝟐
𝟔+𝟒 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = 𝑰𝒓
𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟒 + 𝟐 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟔
𝑹 = 𝟒. 𝟒Ω 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝑽
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)
𝑬 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟒(𝟒. 𝟒 + 𝒓)
𝑬 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝟔 + 𝟐. 𝟔𝟒𝒓
𝑬 − 𝟐. 𝟔𝟒𝒓 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝟔 (𝟐)

7. The battery X has an internal resistance of 0.2Ω. When its connected in the circuit below, the
ammeter reads 0.2A.
X

𝑨 𝟏𝟐𝛀
𝟏𝛀
𝟐𝛀 𝟔𝛀
Calculate;
(i) Current through 2Ω resistor.
(ii) Emf X of the battery.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(i) (ii)
𝑝. 𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕
This p.d is the same as p.d across the 12Ω 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐
resistor. 𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟑
𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝑨 𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑨
𝑽 = 𝑰𝟏 𝑹 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕
𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟐 𝑹 𝒔 × 𝑹𝟐
𝑹= + 𝑹𝟑
𝑽 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝑽 𝑹 𝒔 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟐
𝑹𝒔 = 𝟐 + 𝟔 𝑹= +𝟏
𝟖 + 𝟏𝟐
𝑹𝒔 = 𝟖Ω 𝑹 = 𝟒. 𝟖 + 𝟏
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 2Ω 𝑹 = 𝟓. 𝟖Ω
𝑽 = 𝑰𝟏 𝑹 (iii)
𝟐. 𝟒 = 𝑰𝟏 × 𝟖 𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟐Ω
𝟐. 𝟒 𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)
𝑰𝟏 =
𝟖 𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟓(𝟓. 𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟐)
𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝑨 𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟔
𝑬 = 𝟑𝑽

EXERCISE:
1. In the diagram below, what will be the voltmeter reading when switch K is closed?
6V,𝟎𝛀

𝑽 𝟐𝛀 𝟒𝛀 𝟒𝛀

𝑲
2. In the diagram below, a battery of emf 12V and negligible internal resistance is connected
across resistors as shown below.

𝟏𝟐𝐕
𝑽 𝟔𝛀 𝟑𝛀

Calculate;
(i). Current through the circuit.
(ii). Voltmeter reading.
(iii). Current through the 6Ω resistor.
(iv). Total power expended in the circuit.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

3. An accumulator of 24V and internal resistance 2Ω is connected as shown below.

𝟑𝛀

𝟒𝛀 𝟐𝛀

𝟔𝛀

Calculate;
(i). Lost voltage.
(ii). Current through the 6Ω resistor.
(iii). Power dissipated in the 6Ω resistor.
(iv). Total power expended in the circuit

4. A dry cell of emf, E and internal resistance, r drives a current of 0.25A through a resistor of
5.5Ω and also drives a current of 0.3A through a resistor of 4.5Ω as shown in the figures.
Determine the emf, E and internal resistance, r.
𝑬, 𝒓 𝑬, 𝒓

𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝑨 𝟎. 𝟑𝑨
𝟓. 𝟓𝛀 𝟒. 𝟓𝛀

5. A dry cell of emf, E is connected in the circuit as shown below.

𝑬, 𝒓

𝑨 𝑲
𝑹

When switch K is open, the voltmeter reading is 1.4V. When the switch K is closed, the ammeter
reading is 1.0A and the voltmeter reading is 0.9V.
(i). Write an expression relating E, ammeter reading, I, voltmeter reading, V, and internal
resistance, r of the cell.
(ii). Calculate the internal resistance of the cell.
(iii). Find the value of the resistance, R.

COMMERCIAL ELECTRICITY
In Uganda, electricity is sold by electricity boards such as UMEME.
They use our meters to estimate the electrical energy consumed
The energy consumed is measured in kilowatt hours (kWh).

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Definition:
A kilowatt hour is the amount of electrical energy consumed by a device of power 1000W
in one hour.
𝟏𝒌𝑾𝒉 = 𝟏𝒌𝑾 × 𝟏𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓
𝟏𝒌𝑾𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑾 × 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔
𝟏𝒌𝑾𝒉 = 𝟑, 𝟔𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑾𝒔
𝟏𝒌𝑾𝒉 = 𝟑, 𝟔𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱

Calculations for cost of electricity:

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠)

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑷 (𝑘𝑊) × 𝒕 (ℎ𝑟𝑠)

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠) × 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑷 (𝑘𝑊) × 𝒕 (ℎ𝑟𝑠) × 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕

NOTE:
All electrical appliances are marked (rated) showing the power rating in Watts and voltage in Volts.
E.g.
An electrical appliance rated 240V, 60W means that the appliance supplies or consumes
60J every second when connected to a 240V mains supply.

EXAMPLES:
1. How much will it cost to run four bulbs rated at 40W each for 2 days, if the cost of each unit of
electricity is shs. 30.?
𝑷 = 𝟒 × 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝑾
𝟏𝟔𝟎
𝐼𝑛 𝑘𝑊, 𝑷 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝒌𝑾
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒕 = 𝟐𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 𝟐 × 𝟐𝟒 = 𝟒𝟖 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝟑𝟎 𝒔𝒉𝒔

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓(𝒌𝑾) × 𝒕(𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔) × 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟒𝟖 × 𝟑𝟎
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎. 𝟒 𝒔𝒉𝒔

2. Find the cost to run two bulbs rated at 60W each and an electric iron rated at 120W for 35
minutes, if the unit is 415 shs.
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛
𝑷 = 𝟐 × 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑾 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑾
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑾
𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝐼𝑛 𝑘𝑊, 𝑷 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝒌𝑾
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟑𝟓
𝒕 = 𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔 = 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
𝟔𝟎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝟒𝟏𝟓 𝒔𝒉𝒔

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓(𝒌𝑾) × 𝒕(𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔) × 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕

𝟑𝟓
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 × × 𝟒𝟏𝟓
𝟔𝟎
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟏 𝒔𝒉𝒔

3. An electrical heater is rated at 3000W, 240V.

a) What is meant by the statement.
b) Calculate;
(i). Current and resistance of the heater.
1
(ii). Total number of units it consumes in 1 hours.
2
(iii). The cost of electricity if each unit costs 9,000 shs after using the heater for 3
hours every day for 10 days.

(a) An electrical heater supplies or consumes 3000J every second when connected to a
240V mains supply.

(b) (i) 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑷 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑾, 𝑽 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽

𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 OR
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝑰 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝑹 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟐 × 𝑹
𝑰= 𝑹=
𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑰 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝑨 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟐Ω 𝑹=
𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟐
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟐Ω
(ii)
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 = 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓(𝒌𝑾) × 𝒕(𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔)
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 = ×𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐
𝟑
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 = 𝟑 ×
𝟐
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝒌𝑾𝒉
(iii)
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓(𝒌𝑾) × 𝒕(𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔) × 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = ( ) × (𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎) × 𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟖𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒉𝒔

4. Jane paid an electricity bill of 1800shs after using two identical bulbs for 2 hours every day for
10 days at a cost of 600shs per unit. Determine the power consumption by each of the bulbs.
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓(𝒌𝑾) × 𝒕(𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔) × 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕
𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 = 𝑷(𝒌𝑾) × (𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎) × 𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 = 𝑷(𝒌𝑾) × 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝑷(𝒌𝑾) =
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑷(𝒌𝑾) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒌𝑾
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏 𝑷 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝒌𝑾 = 𝟕𝟓𝑾
𝟐
Therefore, each bulb consumes power of 75W.

EXERCISE:
1. Find the cost of running five 60W lamps and four 100W lamps for 8 hours if the electrical
energy costs 5shs per unit.

2. Mr. Ssekwe uses 3 kettles of 800W each, a flat iron of 1000W, 3 bulbs of 60W each and 4 bulbs
of 75W each. If they are used for 3hours every day for 30 days and one unit of electricity costs
200shs, find the total cost of running the appliances.

3. A television is rated 240V, 60W.

(a) What do you understand by the statement above.
(b) Calculate the current flowing through the TV.
(c) Calculate the resistance of the television.
(d) Calculate the cost of running the television for 600 minutes if the unit cost is 60shs.

GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICITY

(a) Generation of electricity:

Electricity is generated at power stations by using coal, nuclear reactions, wind, sun, running
water etc.

(b) Transmission of electricity:

Electricity generated at power stations is stepped up to higher voltages before transmission
using step transformers.
The power transmitted is usually alternating current and it is stepped down as it reaches
factories, industries, towns and homes using step down transformers.
Transmission can either be overhead or underground.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

How power losses are reduced during transmission of electricity:

▪ Electricity is transmitted at high voltages to reduce power loss due to the heating effect in the
transmission cables.
▪ The transmission cables are made thick to reduce its resistance hence minimizing power loss.

(c) House wiring (domestic electrical installation):

Electricity is connected in a house by thick cables called the mains from the electricity poles
to the meter box or fuse box and then to the main distribution box. From here electricity is
supplied to the electrical appliances.
The electricity supply cables in a house consist of the following wires.

TYPE OF WIRE COLOUR USE

Live wire Red or brown It carries current to the appliance.
Neutral wire Blue or black It completes the circuit. Thus, it carries current away
from the source.
Earth wire Yellow or green or It is connected to the metal case of an appliance to
yellow with green provide an alternative path for stray current in case
stripes the appliance becomes live.

When wiring a house, the following should be included in the circuits.

DEVICE NAME CONNECTION AND USE
(i) Switch

▪ It controls the flow of current in the circuit.

▪ It I connected to the live wire such that it cut off and
switch on current whenever needed.

(ii) Fuse

▪ It contains a thin wire of a very low melting point.

▪ The thin wire melts whenever current exceeds the
rated value.
▪ It is connected to the live wire.

(iii) Sockets

▪ These are power points usually put on the walls.

▪ They have three holes leading to the live wire,
neutral wire and the earth wire.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 31

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Precautions taken when wiring a house:

▪ The right colour codes must be followed i.e. red for live wire, black for neutral wire and yellow
for earth wire.
▪ All switches should be connected to the live wire.
▪ Wires should be insulated.
▪ Keep hands dry when dealing with electricity.
▪ Earthing should always be done to prevent electrical shocks in case an appliance gets a fault.

LIGHT CIRCUITS
Electrical appliances e.g. bulbs and lamps are usually connected in parallel with the mains supply.
The switches of these lamps are connected to the live wire. The neutral wire completes the circuit.

𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟐

Live wire

Earth wire

Neutral wire

Advantages of connecting lamps in parallel:

➢ Lamps have the same voltage as the source.
➢ If one lamp gets a fault, the other lamps continue working.
➢ It enables switching on and off of the lamps independently (i.e. each lamp can have its own switch.)

Example:
The diagram below is a circuit connection
Live wire

Neutral wire
Switch
Fuse

Identify the wrong corrections in the circuit.

➢ Bulbs were connected in series yet they have to be connected in parallel.
➢ Fuse was connected to the neutral wire yet it is supposed to be connected on the live wire.
➢ The switch was connected to the neutral wire yet it is supposed to be connected on the live
wire.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 32

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

FILAMENT LAMPS (INCANDESCENT LAMPS)

These are lamps that produce light by heating a filament to a high temperature.

𝑨𝒓𝒈𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝑵𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏
𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒃
𝑻𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒔

𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒂𝒑

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔

Mode of operation of a filament lamp:

When switched on, the coiled tungsten filament is heated and it becomes white hot thus emitting
light.
The higher the temperature of the filament, the greater the light given off.

Note:
• The filament is made of tungsten because tungsten has a high melting point. Therefore, it can’t
melt easily when heated to very high temperatures.
• The filament is coiled to reduce the space it occupies in the glass bulb thus reducing heat through
convection.
• The glass bulb contains inert gases (i.e. Argon/Nitrogen) at low pressure to reduce evaporation of
the filament otherwise it would condense on the bulb and blacken it.

FLUORESCENT LAMPS (DISCHARGE LAMPS)

Fluorescent tube is a gas discharge lamp that uses electricity to energize or excite mercury
vapour. It has electrodes at the ends and the inside wall is coated with fluorescent substance e.g.
phosphor.

v
𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆
𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓
When switched on, mercury vapour is excited/energized and it emits ultra-violet radiations.
The radiations strike the fluorescent substance causing it to produce visible light.

NB: Fluorescent substance is a substance that gives off light when radiations fall on it.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 33

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Advantages of fluorescent tubes/lamps over filament lamps:

• They are long lasting.
• They don’t produce much heat.
• They consume less power.

Disadvantages of fluorescent lamps:

• They are expensive.
• They require high installation costs.
• They may not start when the supply voltage is low.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 34

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

MOTION IN FLUIDS
A fluid is a substance which can flow e.g. liquids and gases.
When a body falls through a fluid, it will be acted upon by the following forces.
𝑼 𝑭𝒗

❖ Upthrust (𝑼) acting upwards.

𝑩𝒐𝒅𝒚 ❖ Viscous drag or Viscous force (𝑭𝒗 ) acting upwards.
❖ Weight of the body (𝑾) acting downwards.

𝑾
Upthrust (Buoyancy):
This is the upward force that a fluid exerts on a body falling through it.
For example;
• When pushing a jerrycan into water, our fingers experience an upward force.
• A balloon filled with air or hydrogen rises up due to upthrust.

Viscous drag (Viscous force):

This the force that opposes motion of a body in a fluid.
Viscous drag increases with an increase in velocity or speed of the body in a body.

Describing motion of a body falling in a viscous fluid (e.g. oil)

𝑼 𝑭𝒗
𝑻𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒋𝒂𝒓

𝑺𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍

𝑾
𝑽𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 (𝒆. 𝒈. 𝑶𝒊𝒍)

When the ball falls through a fluid, it first accelerates downwards until it attains a constant velocity
called terminal velocity. At this velocity, the weight of the ball is equal to sum of upthrust and viscous
drag.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 + 𝑽𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈
𝑾 = 𝑼 + 𝑭𝒗
The ball continues with this constant velocity until it hits the bottom of the tall glass jar.

NOTE:
As the body accelerates downwards, the viscous drag continues to increase with the increasing
velocity and eventually the body can no longer accelerate. Therefore, it has a constant velocity.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Terminal velocity:
This is a constant velocity attained by the body falling in a fluid when the resultant force on the body is
zero.
i.e. when upward forces (viscous drag and upthrust) = downward forces (weight of the body).

Velocity-time graph for a body falling in a fluid

𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
𝑽𝑻

𝑽𝑻 − 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚

𝟎
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)

Note: In case the object is moving in air (e.g. a balloon floating in air), the viscous drag is composed of
the air resistance.

Question:
Explain what happens to a parachutist diving from an aero plane.
• At first, the parachutist accelerates downwards as he/she begins to fall.
• As the parachutist’s velocity (speed) increases, the viscous drag also increases until the
parachutist is unable to accelerate any more. At this point the parachutist attains a constant
velocity called terminal velocity.
• At terminal velocity, weight of the parachutist is equal to the upthrust and viscous drag.
Therefore, the resultant force on the parachutist is zero.

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝑽𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

FLUID FLOW
Fluid flow describes how fluids move and how they behave and interact with the surrounding
environment. The flow of a liquid may either be steady (orderly) or unsteady (unorderly).
Flow of a fluid depends on three factors namely;
▪ Characteristics of the fluid (i.e. density, compressibility and viscosity)
▪ Speed or velocity of flow.
▪ Shape of surface on which the fluid is flowing.

Types of fluid flow:

There are two types of fluid flow namely;
• Streamline flow (Laminar flow).
• Turbulent flow.

STREAMLINE FLOW (LAMINAR FLOW):

Streamline flow is the type of fluid flow where all the fluid particles that pass any point follow the same
path at the same velocity (uniform velocity).
In streamline flow, the fluid particles move or travel in the same direction and with the same speed.
Therefore, streamline flow is a steady, orderly and uniform flow of a fluid.
Streamline flow occurs when the fluid is moving at a low speed.

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔

Definition:
A streamline is a line showing particles of a fluid having streamline flow.

TURBULENT FLOW:
Turbulent flow is the type of fluid flow where the speed (velocity) and the direction of fluid particles
passing any point vary with time.
In turbulent flow, the fluid particles travel in different directions with different speeds.
Therefore, turbulent flow is an unsteady, disorderly and non-uniform flow of the fluid.
Turbulent flow occurs when the fluid is moving with a high speed.

Practical example:

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘

When a tap is opened slightly, the water flows out slowly in form of a thin smooth orderly stream. At
this point, the type of fluid flow is streamline flow.
As the tap is opened further, the water flows out fast in a disorderly way. At this point, the type of fluid
flow is turbulent flow.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
Bernoulli’s principle states that when the speed of a moving fluid increases, the pressure in the fluid
decreases and vice versa.

This relationship between speed and pressure was formulated by a scientist called Daniel Bernoulli.

Rate of flow of a fluid:

This is the volume of the fluid that passes a point of a tube in a given time.
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝑪𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆 × 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝑨×𝒅
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 =
𝒕
𝒅
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅, 𝒗 =
𝒕
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 = 𝑨 × 𝒗
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 = 𝑨𝒗
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 − 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎.
𝑣 − 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑.

NOTE:
❖ The rate of flow at any section of the pipe is the same.
❖ In streamline flow of a fluid, the larger the pipe, the lower speed of the fluid and vice versa

Examples:
1. Water flows in through a horizontal pipe of cross-sectional area 0.01𝑚2. At the outlet section, the
cross-sectional area is 0.005𝑚2 . If the velocity of water at the larger cross-section is 1.25𝑚𝑠 −1 ,
find;
i) rate of flow of water in the larger pipe.
ii) Speed of water in the smaller pipe,
𝑨𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒎𝟐 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟐

𝒗𝟐 =?
𝒗𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏

i) ii)
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 0.0125 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝒗𝟐
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒎𝟑 𝒔−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝒗𝟐 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
2. Water flows through a horizontal pipe of varying cross-section area as shown in the figure below.the
velocity of water in pipe A is 2𝑚/𝑠. Determine the velocity of water in pipe B.

𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒎𝟐 𝑨 𝑩 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝒎𝟐

𝟐 𝒎/𝒔

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆;

𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒊𝒏 𝑨 = 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒊𝒏 𝑩
𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔 × 𝒗𝟐
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟐
𝒗𝟐 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝒎/𝒔

Demonstrating Bernoulli’s principle in liquids

Consider a liquid flowing through a horizontal uniform tube from left to right as shown below.

𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑳𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑨 𝑩 𝑪

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘

Height of the liquid in the tube goes on decreasing as water flow. This indicates that the liquid pressure
decreases from left to right.
This explains that liquids flow from places with higher pressure to place with lower pressure.

However, if a venturi tube (non-uniform tube) is used where the diameter at B is made smaller than A
and C, the liquid level become lowest at B and water level rises again at C.

𝑳𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑨 𝑪
𝑩
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘
The liquid level falls at B indicating a decrease in pressure.
This is because the liquid flows fastest at B and according to Bernoulli’s principle, the faster the liquid
flow, the lower the liquid pressure.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Demonstrating Bernoulli’s principle in gases
➢ When air is blown between two sheets of paper;

𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓
𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒊𝒓

Observation: The two sheets come together.

Explanation: When air is blown between them, the air molecules moves faster resulting to a decrease in
pressure in between. Therefore, the external pressure out exceeds the inside pressure and forces the
sheets to come closer.

➢ When air is blown between two balloons filled with a gas;

𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒏

𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒊𝒓
Observation: The two balloons come together.
Explanation: When air is blown between them, the air molecules moves faster resulting to a decrease in
pressure in between. Therefore, the external pressure out exceeds the inside pressure and forces the
balloons to come closer.

➢ When air is blown below a paper placed on two wooden blocks.;

𝑷𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓

𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒊𝒓
Observation: The paper curves upwards.
Explanation: When air is blown below the paper, the air molecules under the paper move faster
resulting to a decrease in pressure. Therefore, the external pressure on top of the paper exceeds the the
pressure below and forces the paper down thus curving upwards.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
Bernoulli’s principle is applied in:
Spray guns:

𝑪𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑵𝒐𝒛𝒛𝒍𝒆

𝒂𝒊𝒓

𝑷𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 (𝒆. 𝒈. 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆)

▪ When the piston is pushed in, it forces the air in the cylinder to move with a high velocity through
the nozzle.
▪ The movement of air with a high velocity causes a decrease in pressure inside the cylinder.
▪ Since the pressure in the cylinder is less than the pressure acting on the liquid (atmospheric
pressure), the atmospheric pressure forces the liquid to rise through the metal tube.
▪ The rising liquid is sprayed out through the nozzle.

Bunsen burner:
▪ When a Bunsen burner is connected to a gas supply, the gas is made
𝑵𝒐𝒛𝒛𝒍𝒆 to move with a high velocity inside the burner through the nozzle.
This creates a region of low pressure inside the burner.
▪ Since the atmospheric pressure outside the burner is now more than
the pressure inside, it forces air from outside atmosphere to enter in
the burner and mixes with the gas.
𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 ▪ The mixture of air and gas enables the gas to burn completely and
produce a clean, hot and smokeless flame.

Aero foil: 𝑳𝒊𝒇𝒕

𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆)

𝑨𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒇𝒐𝒊𝒍

𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆)

▪ The wing of an aero plane is the form of an aero foil i.e. the upper surface is curved and the surface
below is flat. This makes the air passing over the top of the wing to move a longer distance thus the
air travels faster at top than at the bottom.
▪ Since the speed of air is higher on the top surface than the bottom, the pressure is lower than that at
the bottom surface. This causes a pressure difference which causes a net upward lifting force which
helps the plane to rise.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Practical examples:
1. Explain why a thatched roof of a house can be completely lifted off the house by a strong wind.

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅

A strong wind moves over the roof top with a high speed thus creating a lower pressure above the roof
top than the pressure below the roof.
Since the pressure below the roof is higher than that at the top, it causes an upward force which lifts
up the roof resulting into blowing of the roof.

2. Explain using Bernoulli’s principle why it is dangerous to stand near the edge of a platform in a
railway station, when a fast-moving train is passing by.

This is because a person standing near a fast-moving train will tend to fall towards it according to
Bernoulli’s principle.
The speed of air molecules between the fast-moving train and the person is high thus creating a
region of low pressure. Since the pressure behind the person is now greater than pressure in front of
the person, it pushes the person towards the train.

VISCOSITY:
When water is poured on a person’s head, it runs through his/her hair and then flows over the face
quickly. But when honey is poured on the person’s head, it takes a lot of time to flow through the
person’s head. This is because of a property of fluids called viscosity.
Definition:
Viscosity is the measure of fluid’s resistance to flow.
Therefore, honey is thicker than water so it has a high viscosity than water.

Viscous fluid:
This is a fluid with a high viscosity. Therefore, a viscous fluid doesn’t flow easily.
Examples of viscous fluids include;
⬧ Honey
⬧ Oil
⬧ Glues
⬧ Syrups

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

FLOATING AND SINKING

𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚

𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚

❖ If you lift a bucket of water from a tank, the bucket appears to be lighter inside the water and
suddenly heavy when it comes out of water.
❖ When we go swimming, we feel a little weightless in the water than our actual weight.
❖ A large ship made of metal (steel) floats on water while a small steel pin sinks in water.
Therefore, an object weighs less in water than it does in air. This loss of weight is due to the upthrust of
water acting on the object.
All the above experiences can be explained by Archimedes’ principle formulated by a Greek
mathematician called Archimedes.

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE:
It states that when a body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upthrust equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced.
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅

Terms used in Archimedes’ principle:

▪ Upthrust (Buoyancy):
This is the upward force that a fluid exerts on a body falling through it.
▪ Actual weight:
This is the weight of the body in air.
▪ Apparent weight:
This is the weight of the body when completely immersed or submerged in a fluid.
Apparent weight is always less than the actual weight.
▪ Apparent loss in weight:
This is the difference between actual weight of a body and apparent weight of the body.
𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
Apparent loss in weight is also equal to upthrust.
Therefore,
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = (𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕)

Also, 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Factors affecting upthrust acting on the body
Density of the fluid:
Denser liquids exert greater upthrust on a body immersed in it than less dense liquids.
E.g. salty water is denser than fresh water therefore, an object immersed in salty water displaces a
greater weight of the salty water (upthrust) than when in fresh water. Thus, the body feels weightless.
Volume of body immersed the fluid:
A body experiences a greater upthrust when fully or wholly immersed in a fluid than when it is partially
immersed.

Practical examples:
❖ The figure below shows a uniform bar in equilibrium with two equal masses suspended at an equal
from the pivot from either ends.

𝑨 𝑩

Salt water is added into beaker A and fresh water in beaker B until the masses are fully submerged. It is
observed the bar tips towards beaker B. Explain this observation.
Salt water is denser than fresh water so it exerts a greater upthrust on the mass immersed in beaker A.
Therefore, the mass in beaker A displaces a greater weight of the salty water.
The apparent weight of mass in beaker A is therefore lower than the apparent weight of mass in
beaker B. This causes the bar to tilt towards B.

❖ The figure below shows weights of a ball suspended on a spring balance when weighed in air and
water respectively.

𝟓𝟎𝑵
𝟐𝟓𝑵

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

Explain why the weight of the ball in water is less than the weight of the ball in air.
This is because when the ball is submerged in water, it experiences an upthrust thus lowering the
apparent weight of the ball.

Recall, 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝑾𝒂
𝑾𝒘

𝑬𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒌𝒂 𝒄𝒂𝒏

𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

▪ An object is weighed in air using a spring balance and its weight in air, 𝑾𝒂 is recorded.
▪ An eureka can (displacement can) is completely filled with water up to its spout.
▪ An empty beaker of known weight, 𝑾𝒃 is placed under the spout of the eureka can.
▪ The object is then weighed when completely immersed in water using a spring balance and its
weight in water, 𝑾𝒘 is recorded.
▪ The weight of the beaker and displaced water, 𝑾𝒃+𝒅 is measured and recorded.
▪ The weight of displaced water is then calculated from 𝑾𝒅 = 𝑾𝒃+𝒅 − 𝑾𝒃 .
▪ Since upthrust is equal to apparent loss in weight, it is calculated from 𝑼 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 .
▪ It is found out that upthrust is equal to weight of displaced water (i.e. 𝑼 = 𝑾𝒅 ) thus verifying
Archimedes’ principle.

CALCULATIONS INVOLVING ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

❖ When a body is immersed in a fluid, it experiences an apparent loss in weight which is equal to the
upthrust acting on the body.
Therefore, 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒇

❖ According to Archimedes’ principle;

𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑓 × 𝑔
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝜌𝑓 × 𝑉𝑓 × 𝑔
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒇 𝝆𝒇 𝒈
Where 𝑽𝒇 − density of water.
𝝆𝒇 − volume of displaced water.
NOTE:
The volume of displaced fluid is equal to the volume of the body immersed in the fluid.
Recall: Displacement of finding volume of an irregular object.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Examples:
(𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 )
1. A block weighs 25N in air. When completely immersed in water, it weighs 10N. Calculate;
i) upthrust on the block.
ii) volume of water displaced.

𝑾𝒂 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎𝑵
i) ii)
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟓 − 𝟏𝟎 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟏𝟓𝑵 𝟏𝟓 = 𝑽𝒘 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟓
𝑽𝒘 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝒎𝟑

2. A metal weighs 20N in air and 15N when fully immersed in water. Calculate;
i) upthrust.
ii) weight of displaced water.
iii) volume of displaced water.

𝑾𝒂 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟏𝟓𝑵
i) iii)
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟓 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟓𝑵 𝟓 = 𝑽𝒘 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟓
ii) 𝑽𝒘 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 = 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟑
𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 = 𝟓𝑵
𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

3. A concrete block of mass 3.0 × 103 𝑘𝑔 and volume 1.2𝑚3 is totally immersed in a fluid of density
2.0 × 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. Find;
i) weight of the block in air.
ii) Weight of the block in the fluid.
𝒎𝒃 = 𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝒈 , 𝑽𝒃 = 𝑽𝒇 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝒎𝟑 𝝆𝒇 = 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
i) ii)
𝑾𝒂 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒈 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑾𝒂 = (𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 ) × 𝟏𝟎 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒇 𝝆𝒇 𝒈
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = (𝟏. 𝟐) × (𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 ) × (𝟏𝟎)
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒇
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝑾𝒇
𝑾𝒇 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
4. An object weighs 30N in air and 25N when immersed in water. Calculate;
i) upthrust.
ii) volume of the object.
iii) density of the object.

𝑾𝒂 = 𝟑𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵
i) iii) 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑾𝒂 = 𝑽𝒐 𝝆𝒐 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟐𝟓 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝝆𝒐 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟓𝑵 𝟑𝟎
𝝆𝒐 =
ii) 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝝆𝒐 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈
𝟓 = 𝑽𝒘 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 OR
𝟓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 (𝒎𝒐 )
𝑽𝒘 = 𝝆𝒐 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 (𝑽𝒐 )
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟑 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑾𝒂 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒈
𝟑𝟎
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒐 = = 𝟑𝒌𝒈
𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟏𝟎
𝟑
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽 𝒘 𝝆𝒐 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑽𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟑 𝝆𝒐 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

5. A body weighs 50N in air and 30N when fully immersed in water. Calculate the mass of water
displaced.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟑𝟎𝑵
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟓𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒘 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵 𝟐𝟎 = 𝒎𝒘 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟐𝟎
𝒎𝒘 =
𝟏𝟎
𝒎𝒘 = 𝟐𝒌𝒈

6. A piece of metal of density 2500𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 weighs 1N in air. Find the weight of the metal when
completely submerged in water.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟏𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 =? 𝝆𝒎 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑾𝒂 = 𝑽𝒎 𝝆𝒎 𝒈 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈
𝟏 = 𝑽𝒎 × 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝑵
𝑽𝒎 =
𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝒎𝟑 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘
𝟎. 𝟒 = 𝟏 − 𝑾𝒘
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝑵
𝑽𝒘 = 𝑽𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝒎𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
7. An object weighs 50N in air and 30N when wholly submerged in water. Calculate;
i) Buoyant force on the object.
ii) volume of the object.
iii) density of object.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟑𝟎𝑵
i) iii) 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑾𝒂 = 𝑽𝒐 𝝆𝒐 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟓𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎 𝟓𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐 × 𝝆𝒐 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵 𝟓𝟎
ii) 𝝆𝒐 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝝆𝒐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈
𝟐𝟎 = 𝑽𝒘 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 OR
𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 (𝒎𝒐 )
𝑽𝒘 = 𝝆𝒐 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 (𝑽𝒐 )
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝒎 𝟑 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑾𝒂 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒈
𝟓𝟎
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒐 = = 𝟓𝒌𝒈
𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟏𝟎
𝟓
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽 𝒘 𝝆𝒐 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐
𝑽𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝒎𝟑 𝝆𝒐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

8. A solid of volume 800𝑐𝑚3 is totally immersed in oil of density 0.8𝑔𝑐𝑚−3. Calculate the
i) mass of oil displaced.
ii) upthrust on the solid.

i)
𝑽𝒔 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 𝑽𝒐 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 𝝆𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝒎𝒐 = 𝝆𝒐 × 𝑽𝒐
𝒎𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝒎𝒐 = 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝒈
ii)
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒊𝒍
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒈
𝟔𝟒𝟎
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = ( ) × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝑵

NOTE:
When a body is partially immersed in a fluid, it displaces a volume of a fluid equal to the fraction of its
volume that is immersed in the fluid.
i.e. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

9. An iron cube of mass 480𝑔 and density 8𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 is suspended by a string so that it is half immersed
in oil of density 0.9𝑔𝑐𝑚−3. Find
i) upthrust acting on the cube.
ii) the tension in the string.
𝟒𝟖𝟎
𝒎𝒄 = 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝒌𝒈,
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒄 = 𝟖𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 = (𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎) = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝝆𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 = (𝟎. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎) = 𝟗𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝒎𝒄 𝟏
𝑽𝒄 = 𝑽 𝒐 = × 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒆
𝝆𝒄 𝟐
𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝟏
𝑽𝒄 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝒎𝟑 𝑽𝒐 = × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝒎𝟑
𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐
i) ii)
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒐 𝝆𝒐 𝒈 𝑾𝒂 = 𝒎𝒄 𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑 × 𝟗𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑾𝒂 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝑵
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝑵
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 (𝑾𝒐 )
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒐
𝟎. 𝟐𝟕 = 𝟒. 𝟖 − 𝑾𝒐
𝑾𝒐 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟑𝑵
EXERCISE:
(𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 )
1. A body weighs 100N in air and 80N in water. Calculate.
i) upthrust on the body.
ii) volume of displaced water.
iii) density of the body.
iv) mass of the body.
2. A string supports a solid block of mass 1𝑘𝑔 and density 9000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 which is completely immersed
in water. Calculate the tension in the string.
3. A stone of volume 200𝑐𝑚3 and density 2.7𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 is completely immersed in Kerosene.
a) Determine the upthrust exerted on the stone.
b) Determine how much it will weigh in kerosene (𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 0.8𝑔𝑐𝑚−3)
4. A glass block of mass 2.0 × 103 𝑘𝑔 and volume 2.4𝑚3 is totally immersed in a fluid of density
1.0 × 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. Find;
iii) weight of the block in air.
iv) Weight of the block in the fluid.

5. An iron cube of volume 800𝑐𝑚3 is totally immersed in

a) Water b) oil of density 0.8𝑔𝑐𝑚−3
Calculate the upthrust in each case.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
DETERMINING RELATIVE DENSITY OF A SOLID USING ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
▪ The solid is weighed in air and its weight, 𝑾𝒂 is recorded.
▪ The solid is then weighed when completely immersed in water and its weight, 𝑾𝒘 is recorded.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 =
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 =
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡
𝑾𝒂
𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘

Recall:
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Examples:
(𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 )
1. A solid weighs 25N. It weighs 15N when completely immersed in water. Calculate;
i) relative density of a solid.
ii) density of a solid.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟏𝟓𝑵
i) ii)
𝑾𝒂 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝟐𝟓 𝝆𝒔
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝟐𝟓 − 𝟏𝟓 𝝆𝒘
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝝆𝒔
𝟐. 𝟓 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒔 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

2. A metallic solid weighs 24N and 16N when completely immersed in water. Calculate;
i) relative density of the metal.
ii) density of the metal.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟐𝟒𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟏𝟔𝑵
i) ii)
𝑾𝒂 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝟐𝟒 𝝆𝒔
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝟐𝟒 − 𝟏𝟔 𝝆𝒘
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟑 𝝆𝒔
𝟑=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒔 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
3. An object has a relative density of 7 and weighs 70N in air. Find its weight when it is fully immersed
in water.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟕𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 =? 𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟕
𝑾𝒂
𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘
𝟕𝟎
𝟕=
𝟕𝟎 − 𝑾𝒘
𝟒𝟗𝟎 − 𝟕𝑾𝒘 = 𝟕𝟎
𝟒𝟗𝟎 − 𝟕𝟎
𝑾𝒘 =
𝟕
𝑾𝒘 = 𝟔𝟎𝑵

4. A body weighs 600g in air and 400g in water. Calculate;

a) upthrust on the body.
b) volume of the body.
c) relative density of the solid.
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝒎𝒈
𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒂 = × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟔𝑵 𝑾𝒘 = × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟒𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
a) 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 c)
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟔 − 𝟒 𝑾𝒂
𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝑵 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘
𝟔
b) 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝟔−𝟒
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈 𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟑
𝟐 = 𝑽𝒘 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟐
𝑽𝒘 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝒎𝟑

DETERMINING RELATIVE DENSITY OF A LIQUID USING ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

▪ The solid is weighed in air and its weight, 𝑾𝒂 is recorded.
▪ The solid is then weighed when completely immersed in water and its weight, 𝑾𝒘 is recorded.
▪ The solid is then weighed when completely immersed in another liquid and its weight, 𝑾𝒍 is
recorded.
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 =
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 =
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Examples:
(𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 )
1. A metal weighs 25N in air and 20N in water and 15N in a liquid. Calculate;
a) relative density of the liquid.
b) density of the liquid.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵 𝑾𝒍 = 𝟏𝟓𝑵
a) b)
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝟐𝟓 − 𝟏𝟓 𝝆𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝟐𝟓 − 𝟐𝟎 𝝆𝒘
𝟏𝟎 𝝆𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟐=
𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟐 𝝆𝒍 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

2. A solid weighs 55N in air. When in a liquid, it weighs 25N and it weighs 30N when in water.
Calculate;
i) relative density of the liquid.
ii) density of the liquid.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟓𝟓𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵 𝑾𝒍 = 𝟑𝟎𝑵
c) d)
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝟓𝟓 − 𝟐𝟓 𝝆𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝟓𝟓 − 𝟑𝟎 𝝆𝒘
𝟑𝟎 𝝆𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟐 =
𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝝆𝒍 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

3. An object weighs 100N in air and 40N in kerosene of relative density 0.8. Find its weight in water.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒍 = 𝟒𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 =? 𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟖
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟒𝟎
𝟎. 𝟖 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑾𝒘
𝟖𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝑾𝒘 = 𝟔𝟎
𝟖𝟎 − 𝟔𝟎
𝑾𝒘 =
𝟎. 𝟖
𝑾𝒘 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵

4. A body weighs 20g in air, 18.2g in milk and 18g in water. Calculate;
a) the relative density of the body.
b) the relative density of the milk.

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝒎𝒈
𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐 𝟏𝟖
𝑾𝒂 = × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝑵 𝑾𝒍 = × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟐𝑵 𝑾𝒘 = × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

a) 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 b) 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑘

𝑾𝒂 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘
𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟐
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝟎. 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖 𝟎. 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟗

5. When a metal is completely immersed in liquid A, its apparent weight is 20N. When immersed in
another liquid B, the apparent weight is 16N. If the density of the liquid is 𝟗 times that of A,
calculate the weight of metal in air. 𝟖
𝑾𝒍𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒍𝑩 = 𝟏𝟔𝑵
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑨 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑨
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑩 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑩
𝝆𝑨 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍𝑨
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝝆𝑩 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍𝑩
𝝆𝑨 𝟖 𝑾
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝒂 − 𝟐𝟎
𝟗𝝆𝑨 =
𝟗 𝑾𝒂 − 𝟏𝟔
𝟖
𝟖 𝟖𝑾𝒂 − 𝟏𝟐𝟖 = 𝟗𝑾𝒂 − 𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑾𝒂 = 𝟓𝟐𝑵
𝟗

EXERCISE
1. A piece of glass weighs 0.5N in air and 0.3N in water and 0.32N in benzene. Calculate;
i) relative density of glass.
ii) density of glass.
iii) relative density of liquid.
iv) density of benzene.
2. An object weighs 5.6N in air, 4.8N in water and 4,6N when immersed in a liquid. Find the relative
density of the liquid.
3. A piece of iron weighs 555N in air. When completely immersed in water, it weighs 530N and
weighs 535N when completely immersed in alcohol. Calculate the relative density of alcohol.
4. A glass block weighs 43N in air. When wholly immersed in water, the block weighs 23N. Calculate
the;
a) upthrust on the glass block.
b) density of the glass block.
c) volume of the glass block.
5. A solid weighs 0.50N in air. It weighs 0.30N when fully immersed in water and 0.32N when fully
submerged in a liquid. Calculate the;
i) upthrust on the body due to water.
ii) volume of the solid.
iii) density of the solid
iv) relative density of the liquid.
v) density of the liquid.
6. A solid weighs 600g in air, 450g in water and 480g in a liquid. Find the;
a) relative density of the liquid.
b) density of the liquid.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

FLOATATION
Recall: A body floats in a fluid if its average density is less than the density of the fluid.
When an object is placed in liquid, it is acted upon by the upthrust and its weight.
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕

𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
❖ The object sinks in the liquid if its weight is greater than upthrust.
❖ The object floats in the liquid if its weight is equal to upthrust. Therefore, the apparent weight
(resultant force on the object) must be zero for a body to float in the liquid.
However, when a cork is held below the liquid surface (e.g. water), and released, it rises because its
upthrust is greater than its weight.

Note: By Archimedes’ principle, 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑. Therefore, for a floating
body, its weight is equal to weight of displaced fluid.

LAW OF FLOATATION:
It states that a floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid in which its floats.
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅

Mathematically;
𝑾𝒃 = 𝑾𝒇
𝒎𝒃 𝒈 = 𝒎 𝒇 𝒈
𝒎𝒃 = 𝒎 𝒇 [𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑]
𝝆𝒃 𝑽𝒃 = 𝝆𝒇 𝑽𝒇

Examples:
1. A piece of wood of density 2.5𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 and volume 100𝑐𝑚3 floats on a liquid of density 4𝑔𝑐𝑚−3.
Calculate the volume of liquid displaced.
𝝆𝒘 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑽𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 , 𝝆𝒍 = 𝟒𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑽𝒍 =?
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑾𝒘 = 𝑾𝒍
𝒎𝒘 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒍 𝒈
𝒎𝒘 = 𝒎𝒍
𝝆𝒘 𝑽𝒘 = 𝝆𝒍 𝑽𝒍
𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒 × 𝑽𝒍
𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝑽𝒍 =
𝟒
𝑽𝒍 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. A piece of cork of density 0.15𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 and volume 200𝑐𝑚3 floats in water of density 1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3.
Calculate the volume of the cork out of the water.
𝝆𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑽𝒄 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 , 𝝆𝒘 = 𝟏𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑽𝒘 =?
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑾𝒄 = 𝑾𝒘
𝒎𝒄 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒘 𝒈
𝒎𝒄 = 𝒎𝒘
𝝆𝒄 𝑽𝒄 = 𝝆𝒘 𝑽𝒘
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏 × 𝑽𝒘
𝟑𝟎
𝑽𝒘 =
𝟏
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑

3. A piece of cork of volume 100𝑐𝑚3 is floating on water. If the density of cork is 0.25𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 .
Calculate the volume of the cork immersed in water. (density of water is 1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3).
𝝆𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑽𝒄 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 , 𝝆𝒘 = 𝟏𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑽𝒘 =?
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑾𝒄 = 𝑾𝒘
𝒎𝒄 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒘 𝒈
𝒎𝒄 = 𝒎𝒘
𝝆𝒄 𝑽𝒄 = 𝝆𝒘 𝑽𝒘
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏 × 𝑽𝒘
𝟐𝟓
𝑽𝒘 =
𝟏
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟑

4. A glass block of density 5𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 and volume 200𝑐𝑚3 floats on a liquid of density 8000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 .
Calculate the volume of liquid displaced.
𝝆𝒈 = 𝟓𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 = (𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎) = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝝆𝒍 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒈 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝒎𝟑 , 𝑽𝒍 =?
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑾𝒈 = 𝑾𝒍
𝒎𝒈 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒍 𝒈
𝒎𝒈 = 𝒎𝒍
𝝆𝒈 𝑽𝒈 = 𝝆𝒍 𝑽𝒍
𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝑽𝒍
𝟏
𝑽𝒍 =
𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒎𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY THE LAW OF FLOATATION

𝑪𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑

𝑻𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒔
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

▪ A measuring cylinder is filled with some water and its initial volume 𝑽𝟏 is recorded.
▪ A test tube with a cotton loop is then placed in the measuring cylinder.
▪ Lead shots are then added to the test tube until the test tube floats vertically.
▪ The reading of the new water level 𝑽𝟐 is recorded.
▪ Volume of water displaced by test tube is calculated as (𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 ).
▪ The weight of displaced water = 𝝆𝒘 (𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 )𝒈.
▪ The test tube with lead shots is then removed from water, dried and weighed and its weight is
recorded. (The cotton loop helps to attach the test tube to the spring balance)
▪ It is found that (𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 + 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑠) is equal to the weight of displaced water thus
verifying the law of floatation.

OR

𝑾𝒂

𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐

𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑺𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑬𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒌𝒂 𝒄𝒂𝒏

𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒓

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

▪ An object is weighed in air using a spring balance and its weight in air, 𝑾𝒂 is recorded.
▪ An eureka can (displacement can) is completely filled with water up to its spout.
▪ An empty beaker of known weight, 𝑾𝒃 is placed under the spout of the eureka can.
▪ The object is made to float on water in the Eureka can (displacement can) and displaced water is
collected in the beaker.
▪ The weight of the beaker and displaced water, 𝑾𝒃+𝒅 is measured and recorded.
▪ The weight of displaced water is then calculated from 𝑾𝒅 = 𝑾𝒃+𝒅 − 𝑾𝒃 .
▪ It is found out that weight of the object in air is equal to the weight of displaced water (𝑾𝒂 = 𝑾𝒅 ),
thus verifying the law of floatation.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Fraction of a floating body submerged in a fluid:
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑊𝑏 = 𝑊𝑓
𝑚𝑏 𝑔 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑔
𝑚𝑏 = 𝑚𝑓 [𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑]
𝜌𝑏 𝑉𝑏 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑓
Therefore,
𝜌𝑏 𝑉𝑓
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 = =
𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑏

𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚

𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
OR
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚

Examples: 𝟒
1. A piece of wood floats with of its volume under a liquid of density 800𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. Find the density
𝟓
of the wood.
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝝆𝒘
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝝆𝒍
𝟒 𝝆𝒘
=
𝟓 𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝟖𝟎𝟎 × 𝟒
𝝆𝒘 =
𝟓
𝝆𝒘 = 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

2. An object of volume 240𝑐𝑚3 floats with three quarters of its volume under water. Calculate the
i) density of the object if the density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3.
ii) volume of displaced water
i)
𝟑
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 = , 𝝆𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝟒
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝝆𝒐
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝝆𝒘
𝟑 𝝆𝒐
=
𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟑
𝝆𝒐 =
𝟒
𝝆𝒐 = 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
ii) OR
𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝑽𝒐 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒𝒎𝟑 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑾𝒐 = 𝑾𝒘
𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒎 𝒐 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒘 𝒈
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑽𝒘 𝒎𝒐 = 𝒎𝒘
=
𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒐 𝝆𝒐 𝑽𝒐 = 𝝆𝒘 𝑽𝒘
𝟑 𝑽𝒘 𝟕𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝑽𝒘
=
𝟒 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒 × 𝟑 𝑽𝒘 =
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟒 𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟖𝒎𝟑
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟖𝒎𝟑

3. The mass of a piece of cork of density 0.25𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 is 20𝑔.

a) What fraction of the cork is immersed when it floats in water? (Density of water is 1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 )
b) What is the volume of displaced water?
a)
𝒎𝒄 = 𝟐𝟎𝒈, 𝝆𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , 𝝆𝒘 = 𝟏𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒌
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝝆𝒄
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝝆𝒘
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝟏
𝟏
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝟒

b) OR
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝒎𝒄
𝑽𝒄 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝝆𝒄
𝟐𝟎 𝑾𝒄 = 𝑾𝒘
𝑽𝒄 = = 𝟖𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎 𝒄 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒘 𝒈
𝒎 𝒄 = 𝒎𝒘
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝝆𝒄 𝑽𝒄 = 𝝆𝒘 𝑽𝒘
=
𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟏 × 𝑽𝒘
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑽𝒘 𝟐𝟎
𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 = 𝑽𝒘 =
𝑽𝒄 𝟏
𝟏 𝑽𝒘 𝑽𝒘 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑
=
𝟒 𝟖𝟎
𝟖𝟎
𝑽𝒘 =
𝟒
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
4. A cube made of oak and of height 15cm floats in water with 10.5cm of its height below the surface.
Calculate;
a) fraction of oak immersed in water.
b) density of oak. (Density of water is 1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3)
a)
𝟏𝟎. 𝟓
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝟏𝟓
𝟕
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝟏𝟎
b)
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒂𝒌
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒂𝒌 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝝆𝒐
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒂𝒌 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝝆𝒘
𝟕 𝝆𝒐
=
𝟏𝟎 𝟏
𝟏×𝟕
𝝆𝒐 =
𝟏𝟎
𝝆𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑

5. An object of Relative density 0.8 floats in water. Find

i) fraction of object immersed in water.
ii) fraction of object exposed.
(Density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)
i) ii)
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝟒
𝑅. 𝐷 = 𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 = 𝟏 −
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝟓
𝝆𝒐 𝟏
𝑅. 𝐷 = 𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 =
𝝆𝒘 𝟓
𝝆𝒐
0.8 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒐 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
𝝆𝒐
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝝆𝒘
𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟒
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝟓

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
EXERCISE:
𝟑
1. A solid of volume 10𝑚3 floats in water of density 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 with of its volume submerged.
𝟓
Calculate;
a) the mass of the solid.
b) the density of the solid.

2. A piece of wood of density 5𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 and volume 200𝑐𝑚3 floats on a liquid of density 8𝑔𝑐𝑚−3.
Calculate the volume of wood immersed in the liquid.

3. A piece of wood of volume 40𝑐𝑚3 floats in water with only half of volume submerged. If the
density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 , calculate the density of wood.
𝟐
4. A piece of wood of volume 30𝑐𝑚3 on a liquid of density 0.8𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 with of its volume immersed
𝟑
in the liquid. Determine the weight of the piece of wood.
𝟑
5. A solid of volume 2.0 × 10−4 𝑚3 floats in water of density 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 with of its volume
𝟒
submerged. Find the mass of the solid.

6. A block of wood of volume 100𝑐𝑚3 and density 500𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 floats in a liquid of density
800𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 . Calculate the volume of wood submerged in the liquid.

7. A slab of ice of volume 800𝑐𝑚3 and density 0.9𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 floats in water of density 1.1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 . What
fraction of ice slab is above the salt water?

APPLICATIONS OF THE LAW OF FLOATATION

1. Ships:
A ship is able to float whenever the upthrust is equal to its weight. Thus, it displaces an amount of water
equal to its weight.

𝑷𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔
𝑊ℎ𝑦 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Ships float on water although they are made from iron and steel (metals) which are denser than water.
This is because the ship is made hollow and contains air so that the average density of the ship is less
than that of water.
If a hole develops on one side of a ship, the ship will take in water making its average density more than
that of water thus it sinks.
NOTE:
The plimsoll lines (loading lines) on the sides of the ship show the level to which the ship can be safely
loaded so that it can float on water.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. Submarines:
Submarines can float on water and can sink in water. The average density of a submarine is varied by
the ballast tanks.

𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒔 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅

𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒔
𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒊𝒓

❖ For submarines to float, the ballast tanks are filled with air so that the average density of the
submarine is less than that of water.
❖ For submarines to sink, the ballast tanks are filled with water so that the average density of the
submarine is greater than that of water.

3. Hydrometer:
This is a device used to find the relative density of a liquid by noting how far it floats in a liquid.

𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒎

𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒃 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒊𝒓

𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒔

It consists of;
▪ a long and thin stem which makes the hydrometer more sensitive.
▪ a bulb filled with air with lead shots at the bottom. The lead shots keep the hydrometer upright
when it floats in a liquid. Lead shots lower the centre of gravity of the hydrometer which
increases its stability.

𝑯𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒐 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓.

• By making the stem very thin (narrow)
• By making the bulb large.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Uses of a hydrometer:
▪ It is used to test the purity of milk.
▪ It is used to determine the level of sugar in some drinks (Lactometer).
▪ It used to determine the relative density of a car battery acid (Car battery tester).

4. Balloons:

𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏

A balloon filled with hydrogen rises in air because the density of hydrogen is less than the density of air
in the atmosphere. Therefore, the upthrust acting on the balloon is greater than the weight of the balloon
hence causing it to rise.
The balloon rises until when it becomes stationary. At this point, the weight of the balloon is equal to
upthrust hence it starts to float.

NOTE: Balloons that carry passengers control their weight by blowing in hot gases into the gas bag to
make them rise and letting out gases out of the gas bag to make them go down.

When the balloon is floating in air,

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒊𝒓

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒏 + 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒂𝒔 + 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅

Examples:
1. A balloon of mass 0.005𝑘𝑔 is inflated with hydrogen gas and held stationary on the ground by a
string. If the volume of inflated balloon is 0.005𝑚3 .
a) Calculate the upthrust acting on the balloon (Lifting force of the balloon)
b) Calculate the tension in the string.
( 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0.080𝑘𝑔𝑚−3, 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.150𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)
𝑼
a) 𝒎𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒌𝒈
𝑽𝒉 = 𝑽𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟑
𝝆𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝝆𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑻
𝑾𝒃+𝒉

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒊𝒓

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝝆𝒂 × 𝑽𝒂 × 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟕𝟓𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

b) 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒏 + 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 + 𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒈 + 𝒎𝒉 𝒈 + 𝑻
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒈 + 𝝆𝒉 𝑽𝒉 𝒈 + 𝑻
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟕𝟓 = (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎) + (𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎) + 𝑻
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟕𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟒 + 𝑻
𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓𝑵

2. A balloon of mass 5g is inflated with hydrogen and held stationary by a string. If the volume of the
balloon is 0.005𝑚3 , find the tension in the string.
(𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.25𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)
𝑼
𝟓
𝒎𝒃 = 𝟓𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒌𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒉 = 𝑽𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟑
𝒎𝒉 = 𝟎𝒌𝒈 (𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆)
𝑻 𝝆𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑾𝒃+𝒉

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒊𝒓

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝝆𝒂 × 𝑽𝒂 × 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓𝑵
But also;
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒏 + 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 + 𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒈 + 𝒎𝒉 𝒈 + 𝑻
𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 = (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎) + 𝟎 + 𝑻
𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 + 𝑻
𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑵

3. A balloon has a capacity 10𝑚3 and is filled with hydrogen. The balloon’s fabric and container have a
mass of 1.25𝑘𝑔. Calculate the maximum weight in the container the balloon can lift.
( 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0.089𝑘𝑔𝑚−3, 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.29𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)
𝒎𝒃 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒌𝒈
𝑽𝒉 = 𝑽𝒂 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝟑
𝝆𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟗𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝝆𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟗𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝝆𝒂 𝑽𝒂 𝒈
But also;
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒏 + 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 + 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝝆𝒂 𝑽𝒂 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒈 + 𝒎𝒉 𝒈 + 𝑾𝑳
𝝆𝒂 𝑽𝒂 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒈 + 𝝆𝒉 𝑽𝒉 𝒈 + 𝑾𝑳
(𝟏. 𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎) = (𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎) + (𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎) + 𝑾𝑳
𝟏𝟐𝟗 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟒 + 𝑾𝑳
𝑾𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟔𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
4. Explain what happens to a balloon;
i) When it is filled with air and its open end tied and released.
When a balloon is filled with air, the upthrust is less than the weight of the fabric of the
balloon and the weight of air inside the balloon. The resultant force causes the balloon to
move slowly downwards.

ii) When it is filled with hydrogen gas and its open end tied and released.
When the balloon is filled with hydrogen (or helium), which is less dense than air, the
upthrust is greater than the weight of the balloon and its contents. Therefore, the balloon
rises until when upthrust is equal to the weight of balloon and its content thus making the
balloon to float.

EXERCISE:
1. A balloon of capacity 20𝑚3 and is filled with hydrogen. The balloon’s fabric and container have a
mass of 2.5𝑘𝑔. Calculate the maximum mass of the load the balloon can lift
( 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0.089𝑘𝑔𝑚−3, 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.29𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)

2. A hot air balloon is made from a very light material. It displaces 360𝑘𝑔 of air and contains 300𝑚3
of hydrogen gas of density 0.08𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. Find the maximum load the balloon can lift.

3. The envelope of a hot-air balloon contains 1500𝑚3 of hot air of density 0.8𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. The mass of the
balloon (not including the hot air) is 420𝑘𝑔. The density of the surrounding air is 1.3𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 .
Calculate the lifting force of the balloon.

4. A weather forecasting balloon is made of a fabric of mass 40𝑘𝑔. Calculate the volume of hydrogen
in the balloon which would just support an additional load of mass 80kg when floating in air.
( 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0.09𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 , 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.29𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)

5. A weather forecasting balloon of volume 15𝑚3 contains hydrogen of density 0.09𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. The
volume of container carried by the balloon is negligible. The mass of empty balloon alone is 7.15kg.
The balloon is floating in air of density 1.29𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 . Calculate;
a) the mass of hydrogen in the balloon.
b) the mass of hydrogen and the balloon.
c) the mass of air displaced by the balloon

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

HEAT
When you put a cup of very hot porridge on a table, the porridge cools down after sometime. This
means that some energy has been transferred from the porridge to the surrounding. This form of
energy that is transferred is called heat.

Definition:
Heat is the form of energy which flows from one point to another due to temperature difference
between the two points.
Heat energy flows from a region of high temperature to a region of low temperature.
The SI unit of heat energy is a joule (J).
Effects of heat on a body:
When a body absorbs heat energy,
• Its temperature increases thus becoming hot.
• Its state changes e.g. solid changes to liquid.
• It makes the body to expand.

When a body loses heat energy,

• Its temperature decreases thus becoming cold.
• It makes the body to contract.

TEMPERATURE
Temperature is a number which expresses the degree of hotness or coldness of a body on a chosen
scale.
Temperature of a body depends on the average kinetic energy of the molecules in that body.
Therefore, temperature can also be defined as measure of the average kinetic energy of the
molecules in the body.

Measurement of temperature:
Temperature of a body is measured by an instrument called a thermometer.
The SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin (K).
Other units include;
• Degrees Celsius (°𝑪)
• Degrees Fahrenheit (°𝑭)

Thermometers measure temperatures of a body basing on certain physical properties which change
continuously with temperature. These physical properties are called thermometric properties.

Definition:
A thermometric property is a physical property which changes continuously with temperature.

Examples of thermometric properties:

They include;
→ Length of a liquid column (e.g. liquid-in-glass thermometer).
→ Electrical resistance of a wire (e.g. platinum resistance wire).
→ Pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at constant volume (e.g. constant-volume gas thermometer).
→ Volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure (e.g. constant-pressure gas thermometer).
→ Electromotive force of a thermocouple (e.g. thermocouple thermometer).

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Qualities of a good thermometric property:

➢ It should vary continuously and linearly with change in temperature.
➢ It should vary considerably for a small change in temperature.
➢ It should vary over a wide range of temperatures i.e. both high and low temperatures.
➢ It should be accurately measurable over a wide range of temperature with a simple apparatus.

TEMPERATURE SCALES
A temperature scale is a scale in which the degree of hotness or coldness can be expressed.
These scales include:
❖ Fahrenheit scale.
❖ Celsius scale (centigrade scale).
❖ Kelvin scale (thermodynamic scale).

Fahrenheit scale:
Temperature on the Fahrenheit scale is measured in degrees Fahrenheit (℉).
To convert from degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit, the formula below is used.
𝟗
℉ = 𝑪 + 𝟑𝟐
𝟓

Celsius scale:
Temperature on the Celsius scale is measured in degrees Celsius (℃).
The lower fixed point (melting point of ice) is 0℃ and the upper fixed (boiling point of water) is
100℃.
To convert from degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius, the formula below is used.
𝟓
℃ = (𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐)
𝟗

Kelvin scale:
Temperature on the Kelvin or thermodynamic scale is measured in Kelvins (𝑲).
The lower fixed point (melting point of ice) is 273𝐾 and the upper fixed (boiling point of water) is
373𝐾.

Relationship between the Celsius scale and Kelvin scale

If temperature, 𝜽 (℃) on the Celsius scale is related to temperature, 𝑻 (𝐾) on the Kelvin scale, then;
𝑻 = 𝜽 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑

Examples:
1. Convert the following temperature readings to Kelvins.
i) 127℃ ii) 30℃ iii) −27℃
𝑻 = 𝜽 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = 𝜽 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = 𝜽 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟐𝟕 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = 𝟑𝟎 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = −𝟐𝟕 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝑻 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑲 𝑻 = 𝟑𝟎𝟑𝑲 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟒𝟔𝑲

iv) 0℃ v) −240℃ vi) 26.5℃

𝑻 = 𝜽 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = 𝜽 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = 𝜽 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝑻 = 𝟎 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = −𝟐𝟒𝟎 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟓 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝑻 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑𝑲 𝑻 = 𝟑𝟑𝑲 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟗𝟗. 𝟓𝑲

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

2. Convert the following temperature readings to degrees Celsius.

i) 23𝐾 ii) 233𝐾 iii) 54𝐾
𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝜽 = 𝟐𝟑 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝟐𝟑𝟑 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝟓𝟒 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝜽 = −𝟐𝟓𝟎℃ 𝜽 = −𝟒𝟎℃ 𝜽 = −𝟐𝟏𝟗℃

iv) 0℃ v) 600𝐾 vi) 574𝐾

𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝜽 = 𝟎 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝟓𝟕𝟒 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝜽 = −𝟐𝟕𝟑℃ 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟐𝟕℃ 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟎𝟏℃

FIXED POINTS OF A THERMOMETER

A fixed point is a constant temperature at which a physical change takes place at standard
atmospheric pressure.
There are basically two types of fixed points namely;
• Lower fixed point.
• Upper fixed point.

LOWER FIXED POINT (ICE POINT):

This is the temperature of pure melting ice at standard atmospheric pressure.
The lower fixed point is 0℃ on the Celsius scale and 273𝐾 on the Kelvin scale.

An experiment to determine the lower fixed point of an uncalibrated thermometer

𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑷𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒄𝒆

𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒓

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

▪ The thermometer to be marked is placed in pure melting ice inside a funnel with ice cubes
packed around its bulb.
▪ The thermometer is left in ice for some time until the level of mercury remains stationary.
▪ This level is then marked and it is the lower fixed point of the thermometer.

NOTE:
➢ The ice must be pure because impurities in ice lower the melting point of ice.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

UPPER FIXED POINT (STEAM POINT):

This is the temperature of pure boiling water at standard atmospheric pressure.
The lower fixed point is 100℃ on the Celsius scale and 373𝐾 on the Kelvin scale.

An experiment to determine the upper fixed point of an uncalibrated thermometer

𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒌

𝑴𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑯𝒚𝒑𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎

𝑷𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
▪ Some water is poured into a hypsometer
▪ The thermometer to be marked is placed in the hypsometer through a hole in the cork.
▪ Water is boiled to generate steam that surrounds the bulb of the thermometer.
▪ The thermometer is left in steam for some time until the level of mercury remains stationary.
▪ This level is then marked and it is the upper fixed point of the thermometer.

NOTE:
➢ The double walls of the hypsometer ensure that the temperature of steam is always constant (i.e.
it’s always 100℃). Thus, they reduce heat loss to the surrounding.
➢ The manometer ensures that the standard pressure is always constant (i.e. it’s always 76𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔).
➢ When performing the above experiment, the bulb should not touch the surface of boiling water.

LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETERS
These are the most commonly used thermometers in the world.
They use liquids in their capillary tubes to measure temperatures.

Structure of a liquid-in-glass thermometer:

𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒃

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

It consists of a thin walled bulb at the end of a capillary tube.

The bulb and some part of the capillary tube is filled with a thermometric liquid which expands so as
to measure temperature.
The common thermometric liquids used are mercury and alcohol.

How to use a liquid in thermometer:

▪ The bulb is kept in direct contact with the body whose temperature is to be measured.
▪ The thermometric liquid expands through the capillary tube.
▪ The thermometer is left in contact with the body for sometime until the level of thermometric
liquid (mercury) remains stationary or steady.
▪ The thermometer reading becomes the temperature of the body

Precautions taken when designing (constructing) a liquid-in-glass thermometer:

❖ The walls of the glass bulb should be thin. This ensures that the thermometric liquid e.g. mercury
is heated easily.
❖ The amount of thermometric liquid in the bulb should be small. This is because a small amount
of the liquid takes less time to warm up therefore, it gives a quick response.
❖ The capillary tube should be uniform. This ensures that the expansion of the thermometric liquid
is also uniform.
❖ The bore of the capillary tube should be made narrow. This makes the thermometer to be more
sensitive in detecting small changes in temperature.
❖ The glass wall of the stem is made thick. This ensures that the inner parts of the thermometer are
well protected.

NOTE:
The space above the thermometric liquid is usually evacuated to avoid excess pressure from being
developed when mercury expands.

THERMOMETRIC LIQUIDS:
There are two liquids that are mainly used in a liquid-in-glass thermometer namely;
• Mercury.
• Alcohol.
Choice of a thermometric liquid:
The choice of the thermometric liquid depends on the range of temperature to be measured.
Mercury freezes at −39℃ (freezing point) and boils at 357℃ (boiling point).
Alcohol freezes at −115℃ (freezing point) and boils at 78℃ (boiling point).
Therefore, alcohol is suitable to measure very low temperatures and mercury is suitable to measure
very high temperatures.

Qualities of a good thermometric liquid:

➢ It should be opaque so that it can easily be seen.
➢ It should not wet glass i.e. it should not stick on the walls of the thermometer.
➢ It should be a good conductor of heat. This ensures that it responds to any change in temperature.
➢ It should have a regular or uniform expansion. i.e. its expansion should be the same at different
points of the scale.
➢ It should have a high boiling point so as to measure very high temperatures.
➢ It should have a low freezing point so as to measure very low temperatures.
➢ It should have a high expansivity i.e. it should expand so much for a small temperature change.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Reasons why water is not used as a thermometric liquid:

→ It is transparent (not opaque) so it cannot be easily seen.
→ It wets glass i.e. it sticks on the walls the thermometer.
→ It doesn’t expand regularly.
→ It has a high freezing point (0℃) so it cannot be used to measure very low temperatures that are
less than 0℃.
→ It has a low boiling point (100℃) so it cannot be used to measure very high temperatures that are
beyond 100℃.
→ It is a poor conductor of heat.
→ Its meniscus is difficult to read.

Advantages of mercury over alcohol when used as a thermometric liquid:

▪ Mercury is opaque so it can easily be seen.
▪ Mercury does not wet the glass of the thermometer.
▪ Mercury has a high boiling point (357℃) so, it can be used to measure very high temperatures.
▪ Mercury has a regular or uniform expansion.
▪ Mercury is a good conductor of heat.
Disadvantages of mercury over alcohol when used as a thermometric liquid:
▪ Mercury has a high freezing point (−39℃) so it cannot be used to measure very low
temperatures.
▪ Mercury has a low expansivity i.e. it expands less for a small change in temperature.

Advantages of alcohol over mercury when used as a thermometric liquid:

▪ Alcohol has a low freezing point (−115℃) so, it can be used to measure very low temperatures.
▪ Mercury has a high expansivity i.e. it expands so much for a small change in temperature.
Disadvantages of alcohol over mercury when used as a thermometric liquid:
▪ Alcohol is not opaque (transparent) so it cannot easily be seen.
▪ Alcohol tends to wet the glass of the thermometer.
▪ Alcohol has a low boiling point (78℃) so, it cannot be used to measure very high temperatures.
▪ Alcohol has an irregular or non-uniform expansion compared to mercury.
▪ Alcohol is relatively a poor conductor of heat when compared to mercury.

DETERMINING TEMPERATURE ON AN UNCALIBRATED THERMOMETER:

The length between the lower fixed point and the upper fixed is called the fundamental interval.
Method 1:
𝒀
𝑿

𝟎℃ 𝜽 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑰𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕

If 𝑿 is the length of the mercury thread above the lower fixed point (ice point) and 𝒀 is the length
between the lower and upper fixed points (fundamental interval), then the unknown temperature, 𝜽
can be obtained from the expression below.
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝜃= × 100℃
𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
𝑿
𝜽 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝒀

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Method 2:

𝟏𝟎𝟎℃ 𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕

(𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕)

𝜽
𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑳𝜽
𝟎℃ 𝑳𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑳𝟎
(𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕)

If 𝑳𝟎 is the length of mercury thread at lower fixed point (0℃), 𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 is the length of mercury thread
at the upper fixed point (100℃) and 𝑳𝜽 is the length of mercury thread at unknown temperature, 𝜃,
then the unknown temperature can be obtained from the expression below;
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝜃= × 100℃
𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
𝑳𝜽 − 𝑳𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑳𝟎

Examples:
1. When a thermometer is placed in a boiling liquid, the mercury thread rises above the lower fixed
point by 18.5𝑐𝑚. Find the temperature of the liquid if the fundamental interval is 20𝑐𝑚.
𝑿 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟓𝒄𝒎, 𝒀 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝑿
𝜽 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝒀
𝟏𝟖. 𝟓
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟐𝟎
𝜽 = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟓℃
2. The length on the stem of a mercury-in-glass thermometer between the lower and upper fixed
points is 18cm. when the bulb is dipped in a hot liquid, the mercury level is found to be 10𝑐𝑚
above the ice point. Calculate the temperature of the liquid.
𝑿 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒀 = 𝟏𝟖𝒄𝒎
𝑿
𝜽 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝒀
𝟏𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟖
𝜽 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟔℃
3. The fundamental interval of the thermometer is 18𝑐𝑚. How far above the ice point will the
mercury level be when the bulb is in a region at a temperature of 60℃?
𝒀 = 𝟏𝟖𝒄𝒎, 𝜽 = 𝟔𝟎℃
𝑿 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎
𝜽 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃ 𝑿=
𝒀 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑿 𝑿 = 𝟏𝟐𝒄𝒎
𝟔𝟎 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟐𝟎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

4. The length of the mercury thread of a thermometer at ice point is 22𝑐𝑚 and that at steam point is
62𝑐𝑚. Calculate the reading of the thermometer when the mercury thread is 42𝑐𝑚 long.
𝑳𝟎 = 𝟐𝟐𝒄𝒎, 𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟔𝟐𝒄𝒎, 𝑳𝜽 = 𝟒𝟐𝒄𝒎
𝑳𝜽 − 𝑳𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑳𝟎
𝟒𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟔𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟒𝟎
𝜽 = 𝟓𝟎℃

5. In an uncalibrated thermometer, the length of the mercury above the bulb is 38𝑚𝑚 at lower fixed
point and 138𝑚𝑚 at upper fixed point. When the thermometer is placed in a hot liquid, the
length of the mercury thread above the bulb is 78𝑚𝑚. Calculate the temperature of the hot
liquid.
𝑳𝟎 = 𝟑𝟖𝒎𝒎, 𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟑𝟖𝒎𝒎, 𝑳𝜽 = 𝟕𝟖𝒎𝒎
𝑳𝜽 − 𝑳𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑳𝟎
𝟕𝟖 − 𝟑𝟖
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟑𝟖 − 𝟑𝟖
𝟒𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝜽 = 𝟒𝟎℃

6. A mercury thermometer is calibrated by immersing it in melting pure ice and then in boiling pure
water. If the mercury columns are 6𝑐𝑚 and 16𝑐𝑚 respectively, find the temperature when the
mercury column is 8𝑐𝑚 long.
𝑳𝟎 = 𝟔𝒄𝒎, 𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟔𝒄𝒎, 𝑳𝜽 = 𝟖𝒄𝒎
𝑳𝜽 − 𝑳𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑳𝟎
𝟖−𝟔
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟔 − 𝟔
𝟐
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟎
𝜽 = 𝟐𝟎℃

7. The resistance of a platinum resistance thermometer is 5.7Ω at ice point, 5.2Ω at steam point and
5.5Ω at unknown temperature. Determine the unknown temperature.
𝑹𝟎 = 5.2Ω, 𝑹𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 5.7Ω, 𝑹𝜽 = 5.5Ω
𝑹𝜽 − 𝑹𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝑹𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑹𝟎
𝟓. 𝟓 − 𝟓. 𝟐
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟓. 𝟕 − 𝟓. 𝟐
𝟎. 𝟑
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟎. 𝟓
𝜽 = 𝟔𝟎℃

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

CLINICAL THERMOMETER
This is an example of liquid-in-glass thermometer since it uses mercury as its thermometric liquid.
It is designed to be used in clinics and hospitals to measure the temperature of human beings.
𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒃 𝑩𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒌/𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎

The clinical thermometer measures a small range of temperatures i.e. 35℃ 𝑡𝑜 42℃ since the
temperature of the human body cannot go outside that.

How to use a clinical thermometer:

▪ The thermometer is placed in the person’s arm pit (or other parts of the body) for about 2
minutes.
▪ The mercury from the bulb expands until it reaches a level when it is no longer changing
(stationary).
▪ The thermometer is withdrawn from the human body and the level of mercury thread is read off.
▪ This mercury level gives the temperature of the human body.

NOTE:
❖ The use of the kink or constriction is to prevent the back flow of mercury when temperature is
being read.
❖ It is not advisable to sterilize a clinical thermometer in boiling water, since this makes mercury to
expand far beyond the space provided in the bore. Hence, this may lead to bursting of the
thermometer.
❖ The thermometer should be shaken before it is used on another patient so as to allow mercury go
back to bulb.

SENSITIVITY OF A THERMOMETER
A thermometer is said to be sensitive if it can detect or measure very small changes in temperature.

Conditions for a thermometer to be sensitive.

➢ The thermometer should have a large bulb.
If the bulb is large, it will contain a greater volume of mercury thus leading to greater expansion
of mercury per degree.
➢ The thermometer should have a very narrow bore.
If the bore of the capillary tube is made narrow, a small change in volume of mercury will fill a
greater length of the capillary tube.

Other types of thermometers:

Apart from liquid-in-thermometers, other thermometers include;
→ Thermocouple thermometers.
→ Platinum resistance thermometers.
→ Constant-volume gas thermometers.
→ Constant-pressure gas thermometers.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

EXERCISE:
1. a) “A thermometer is sensitive”. Explain what is meant by the statement.
b) State two ways of increasing the sensitivity of a thermometer.
2. a) What is meant by the term thermometric property?
b) State any three thermometric properties that you know.
c) List two properties of a good thermometric liquid.
3. a) Define the following terms.
i) Lower fixed point.
ii) Fundamental interval.
b) With the aid of a diagram, describe how the upper fixed point of an uncalibrated can be
determined.
4. The interval between the ice and steam points on a thermometer is 192mm. Find the temperature
when the length of the mercury thread is 67.2mm from the ice point.
5. The distance between the lower and upper fixed points on the Celsius scale on an unmarked
mercury glass thermometer is 25cm. If the mercury level is 5cm below the upper fixed point,
calculate the temperature value at that level.
6. Convert the following temperature readings to the Celsius scale.
a) 283K b) 167K c) 973K d) 3960K
7. Convert the following temperature readings to the Kelvin scale.
i) −25℃ ii) 353℃ iii) 237℃
8. a) For a liquid in glass thermometer, what are the governing factors for choosing the liquid to be
used?
b) Give three reasons why water is not used as a thermometric liquid.
c) When a Celsius thermometer is inserted in a boiling liquid, the mercury thread rises above the
lower fixed point by 19.5cm. Find the temperature of the boiling liquid if the fundamental
interval is 25cm.
9. a) Define a fixed point as used in thermometry.
b) Under what circumstances could alcohol be preferred to mercury as a thermometric liquid?
c) When determining the lower fixed point of a mercury-in-glass thermometer, why should the
ice be pure?
10. In an uncalibrated thermometer, the length of the mercury above the bulb is 22𝑚𝑚 at lower fixed
point and 134𝑚𝑚 at upper fixed point. When the thermometer is placed in a hot liquid, the
length of the mercury thread above the bulb is 68𝑚𝑚. Calculate the temperature of the hot
liquid.
11. When marking the fixed points of a thermometer, it is observed that at 0℃, the mercury level is
1cm and 6cm when at 100℃. Calculate the temperature that would correspond to a length of
4cm.
12. a) In determining the upper fixed point of an unmarked thermometer, why is the hypsometer
made with double walls.
b) Why is it that boiling water is not used for sterilization of a clinical thermometer?
c) Why is the range of a clinical thermometer usually 35℃ to 42℃?
13. A mercury thermometer reads 10℃ when dipped into melting ice and 90℃ when in steam at
normal pressure. Calculate the thermometer reading when it is dipped in a liquid at 20℃.
14. The length of mercury column at the lower and the upper fixed points are 2cm and 5cm
respectively. Given that the length of mercury at unknown temperature, 𝜃. Determine the value
of 𝜃.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer refers to the flow of heat through matter from a region of high temperature (hot body)
to a region of low temperature (cold body).

Modes of heat transfer:

There are three ways by which heat is transferred and these are;
• Conduction.
• Convection.
• Radiation.

CONDUCTION:
This is the transfer of heat through matter from a region of high temperature to a region of low
temperature without movement of matter as a whole.
NOTE:
In conduction, heat flows as a result of direct contact of molecules of a substance i.e. heat is
transferred when one molecule contacts another molecule.
Therefore, conduction is best in solids (closely packed particles) and worst in liquids and gases
(widely spaced particles).

CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS:
Heat transfer in solids occurs a result of;
➢ Excess energy of vibrations being passed from one atom to another.
➢ The excess kinetic energy given to the free electrons near the source of heat being carried by
these electrons as they move to the colder region.

Explanation of conduction in a metal (solid) using kinetic theory of matter:

When one end of a metal is heated, the temperature of the molecules of the metal near the heat
source increases.
The increased temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecules of the solid thus they begin
to vibrate violently. These molecules start to collide with the nearby molecules transferring heat to
them. The process continues until heat is transferred to molecules at the other end of the metal.
NOTE:
❖ Heat transfer in conduction takes place by vibration of molecules but not actual movement of the
heated molecules.
❖ Conduction is faster in good conductors than in bad conductors.

Factors that affect the rate of heat in metals:

➢ Temperature difference between the ends of a metal:
Heat is transferred quickly when the temperature difference between the ends of the metal is
high.
➢ Length of the metal:
Much heat is transferred in a short time when the metal bar is short. Therefore, the rate of heat
transfer increases when the metal is of smaller length than when the metal is of longer length.
➢ Cross-sectional area of the metal:
When the metal is thicker, much heat is transferred in a shortest time than a thin metal at the
same time. The rate of heat transfer in metals with large cross-sectional area and vice versa.
➢ Nature of material of the metal:
Different materials used to make the metal have different thermal conductivities thus different
rates of heat transfer.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Good conductors of heat:

These are materials that allow heat to pass through them easily. i.e. they conduct heat easily.
Examples include;
• All metals e.g. Iron, Aluminium, Copper, Steel etc.

Bad conductors of heat:

These are materials that do not allow heat to pass through them easily. i.e. they don’t conduct heat
easily.
Examples include;
• All non-metals e.g. Wood, Rubber, Plastics, Glass etc.

Applications (uses) of good and bad conductors of heat:

➢ Good conductors of heat are used in making of cooking utensils e.g. saucepans, kettles, frying
pans, etc.
➢ Bad conductors of heat are used in making handles of cooking utensils, insulators since they
don’t allow heat to pass through them.

Question 1:
Explain why a metal feels cold when touched on a cold day.
Since a metal is a good conductor of heat, it conducts all the heat away from the hands. Thus, our
hands lose heat and this gives a sensation of coldness.

Question 2:
Explain why a cemented floor feels colder than a carpeted floor.
When we put our feet on a cemented floor, it conducts all the heat away from our feet since it is a
good conductor of heat. Therefore, our feet lose heat and become cold.
When we put our feet on a carpeted floor, it doesn’t conduct any heat from our feet since it’s a bad
conductor of heat. Therefore, our feet do not lose heat thus they remain warm.

An experiment to compare conductivities of different solids

QN: Describe an experiment to compare the rate of heat transfer in different conductors.

𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑾𝒂𝒙

𝑾𝒐𝒐𝒅

𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑨𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒖𝒎

𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏
▪ Identical rods of different materials coated with wax are dipped in hot water.
▪ After sometime, the wax starts to melt along the rods.
▪ Wax melts fastest along the copper rod and slowest along the wood rod.
▪ This shows that copper is the best conductor of heat and wood is the worst conductor of heat.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Experiment to show that wood is a poor conductor of heat:

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅

𝑾𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓
𝑷𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓
▪ A composite rod is made by joining a wooden rod with a copper rod.
▪ A piece of paper is wrapped round the composite rod around the joint so that the wooden and
copper rod share the paper equally as shown below.
▪ The composite rod is passed through a Bunsen burner flame several times.

Observation:
▪ The part of the paper on the wood gets charred (burnt) while the part of paper on copper remains
uncharred (not burnt).

Explanation:
▪ Copper is a good conductor of heat. Therefore, copper conducts away heat quickly from the
paper thus the temperature of part of the paper on it remains low. Hence, the part of the paper on
copper does not char.
▪ Wood is a poor conductor of heat. Therefore, wood does not conduct away heat from the paper
thus the temperature of part of the paper on it remains high. Hence, the part of the paper on wood
chars.

CONDUCTION IN LIQUIDS AND GASES:

Liquids and gases transfer heat at a very slow rate i.e. they are relatively poor conductors of heat.
This is because their molecules are apart.

An experiment to show that water is a poor conductor of heat:

𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎
𝑩𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑻𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕

𝑰𝒄𝒆 𝒘𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒅
𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒛𝒆

▪ Ice is wrapped in a wire gauze and then placed in the test tube. The wire gauze is used to keep ice
at the bottom of the test tube.
▪ The test tube is then filled with water.
▪ The water near the mouth of the test tube is heated.
▪ It is observed that water at the top starts to boil before the ice at the bottom starts to melt.
▪ This shows that there is little conduction of heat from the top to the bottom by water hence water
is a poor conductor of heat.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

An experiment to show that mercury is a better conductor of heat than water:

𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

𝑾𝒂𝒙 𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅

𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒌
▪ Two test tubes are filled with equal volumes of water and mercury respectively.
▪ A cork is attached to the bottom of each test tube.
▪ A piece of thick copper rod is bent twice at right angles and its ends are put in the test tubes
respectively as shown above.
▪ The centre of the copper rod is heated such that heat is conducted equally into water and mercury
test tubes.
▪ After a short period of time, wax on the mercury-filled test tube melts and the cork falls while
that on the water-filled test tube remains attached for a long period of time.
▪ This shows that heat reaches the wax faster through mercury than in water hence mercury is a
better conductor of heat than water.

CONVECTION:
This is the transfer of heat through a fluid from a region of high temperature to a region of low
temperature by movement of the fluid itself.
NOTE:
➢ Convection occurs in only fluids (i.e. liquids and gases) because they can flow easily and
cannot occur in solids since they can’t flow.
➢ Convection cannot occur in a vacuum because it requires a material medium.
Explanation of convection in fluids:
When a fluid is heated, it expands and becomes less dense than the surrounding cold fluid.
The heated fluid rises upwards and the space left is filled with the surrounding cold fluid.
As the warm fluid rises, it gives heat to the surrounding cold fluid thus forming a cyclic movement
called convectional currents.

Definition:
Convectional currents are rising and falling fluid caused by a change in temperature and density of
a fluid.

𝑯𝒐𝒕, 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒔

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒅, 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

An experiment to show convectional currents in liquids:

𝑹𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒌

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
(𝑷𝒖𝒓𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓)
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑪𝒓𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒖𝒎
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕

Procedures:
▪ A round bottomed flask is filled with clean water.
▪ A few crystals of potassium permanganate are placed at the bottom of the flask using a glass
tube.
▪ The bottom of the flask is gently heated.
Observation:
▪ It is observed that the purple colour of potassium permanganate is seen moving upwards and on
reaching the top, it spreads and then moves downwards forming convectional currents.
Explanation:
▪ When the solution at the bottom of the flask is heated, it expands and become less dense than the
surrounding water thus moving upwards. The surrounding cold and dense water flows to the
bottom to replace the risen water.
▪ So, the water circulates in the flask hence forming convectional currents.

An experiment to show convectional currents in gases:

𝑪𝒉𝒊𝒎𝒏𝒆𝒚𝒔 𝑺𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓

𝑨 𝑩
𝑺𝒎𝒐𝒌𝒆

𝑳𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆

Procedures:
▪ Fit two glass chimneys to the top of a box with a glass window.
▪ Light a candle and place it below chimney A.
▪ Introduce smoke into the box by placing a piece of smouldering paper in the other chimney B.
Observation:
▪ It is observed that all the smoke from chimney B moves out of the box through chimney A above
the candle.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Explanation:
▪ When the air above the candle is heated, it expands and becomes less dense than the surrounding
air thus rises and moves out through chimney A.
▪ Since the surrounding air (smoke) is cooler and denser, therefore, it sinks into the box through
chimney B to replace the risen hot air.
▪ The difference in densities of the air at the different chimneys sets up a convectional current.

NOTE:
Convection occurs much more readily in gases than in liquids because they expand much more than
liquids when heated.

APPLICATIONS OF CONVECTIONAL CURRENTS IN DAILY LIFE

a) Sea breeze:
This is the cool air that blows from sea to land during day time.

𝑾𝒂𝒓𝒎 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒔

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒔𝒆𝒂

𝑺𝑬𝑨 𝑳𝑨𝑵𝑫

▪ During day, the land is heated more than the sea by the sun because land is a good absorber
of heat and has a lower specific heat capacity than the sea.
▪ The increase in temperature of land causes the air above the land to expand and become less
dense thus rising up.
▪ The space left by the warm air above the land is filled up by the cold air that blows from sea.
▪ This results into a sea breeze during day time.

b) Land breeze:
This is the cool air that blows from land to sea at night.

𝑾𝒂𝒓𝒎 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒔

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅

𝑳𝑨𝑵𝑫
𝑺𝑬𝑨

▪ At night, the land is no longer heated by the sun so it cools very rapidly than the sea since
land is a good emitter of heat than the sea. Therefore, the sea is warmer than the land at night.
▪ The warm air above the sea rises up since it is less dense.
▪ The space left by the warm air above the sea is filled up by the cold air that blows from land.
▪ This results into a land breeze at night.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

c) Ventilation:
▪ Air inside a room is heated up on a hot day. This heated air (warm air) expands and becomes less
dense thus rising up and flow out through the ventilators.
▪ The space left by the risen warm air is filled up with fresh cool air which passes through the
windows and the doors.
▪ This results into circulation of air in the room thus forming convectional currents.

Question1:
Explain why ventilators are constructed above the windows and doors.
The ventilators help to move out hot air from the room. Since hot air is less dense than cold air, it
rises up and moves out of the room through these ventilators. The cool air which is denser sinks
into the room through the windows and doors. This circulation of air helps to cool the room.
If the ventilators were put near the floor, the hot air would not leave the room but just stays at the
upper part of the room thus keeping the room hot.

Question 2:
Explain how a chimney makes life comfortable in a kitchen.
A chimney helps to drive out smoke and oily-filled air during cooking thus reducing indoor
pollution in the kitchen.
During cooking, smoke and some oily-filled air which are denser are produced thus rising up and
moves out of the kitchen through the chimneys thus making the kitchen more conducive.

d) Hot water domestic supply system:

𝑴𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒄𝒌
𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑫
𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑨
𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌
𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑪
𝑩
𝑩𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒓

▪ Cold water is supplied to the boiler through the cold-water supply pipes A and B.
▪ In the boiler, cold water is heated, expands and becomes less dense thus raising up to the hot
water storage tank through pipe C. At the same time an equal volume of cold water flows to
the boiler through the supply.
▪ As more cold water is supplied to the boiler, hot water is displaced upwards and supplied to
the hot water supply taps.

NOTE:
❖ The expansion pipe D allows escape of dissolved air which comes out of the water when it is
heated. Therefore, if the expansion pipe is not there, the dissolved air which comes out when
water is heated may cause air locks in the pipes thus causing explosion.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

❖ Pipes A and B are connected to bottom part of hot water storage tank and boiler respectively
because they carry cold water which is denser.
❖ Pipe C leaves the boiler at the top and enters the hot water storage tank at the top part because
it carries hot water which is less dense.

e) Electric kettles have their heating coil at the bottom:

The heating coil (element) of an electric kettle is placed at the bottom. Therefore, one can boil
any amount of water that can cover the element effectively. Hot water which is less dense than
cold water rises above the hot element to the top of the water and the denser cold water sinks
down to the hot element. This sets up convection currents which make the water to boil
uniformly.

Question: State one difference between convection and conduction.

Conduction: Convection:
Heat is transferred from a region of Heat is transferred from a region of
high temperature to region of low high temperature to region of low
temperature without the movement temperature by the movement of
of matter as a whole. fluid itself.

RADIATION:
This is the transfer of heat from one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves.
Since electromagnetic waves do not require a material medium to transfer their energy, therefore
radiation does not need a material medium for heat energy to be transmitted.
Examples of heat transfer by radiation include;
→ Heat from the sun reaching the earth.
→ A hot body or fire losing heat to the surrounding.
NOTE:
➢ Heat transferred by means of radiation can travel through a vacuum.
➢ Radiation is the fastest means of heat transfer since it travels at the speed of light.
➢ The energy from a hot body is called radiant energy.

Factors affecting the rate of heat transfer by radiation:

• Temperature of the body: A hotter body radiates heat faster compared to a cold body.
• Surface area of the body: Bodies with large surface areas (bigger areas) radiate much heat
energy per second.
• Nature of the surface of the body: Dull surfaces radiate heat energy faster than highly polished
surfaces.

GOOD AND BAD ABSORBERS OF HEAT

Good absorbers: These absorb most of the heat radiations and reflects less heat energy.
Dull and black surfaces absorb most of the heat and reflect a few so they are
good absorbers of heat.

Bad absorbers: These don’t absorb most of the heat radiations but reflect most of heat
radiations.
Shiny or polished surfaces reflect most of the heat radiations so they are bad
absorbers of heat.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

An experiment to show the absorption of radiation in a surface:

𝑫𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑺𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 (𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒅)

𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒌

𝑾𝒂𝒙 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆

Procedures:
▪ A dull and shiny (polished) surface are placed vertically at a short distance from each other.
▪ A cork is fixed on the back side of each surface by using wax.
▪ A heat source is placed mid-way between the two surfaces so that each surface receives the same
amount of radiation.
Observation:
▪ It is observed that the wax on the dull surface melts first and the cork falls off before the wax on
the shiny surface melts.
Explanation:
▪ A dull surface absorbed much heat faster than the shiny surface thus a dull surface is a good
absorber of heat radiation than the shiny one. The shiny surface just reflects the heat away from it.

Applications of good and bad absorbers

❖ Buildings in hot countries are painted white and roof surfaces are made shiny because white and
shiny surfaces are bad absorbers of heat radiation thus keeping the rooms cool.
❖ Petrol tanks on vehicles are polished to reflect away radiant heat.
❖ White coloured clothes are worn in dry season so that they reflect away heat thus keep us cool
❖ Sweaters and blankets are made with dull colours to absorb heat.
❖ The bottoms of cooking utensils are made black to absorb heat from the fire.

GOOD AND BAD EMITTERS OF HEAT

Basically, we say that the body emits heat if it can cause the temperature of a nearby body to
increase. A body relatively can’t emit heat if it can’t absorb it.
Good emitters: These absorb most of the heat radiations and reflects less heat energy.
Dull and black surfaces emit most of the heat so they are good emitters of
heat.

Bad emitters: These don’t absorb most of the heat radiations but reflect most of heat
radiations.
Shiny or polished surfaces reflect most of the heat radiations so they are bad
emitters of heat.

NOTE:
 Good absorbers of heat are also good emitters of heat.
 Bad absorbers of heat are also bad emitters of heat.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

An experiment to show good and bad emitters of heat (radiators of heat)

𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑮 𝑮𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑳𝒆𝒔𝒍𝒊𝒆′𝒔
𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒆
Procedures:
▪ A hollow copper cube (Leslie’s cube) with each side having a different surface (i.e. black, white
and shiny surface) is used.
▪ The cube is filled with hot water.
▪ The radiation from each surface is detected by a thermopile and the deflection of the
galvanometer observed.
Observation:
▪ The deflection of the galvanometer is greatest when the thermopile is facing the black surface
and least when facing the shiny surface.
Explanation:
▪ The dull black surface emits a lot of heat radiation than the shiny surface thus a great deflection
of the thermopile. Therefore, the dull and black surface is a good radiator or emitter of heat while
a shiny or polished surface is a poor emitter of heat radiations.

NOTE:
 A thermopile is a device which converts heat energy to electrical energy.
 A galvanometer is a device which measures small currents and small voltages.

Applications of good and bad emitters

❖ Tea pots and kettles are polished so that they don’t emit heat to the surrounding thus keeping
liquids inside hot.
❖ Cooling fins on refrigerators are painted black so that they can emit heat quickly to the
surrounding.

APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION
a) VACUUM FLASK (THERMOS FLASK):
This is a flask with two silvered walls enclosing a vacuum which keeps its contents at a fairly
constant temperature.
The vacuum is designed to either keep hot things hot or cold things cold.

𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒌

𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎
𝑺𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒔

𝑨𝒔𝒃𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒔 𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒍

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

How heat losses are minimised in a vacuum flask:

❖ Cork: A cork is a poor conductor of heats so it doesn’t allow heat to pass through it.
Therefore, it minimizes heat loss by conduction.
❖ Vacuum: A vacuum is a space without air. It minimizes heat loss by convection and
conduction.
❖ Silvered surfaces: These are highly polished surfaces which minimize heat loss by
radiation.
Silvered surfaces are poor radiators (emitters) of heat, therefore no
heat is allowed to go in and out of the flask.
NOTE:
 The vacuum seal seals the vacuum. Therefore, if its broken, the vacuum will no longer exist
thus causing heat losses through convection and conduction.
 When the hot liquid is kept in a vacuum flask for a long period of time, it eventually gets
cold. This is because little heat is lost at a smaller rate since all flasks are not too perfect
whereby some corks may conduct some heat, frequent opening of the flask etc.

b) CHOICE OF DRESSES AND CLOTHES:

On a hot day, a white dress is preferred to a dull dress because it reflects most of the heat
radiations that fall on it hence keeping the body cool.
On cold days, a dull or black woollen dress is preferred because it absorbs most of the heat
radiations thus retaining it for a longer period of time.

c) GREEN HOUSE EFFECT:

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the radiations
from the sun reaches the earth’s atmosphere, some it is reflected back and the rest is absorbed by
the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon
dioxide, ozone and other gases.
After absorbing the radiations from the sun, these greenhouse gases re-radiate these heat
radiations to the earth thus warming the atmosphere of the earth’s surface.

NOTE:
 When human activities like land clearing, deforestation, and burning fossil fuels increase,
they increase the concentration of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere thus causing
them to absorb more heat from the sun. This increased absorption of heat radiations from
the sun leads to excessive warming of the earth. This is called global warming.

GREEN HOUSE:

A green house is a house that supports plant growth

by allowing in radiations from sun and preventing
𝑺𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 radiations emitted by the green plants from escaping.
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒔

𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

How a green house works:

▪ The sun emits radiations of short wavelength to the earth. These radiations enter the green house
through the glass walls.
▪ The plants and soil in the green house absorb these radiations hence their temperature is raised
thus becoming warmer.
▪ The warm plants and soil in the green house re-radiate (re-emit) radiations of long wavelength.
▪ Since long wavelength radiations are less penetrative, they are unable to pass through the glass
walls of the green house thus causing the temperature inside to continue rising.

EXERCISE:
1. a) Explain why the sea remains cooler than land during daytime and warmer than land at night.
b) State two factors that affects the rate of heat transfer along a metallic rod.
c) Describe an experiment to show that water is a poor conductor of heat.

2. a) Draw a well labelled diagram of a thermos flask.

b) Explain how the features on the thermos flask above enables to keep a liquid warm.
c) State two circumstances where the warm liquid in the flask above can get ultimately cold.

3. Explain the following observations;

i) A person should crawl on the floor in a smoke-filled room.
ii) Ventilators are put near the ceilings of houses.
iii) Houses in North-African countries like Egypt are painted white.
iv) Flames of fire move upwards.

4. a) Distinguish between Conduction and radiation.

b) Explain why the metallic blade of the knife feels cold on a cold day.
c) Describe an experiment to show that wood is poor conductor of heat than copper.

5. a) Explain why a black coat is usually worn on a cold otherwise not on a hot day.
b) In an experiment to demonstrate the poor conductivity of water, ice is wrapped in a wire
gauze. Explain why this is so.

6. a) Define the term radiation.

b) Explain how a vacuum flask is able to keep a cold liquid cool for a long period of time.
c) Explain how global warming occurs in the earth’s atmosphere.

7. Explain the following observations;

i) Blankets are made of dull colours.
ii) Car radiators are coiled and painted black.
iii) A swimmer prefers to put on a wet cloth when diving in cold water.

8. a) Define the term good emitter of radiation.

b) Describe how a green house is able to support plant growth.

9. a) Explain the greenhouse effect and how it affects the earth’s atmosphere.
b) Explain why solar panels are painted black.

10. a) Describe an experiment to show convection in liquids.

b) Explain why electric kettles have their heating element at the bottom.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER

All the three states of matter (solids, liquids and gases) change in volume when heated
Definition:
Expansion is the increase in size of matter whenever matter is heated.
This increase in size of an object occurs in all directions.
Definition:
Contraction is the decrease in size of matter whenever matter is cooled.

EXPANSION IN SOLIDS
All solids expand when heated. Some solids expand greatly and others very little.

An experiment to demonstrate thermal expansion in solids:

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈

▪ A metal ball which just passes through the metal ring is used.
▪ The metal ball is heated for some time.
▪ It is observed that after heating the ball, it could not pass through the metal ring. This is because
the ball has expanded when heated.
▪ When the metal ball is cooled, it passes through the metal ring again. This indicated that on
cooling, the metal ball had contracted.

APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL EXPANSION

Thermal expansion in solids is applied in the following;
a) Bimetallic strip:
This is a strip made when two metals of different expansion rates are joined together e.g. Brass
and Iron.
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔
(𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦)

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏
(𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦)
When a bimetallic strip is heated, it forms a curve with a metal that expands more on the outside
and the metal that expands less on the inside.
Uses of bimetallic strips:
→ They are used in ringing bells of fire alarms.
→ They are used in thermostats in electrical appliances.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Fire alarms:

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒍

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕

𝑩𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒑

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒆

▪ When there is a fire outbreak in a room, the bimetallic strip is heated by fire. This causes it to
bend outwards thus completing the electrical circuit.
▪ When the circuit is complete, current flows to the electric bell thus causing it to ring.

Thermostats:
A thermostat is a device that keeps the temperature of a room or an electrical appliance to remain
constant.
Thermostats are used in the heating circuits of electric flat irons.

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒃

𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒔
𝑩𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒑
𝑻𝒐 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕
▪ The control knob is set to the required temperature.
▪ On reaching the required temperature, the bimetallic strip bends away thus breaking the circuit at
the contacts. This switches off the heater.
▪ On cooling, the bimetallic strip makes returns back to its original shape and makes contact again
thus completing the circuit. This switches on the heater.

Other applications of thermal expansion (Disadvantages of expansion):

b) Bridges:
Girders in bridges are made of mainly steel. During cold days bridges contract and during hot
days, the bridges expand. In order to allow room for expansion and contraction in bridges, the
bridge is constructed with one end fixed and the other end placed on rollers. This helps it contract
and expand freely without damaging the bridge.
𝑭𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅
𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒔
𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒈𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

c) Railways:
On a hot day, the rails are heated and they and they are bent due to expansion. This causes them
to get seriously damaged.

𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒍
𝑶𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝑶𝒏 𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔
In order to give room for expansion during hot days, railway lines are constructed with gaps
between the rails.
𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒔

𝑶𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝑶𝒏 𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔

d) Transmission wires:
The wires used in transmission of electricity and telephone cables are loosely fixed (sag) in order
to allow them expand freely during hot days and contract freely during cold days.

e) Rivets:
Rivets are tight joints obtained by riveting two metals together.
A hot rivet is pushed through a hole between two metals to be joined together and its end is
hammered flat. On cooling, it contracts and pulls the two metals together.

𝑹𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒕

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

LINEAR EXPANSIVITY OF A METAL:

When a metal is heated, its length increases after expansion and this increase in length is called linear
expansion. We distinguish between the rates of expansion of different metals by finding their linear
expansivities (coefficient of linear expansion).
Definition:
Linear expansivity of a material is the fraction of its original length which increases when its
temperature rises by 1K.
Therefore, linear expansivity depends on;
• Length of a material.
• Rise or change in temperature.
• Natural of material

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
∆𝑳
𝜶=
𝑳𝑶 × ∆𝜽
Where;
∆𝑳 = 𝑳𝟏 − 𝑳𝑶 (𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ − 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)
∆𝜽 = 𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝑶 (𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)
The SI unit of linear expansivity is 𝑲−𝟏 or ℃−𝟏 .
Examples:
1. The length of a metal rod is 800mm. It is found to increase to 801.36mm when heated from 15℃
to 100℃. Calculate the linear expansivity of the metal rod.
𝑳𝑶 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎, 𝑳𝟏 = 𝟖𝟎𝟏. 𝟑𝟔𝒎𝒎, ∆𝑳 = (𝟖𝟎𝟏. 𝟑𝟔 − 𝟖𝟎𝟎) = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔𝒎𝒎
𝜽𝑶 = 𝟏𝟓℃, 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃, ∆𝜽 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟓) = 𝟖𝟓℃

∆𝑳
𝜶=
𝑳𝑶 × ∆𝜽
𝟏. 𝟑𝟔
𝜶=
𝟖𝟎𝟎 × 𝟖𝟓
𝜶 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐 /℃

2. Calculate the linear expansion (change in length) of aluminium cable 50m between two electric
poles when its temperature rises by 40℃. The linear expansivity of aluminium is 2.6 × 10−5 ℃−1 .
𝑳𝑶 = 𝟓𝟎𝒎, ∆𝑳 =?
∆𝜽 = 𝟒𝟎℃, 𝜶 = 𝟐. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 ℃−𝟏

∆𝑳
𝜶=
𝑳𝑶 × ∆𝜽
∆𝑳
𝟐. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 =
𝟓𝟎 × 𝟒𝟎
∆𝑳 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟐. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
∆𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟐𝒎

3. A metal rod has length of 100cm at 200℃. At what temperature will its length be 99.4𝑐𝑚 if the
linear expansivity is 0.00002 𝐾 −1?
𝑳𝑶 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝑳𝟏 = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟒𝒄𝒎, ∆𝑳 = (𝟗𝟗. 𝟒 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎) = −𝟎. 𝟔𝒄𝒎
𝜽𝑶 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎℃, 𝜽𝟏 =?, 𝜶 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐 𝑲−𝟏

∆𝑳 ∆𝜽 = 𝜽𝟎 − 𝜽𝟏
𝜶=
𝑳𝑶 × ∆𝜽 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝜽𝟏
−𝟎. 𝟔 𝜽𝟏 = (𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎)
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐 = 𝜽𝟏 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟎𝟎 × ∆𝜽
−𝟎. 𝟔
∆𝜽 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐
∆𝜽 = −𝟑𝟎𝟎℃

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

4. A steel bridge is 2.5m long. If the linear expansivity of steel is 1.1 × 10−5 𝐾 −1, how much will it
expand when temperature rises by 5℃?
𝑳𝑶 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎, ∆𝑳 =?
∆𝜽 = 𝟓℃, 𝜶 = 𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑲−𝟏

∆𝑳
𝜶=
𝑳𝑶 × ∆𝜽
∆𝑳
𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 =
𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟓
∆𝑳 = 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟓 × 𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
∆𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟓𝒎

EXERCISE:
1. Calculate the new length of the metal given that its new length is 50cm when heated from 0℃ to
25℃. (𝛼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 1.8 × 10−5 /℃).
2. A metal rod is 64.5cm long at 12℃ and 64.6cm at 90℃. Find the coefficient of linear expansion,
(𝛼) of its material.
3. A rod is found to be 0.04cm longer at 30℃ than it was at 10℃. Calculate its length at 10℃ if the
linear expansivity is 2.0 × 10−5 ℃−1 .
4. The length of iron rod is 100℃ is 300.36cm and at 150℃ is 300.54cm. Calculate its length at
0℃.

An experiment to measure the linear expansivity of a metal:

𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒊𝒏 𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒓𝒐𝒅
𝑱𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕

𝑴𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒆
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

▪ The original length, 𝐿0 of the brass rod is measured using a metre rule.
▪ The brass rod with a thermometer is placed in a steam jacket.
▪ The micrometer screw gauge is screwed up so that there is no gap at either ends of the brass rod.
The reading, 𝑙1 of the micrometer screw gauge is recorded.
▪ The initial temperature of the brass rod, 𝜃1 is recorded.
▪ The micrometer screw gauge is unscrewed to leave room for expansion of the brass rod.
▪ The steam is passed through the jacket for a few minutes.
▪ The micrometer screw gauge is screwed up again so that there is no gap at either ends of the
brass rod. The reading, 𝑙2 of the micrometer screw gauge is recorded.
▪ The final temperature of the brass rod, 𝜃2 is recorded.
▪ Then linear expansivity of the metal is got from;
(𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )
𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑳𝟎 ∆𝜽

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

EXPANSION IN LIQUIDS:
Liquids expand when heated. Different liquids have different expansion rates when equally heated.
Liquids expand more than solids since their molecule are far apart compared to those of solids thus
their intermolecular forces are weak.

An experiment to demonstrate expansion of a liquid e.g. water:

𝑵𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒘 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑹𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒌

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕

Procedure:
▪ The flask is completely filled with coloured water.
▪ A narrow glass tube is passed through the hole of the cork and the cork is fixed tightly into the
flask.
▪ The initial level of water in the narrow glass tube is observed.
▪ The bottom of the flask is then heated.
▪ The new level of water in the narrow glass tube is observed.
Observation:
It is observed that the level of water in the narrow glass tube first falls and then starts to rise again.
Explanation:
▪ When the flask is heated, the flask gets heated first before the heat is passed to the water inside it.
Therefore, the flask expands first and increase in volume before the water causing a fall in the
water level.
▪ However, when the heat reaches the water, it expands and increase in volume thus its level starts
to rise in the narrow tube.

An experiment to compare the expansions of different liquids:

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒍 𝑬𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓

𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒂𝒕𝒉

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

▪ Three identical glass flasks are filled with water, ethanol and ether respectively to the same level.
▪ The glass flasks are heated by placing them in hot water which is maintained at the same
temperature.
▪ It is observed that after some time, the liquid levels rise to different levels. This shows that
different liquids expand differently for the same temperature change.
▪ It is also observed that ether expands more than ethanol and water.

ANOMALOUS (ABNORMAL) EXPANSION OF WATER

Liquids expand steadily when heated i.e. when their temperature increases.
Water has an abnormal behaviour whereby when its temperature rises from 0℃ to 4℃, it contracts
instead of expanding. This situation is referred to as the anomalous expansion of water.

Definition:
Anomalous expansion of water is the abnormal behaviour of water whereby it contracts instead of
expanding when its temperature rises from 0℃ to 4℃.

Volume against temperature graph showing expansion of water

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

𝑩
𝑬
𝑨
𝑪 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑫

−𝟒 𝟎 𝟒 𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 (℃)

AB: As ice is heated, it expands until when its temperature reaches 0℃ where it melts to form water.
BC: Ice melts to form water at 0℃.
CD: As the temperature rises, the water 0℃ contracts until 4℃.
DE: As the temperature exceeds 4℃, water starts to expand steadily.
From the graph, water has its minimum volume at 4℃. Thus, the density of water is maximum when
the temperature is 4℃.

Density against temperature graph showing expansion of water

𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

−𝟒 𝟎 𝟒 𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 (℃)

From the graph, the density of water is maximum at 4℃.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

NOTE:
 At 0℃, the volume of ice is greater than the volume of water. Therefore, the density of
ice is less than the density of water. This explains why ice floats when mixed with water.
Question: Explain why ice floats on water.
This is because for a given mass of ice at 𝟎℃, its volume is always greater than the
volume of water. Therefore, the density of ice is always less than the density of water
thus causing it to float on water.

Biological importance of anomalous expansion of water

QN: Explain how anomalous expansion of water helps to preserve the lives of aquatic animals.
Preserving aquatic life in ponds and lakes:
The effect of anomalous expansion of water is that the coldest water always floats on top of the
surface of the other water since it is less dense.
Since water at 4℃ is the heaviest (denser), this water settles at the bottom of the lake and the lightest
(less dense) water settles at the top layer of the lake.
During winter, the water at the top is the first to freeze to ice. Since ice is a poor conductor of heat, it
insulates the rest of the water below it from the coldness of the winter.
This helps to preserve the lives of aquatic animals in water.

𝑳𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒄𝒆

𝟎℃ 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒑
𝟏℃
𝟐℃
𝟑℃
𝟒℃ 𝑴𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎
NOTE: Anomalous expansion also helps in weathering of rocks.

Disadvantages of the abnormal expansion of water:

▪ It prevents water from being used as a thermometric liquid.
▪ It causes the bursting of water pipes when water flowing through them freezes.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

EXPANSION IN GASES
When a gas is heated, the gas molecules gain more energy and move further apart thus occupying
more space. Therefore, gases expand more than the liquids and solids since their molecules are
widely spaced and their intermolecular forces are very weak.

An experiment to show expansion in gases:

𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒌

𝑨𝒊𝒓
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒌

𝑵𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒘 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒓
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝒃𝒖𝒃𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒔

▪ Water is poured in a beaker.

▪ A narrow glass tube is passed through the hole of the cork and the cork is fixed tightly into the
flask.
▪ The flask is then inverted and dipped in the beaker filled in water.
▪ The flask is then gently heated.
▪ It is observed that level of water in the narrow glass tube falls and air bubbles are seen coming
out from the other end of the tube. This shows that air expands when heated and pushes the water
in the tube downwards.
▪ On cooling the flask, air in the flask contracts and water rises up in the narrow glass tube since
more space has been created in the flask.

APPLICATIONS OF EXPANSION IN GASES:

It is applied in;
Hot air balloons:
When air in the balloon is heated, it expands and becomes less dense thus rising.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 31

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

EXERCISE:
1. a) Explain why gases expand much more than solids for the same temperature change.
b) State and explain the advantages and disadvantages of anomalous expansion of water.
2. The figure below shows a strip of copper and iron bonded together.
𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓
𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏

a) Redraw the diagram to show what happens when the strip is heated.
b) Why does the change you have shown in (a) above takes place?
3. a) Define the following terms;
i) Contraction of a material.
ii) Expansion of a material.
b) Describe an experiment to demonstrate expansion and contraction in solids.
c) State any one application of expansion in solids.
4. a) Describe an experiment to show expansion in liquids.
c) Explain anomalous expansion of water and give its importance to aquatic life.
5. Air was trapped in a round bottomed flask as shown below. The flask is inverted in a beaker of
water and then gently heated.

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑘

𝐺𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑟

a) State what was observed when the flask is heated.

b) Explain your observation in (a) above.
6. Two flasks with a mercury manometer are arranged as shown in the figure below. Flask A is
painted black while flask B is polished white. A flame is then placed midway between them.

𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒌 𝑨 𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒌 𝑩

𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒆

𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

a) State what is observed.

b) Explain your observation.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 32

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT:
When current flows in a wire, a magnetic field is created around the wire.
The direction of magnetic field created is determined by the direction of current.
❖ If a straight vertical wire passing through the center of a card board held horizontally with
iron fillings and current is passed through the wire, iron fillings sprinkled on the card board
make concentric circles when the board is tapped.

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅

𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒃𝒐𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉
𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔

𝑾𝒊𝒓𝒆

Experiment to show magnetic effect of an electric current using a compass needle.

𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒃𝒐𝒂𝒓𝒅

𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅

𝐀
▪ A card board is held horizontally with a vertical copper wire passing through the centre of the
card board.
▪ Iron fillings are sprinkled all over the card board and current is switched on.
▪ The card board is tapped and the iron fillings arrange themselves in series of concentric
circles. This shows that a magnetic field has been created around the wire.
▪ A plotting compass is placed at different positions around the wire on the card board to
determine the direction of magnetic field.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE: The concentric circles are close to each other near the wire showing that magnetic force
is stronger near the wire.

DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD AND CURRENT

The direction of the magnetic field around the wire can be determined by the following rules.
Right hand grip rule:
It states that if a wire is held in the right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of current
then the other fingers point in the direction of magnetic field.

𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒎𝒃 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑶𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆

𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅

Maxwell’s cork-screw rule:

It states that if the right hand is used to screw a screw a cork-screw along the wire in the
direction of current, the direction of rotation of the screw gives the direction of magnetic field.
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERN DUE TO A STRAIGHT WIRE CARRYING CURRENT.

(a) Straight wire carrying current into a paper:
We use a cross

𝐎𝐑

(b) Straight carrying current out of paper:

We use a dot

𝐎𝐑

(c) Two straight wires carrying current in the same direction:

𝐎𝐑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(d) Two straight wires carrying current in opposite directions:

(e) Current due to a circular coil:

(f) Current due to a circular coil:

𝐎𝐑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

ELECTRO-MAGNETS
If a piece of iron is placed inside a solenoid, it becomes strongly magnetized when the current is
flowing. When current is switched off, the iron loses its magnetism. Such a device is called an
electromagnet.
Definition:
An electromagnet is a magnet produced when a magnetic material is placed in a
solenoid carrying current.

Factors that affect the strength of an electromagnet:

❖ Number of turns of the solenoid:
Increasing the number of turns of the solenoid increases the strength of the electromagnet.
❖ Amount of current flowing in the solenoid:
Increasing the current flowing in the solenoid increases the strength the electromagnet.
❖ Nature of magnetic material used:
If soft iron is used, it has much strength because iron is easily magnetized and easily
demagnetized.
❖ Shape of magnetic material used:
If the poles of the magnetic material are close to each other the electromagnet produced is
stronger. A horse-shoe magnet produces a stronger electromagnet.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS
Electromagnets are frequently used in the following devices.
▪ Lifting magnets.
▪ Electric bells.
▪ Telephone receiver.
▪ Moving coil loud speaker.
▪ Magnetic relays.

LIFTING MAGNETS:
In steel industries, electromagnets are used for lifting and transporting heavy steel from one
place to another in a factory.
The electromagnets are made of several coils of an insulated copper wire wound on a U-shaped
soft iron so that an opposite polarity is produced.
The opposite adjacent poles increase the lifting power of the electromagnet.
𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝐍 𝐒

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

ELECTRIC BELL:
Structure:
It consists of a hammer, a gong, soft iron armature, contact adjusting screw, a push switch, steel
spring and an electromagnet made of two coils wound in opposite directions on the iron cores.
𝑩𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒚

𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒉 𝒔𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘
𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆

(𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕) 𝑯𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓

𝑮𝒐𝒏𝒈

Mode of operation of an electric bell:

▪ When the switch is pressed, current flows in the circuit and magnetizes the soft iron core
which becomes an electromagnet.
▪ The electromagnet attracts the soft iron armature which makes the hammer to hit the gong
and a loud sound is heard.
▪ As the armature is attracted, the contact between the spring and the contact screw is broken
thus cutting off the current.
▪ The electromagnet loses its magnetism and the spring returns back to its original position and
makes the contact again.
▪ The process is repeated and the hammer hits the gong repeatedly making continuous ringing.

TELEPHONE RECEIVER (EAR PIECE):

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒅

𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒚 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒑𝒉𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒎

𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 (𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ When a person speaks into a telephone microphone, sound energy is converted into electric
current. The current produced is varying and has the same frequency as the sound from the
person.
▪ When the current passes through the solenoid in the telephone receiver, the soft iron
(electromagnet) is magnetized.
▪ The electromagnet produces a corresponding variation in the pull of the diaphragm.
▪ The diaphragm then vibrates and reproduces a copy of the sound produced by the person
through the microphone.

MAGNETIC RELAY:
A magnetic relay is a switch which uses a small current in a primary circuit to turn on or off a
larger current in the secondary circuit.
They are used in telephone circuits, traffic light circuits etc.

Mode of operation of a magnetic relay:

𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕

𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕
𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆
(𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕)
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒔𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉

▪ The primary circuit supplies current to the soft iron (electromagnet).

▪ The soft iron gets magnetized and it then attracts the iron armature.
▪ As the armature is attracted, the contacts of the second switch are closed and current flows to
the secondary circuit.
▪ When current in the primary circuit is switched off, the electromagnet loses its magnetism.
This makes the iron armature to return back to its original position thus making the contacts
of the second switch to become open again

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

CIRCUIT BREAKER:
This is an automatic switch that cuts off current in the circuit when current become too much.
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝟐

𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝟏

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕
When current in the circuit increases, the strength of the electromagnet will also increase thus
pulling the soft iron armature towards the electromagnet.
As a result, spring 1 pulls the contact apart and disconnects the circuit immediately and current
stops to flow.
The circuit can be reconnected back using a reset button by pushing down in order to bring the
contacts together.

FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

(MOTOR EFFECT)
When a conductor carrying current is placed across a magnetic field, it experiences a force

How a force on a current carrying conductor occurs:

A magnetic field exists around a conductor carrying current.
Therefore, when a conductor carrying current is placed across a magnetic field of a permanent
magnet, the magnetic field due to the current in the conductor interacts with the magnetic field
due to the permanent magnet. This interaction results in a force being produced on the conductor.

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

𝐍 𝐒 𝐍 𝐒

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒂 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
(a) Individual magnetic fields (b) Combined magnetic fields

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

DIRECTION OF FORCE:
The direction of force exerted on a conductor can be found by using Fleming’s left hand rule.

Fleming’s left hand rule;

It states that if the left hand is held with the thumb, first finger and second finger placed at right
angles to each other, the thumb points in the direction of force, the first finger points in the
direction of magnetic field and second finger points in the direction of current.

Illustration of Fleming’s left-hand rule:

F

N S S N
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒘𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒖𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

N S S N

F
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒘𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Example:
The diagram below shows a wire AB placed between the poles of a permanent magnet.
B

S N S N
A
State what is observed when current flows in the wire using Fleming’s left hand rule.
(i) In the direction AB.
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒖𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔
(ii) In the direction BA.
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔

Factors that affect magnitude of force on a current carrying conductor:

a) Amount of current:
Increasing the amount of current flowing in the conductor increases the magnitude of
force created.
b) Strength of magnetic field:
Increasing the strength of magnetic field increases the magnitude of force created. This
can be done by using a stronger magnet.
c) Length of a conductor:
Increasing the length of a conductor increases the magnitude of force created.
d) Cross sectional area of a conductor:
The larger the cross-sectional area of a conductor, the larger the force created.

NOTE:
When the magnetic field and current are parallel to each other, no force is exerted on the
conductor.

Force between two parallel conductors carrying current in opposite directions

F F

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒍 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Force between two parallel conductors carrying current in the same direction

X
F F

𝑶𝑹

X
F F

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓

APPLICATIONS OF MOTOR EFFECT

Force on a current carrying conductor can be applied in the following;
▪ Moving coil loud speaker
▪ D.C motor
▪ Moving coil galvanometer

MOVING COIL LOUD SPEAKER:

It consists of a light coil of wire known as a voice coil placed in a magnetic field provided by the
permanent magnet.
Loud speakers can be used in; radios, Bluetooth speakers etc.

𝑽𝒐𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆

𝑷𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒊𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔

𝑭𝒍𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔

𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Mode of operation of a moving coil galvanometer:

▪ When varying current flows into the voice coil in a radial magnetic field of the permanent
magnet, the voice coil experiences a varying force and vibrates at the same frequency as the
current.
▪ This sets the paper cone to also vibrate at the same frequency as the current in voice coil.
▪ The vibration of the paper cone sets the air in contact with it to vibrate thus a loud sound is
heard.

ELECTRIC MOTOR (D.C MOTOR)

The direct current motor converts electrical energy to kinetic energy.
They are used in; Printers, Fans, Water pumps etc.
Structure:
It consists of a rectangular coil which can rotate in a magnetic field provided by the permanent
magnet. The ends of the coil are connected to two halves of a copper ring (split rings or
commutators)
Two carbon brushes press against the commutators so that when the circuit is connected to a
battery the coil rotates.

B C
F

F
A D
N S
𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉

𝑹𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕

𝑺𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒖𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝑩𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒚
(𝑺𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 / 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈)

Mode of operation:
▪ When the switch is closed, current flows into the rectangular coil ABCD.
▪ Side CD experiences an upward force and side AB experiences a downward force according
to Fleming’s left hand rule.
▪ The two forces form a couple which causes the coil to rotate in the anticlockwise direction.
▪ When the coil rotates until it reaches the vertical position, the carbon brushes lose contact
with the commutator and current is cut off.
▪ However, the coil continues to rotate and passes over the vertical position due to the
momentum gained.
▪ The two commutators interchange contacts with the carbon brushes.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ This reverses the direction of current in the coil and the forces experienced by the sides of the
coil.
▪ The coil continues to rotate as long as current is flowing.

Energy losses in an electric motor and how they are minimized.

ENERGY LOSS HOW TO MINIMIZE IT
▪ Energy loss due friction e.g. between ▪ By lubricating i.e. oiling and greasing.
carbon brushes and commutators.
▪ Energy loss due to heating effect in the ▪ By using thick copper wires of low
coil due to resistance. resistance.
▪ Energy loss due to eddy currents. This is
as a result of the changing magnetic flux ▪ By winding the coil on a laminated iron
in the coil. core.

Back emf of a motor;

When the coil cuts across the magnetic field of the permanent magnets, an emf is induced and acts
in an opposite direction to the emf applied to rotate the motor.
The new emf induced is called back emf.
𝑳𝒆𝒕;
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑰𝑨
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑬
𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝑬𝑩
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑹𝑨
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏;
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒎𝒇
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑬 − 𝑬𝑩
𝑰𝑨 =
𝑹𝑨

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑰𝑨 𝑬 𝑩
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑰𝑨 𝑬
𝑬𝑩
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬

The efficiency or strength of an electric motor can be increased by;

▪ Increasing current flowing through the coils.
▪ Increasing the number of turns in the coil.
▪ Using a stronger magnet to increase the strength of magnetic field.
▪ Winding the coil on a soft-magnetic material e.g. soft-iron.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
1. A motor whose armature resistance is 2Ω is operated on a 240V mains supply. Given the
back emf in the motor is 220V.
Calculate;
(i) the current through the armature.
(ii) the efficiency of the motor.
(i) (ii)
𝑹𝑨 = 𝟐𝛀, 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽, 𝑬𝑩 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝑽 𝑬𝑩
𝑬 − 𝑬𝑩 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬
𝑰𝑨 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝑹𝑨 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐𝟒𝟎 − 𝟐𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝑰𝑨 = 𝜼 = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟕%
𝟐
𝟐𝟎
𝑰𝑨 =
𝟐
𝑰𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎𝑨

2. The current through the armature of an electric motor of resistance 6Ω is 2A. If the armature
is connected to a 120V mains supply, calculate the efficiency of the motor.

𝑹𝑨 = 𝟔𝛀, 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑽, 𝑬𝑩
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬𝑩 =?, 𝑰𝑨 = 𝟐𝑨, 𝜼 =? 𝑬
𝑬 − 𝑬𝑩 𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝑰𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑹𝑨 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟐𝟎 − 𝑬𝑩 𝜼 = 𝟗𝟎%
𝟐=
𝟔
𝑬𝑩 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐
𝑬𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝑽
Exercise:
1. A 240V vacuum cleaner motor takes a current of 0.6A. Find the efficiency of the motor if the
useful mechanical power output is 72W. State how the rest of the energy is being wasted.
2. An electric motor 90% efficient operates a water pump. If it raises 0.9kg of water through
20m every second, calculate;
(i) Power output by the motor.
(ii) Back emf through the motor if the current through it is 5A.
(iii) Electric power supplied to the motor (power input).

MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER:

This is a device used to detect small currents and small potential differences (voltages)

Structure:
It consists of a rectangular coil wound on an aluminium former and placed over a cylindrical iron
core. The coil rotates in the radial magnetic field provided by the poles of the permanent
magnets. The radial magnetic field ensures that the coil is always perpendicular to magnetic flux.
Current flows in and out of galvanometer through the hair springs.
The hair springs also controls the rotation of the coil and the pointer.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

𝑺𝟐
𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆

𝑯𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔
Mode of operation of a moving coil galvanometer:
▪ When current flows through the coil, the two vertical sides experience parallel opposite forces.
▪ The two forces form a couple which causes to rotate until it is stopped by the hair springs.
▪ As the coil rotates, the pointer deflects on the linear scale showing the amount of current
flowing in the coil.
▪ When current stops flowing, the hair springs return the pointer to zero position on the scale.

SENSITIVITY OF A GALVANOMETER:
A galvanometer is said to be more sensitive if it can detect very small currents and very small
voltages.
There are two types of sensitivity namely;
Current sensitivity: This is the deflection per unit current.
Voltage sensitivity: this is the deflection per unit voltage.

How to increase the sensitivity of a galvanometer.

• By using a strong magnet to provide a strong magnetic field.
• By increasing the number of turns on the coil.
• By using a coil of large cross sectional area.
• By using very weak hair springs.

Advantages of a moving coil galvanometer:

• It is used to measure both alternating and direct current.
• It has a linear scale.
• It is not affected by external magnetic fields.
• It is portable.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

CONVERTING A GALVANOMETER INTO A VOLTMETER

Recall: A voltmeter has a high resistance so that no current can pass through it.
A galvanometer reads very small voltages in milli-voltages and can be converted into a voltmeter
to read large voltages.
This can be done by connecting a multiplier in series with the galvanometer.
Definition:
A multiplier is a resistor of high resistance.
𝑹𝒈
𝑰𝒈 𝑰𝒎
𝑰 𝑮 𝑹𝒎

𝑽𝒈 𝑽𝒎

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃. 𝑑 = 𝑃. 𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑃. 𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟

𝑽 = 𝑽𝒈 + 𝑽𝒎
But from Ohm’s law 𝑉𝑔 = 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 , 𝑉𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚
𝑽 = 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈 + 𝑰 𝒎 𝑹𝒎
Since the galvanometer and multiplier are in series, the current through galvanometer is equal to
current through multiplier i.e. 𝑰𝒈 = 𝑰𝒎

𝑽 = 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈 + 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒎

Examples:
1. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 6Ω gives a full scale deflection of 15mA. How can
it be converted to a voltmeter which can measure a maximum voltage of 5V?
15
𝐈𝑔 = 15mA = = 0.015A 𝐕 = 5V
1000
𝑹𝒈 = 𝟔𝛀
𝑰𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝑨 𝑰𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝑨
𝑮 𝑹𝒎

𝑽𝒈 𝑽𝒎

𝑽 = 𝑽𝒈 + 𝑽𝒎
𝑽 = 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈 + 𝑰 𝒎 𝑹𝒎
𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓 × 𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓 × 𝑹𝒎
𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝑹𝒎
𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗
= 𝑹𝒎
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝑹𝒎 = 𝟑𝟐𝟕. 𝟑𝟑𝛀
A multiplier of 327.33Ω should be connected in series with the galvanometer.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. A moving coil galvanometer reads 0.05A at full scale deflection and has a resistance of 2Ω.
Calculate the resistance that should be connected in series with the galvanometer so as to
convert it to a voltmeter which reads 15V at full scale deflection.
𝐈𝑔 = 0.05A 𝐕 = 15V
𝑹𝒈 = 𝟐𝛀
𝑰𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝑨 𝑰𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝑨
𝑮 𝑹𝒎

𝑽𝒈 𝑽𝒎
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒈 + 𝑽𝒎
𝑽 = 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈 + 𝑰 𝒎 𝑹𝒎
𝟏𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 × 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 × 𝑹𝒎
𝟏𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝑹𝒎
𝟏𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟏
= 𝑹𝒎
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝑹𝒎 = 𝟐𝟗𝟖𝛀
A multiplier of 298Ω should be connected in series with the galvanometer.

CONVERTING A GALVANOMETER INTO AN AMMETER

Recall: An ammeter has a very low resistance so that a large current can pass through it.
A galvanometer reads very small currents in milli-amperes and can be converted into an ammeter
to read large currents.
This can be done by connecting a shunt in parallel with the galvanometer.
Definition:
A shunt is a resistor of low resistance.
𝑹 𝒈 , 𝑽𝒈
𝑰 𝑰𝒈
𝑮
𝑰𝒔

𝑹𝒔
𝑽𝒔
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡.
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒈 + 𝑰𝒔
𝑰𝒔 = 𝑰 − 𝑰𝒈
Since the galvanometer and shunt are in parallel, the P,d across the galvanometer is equal to P.d
across the shunt.
𝐕𝒈 = 𝐕𝒔
But from Ohm’s law 𝑉𝑔 = 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 , 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠
𝑰𝒈 𝑹𝒈 = 𝑰𝒔 𝑹𝒔

𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈
𝐑𝒔 =
𝑰𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
1. A galvanometer of resistance 20Ω gives a full scale deflection of 5mA. How can it be
converted to an ammeter which can measure a maximum current of 2A?
5 𝐕𝒈 = 𝐕𝒔
𝑰𝒈 = 5𝑚𝐴 = = 0.005𝐴
1000 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈 = 𝑰 𝒔 𝑹𝒔
𝑹𝒈 = 20𝛺 , 𝑽𝒈 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟓 × 𝑹𝒔
𝑰 = 𝟐𝑨 𝑰𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝑨 𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟓𝑹𝒔
𝑮 𝟎. 𝟏
𝐑𝒔 =
𝑰𝒔 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟓
𝐑 𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝛀
𝑹𝒔
𝑽𝒔 A shunt of resistance 0.05Ω should be
connected in parallel with the
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒈 + 𝑰𝒔 galvanometer.
𝑰 𝒔 = 𝑰 − 𝑰𝒈
𝑰𝒔 = 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑰𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟓𝑨

2. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 4Ω gives a full scale deflection of 25mA. Calculate
the value of the resistance required to convert to convert it to an ammeter which reads 15A at
f.s.d.
25 𝐕𝒈 = 𝐕𝒔
𝑰𝒈 = 25𝑚𝐴 = = 0.025𝐴
1000 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈 = 𝑰 𝒔 𝑹𝒔
𝑹𝒈 = 4𝛺 , 𝑽𝒈 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 × 𝟒 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟕𝟓 × 𝑹𝒔
𝑰 = 𝟏𝟓𝑨 𝑰𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝑨 𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟕𝟓𝑹𝒔
𝑮 𝟎. 𝟏
𝐑𝒔 =
𝑰𝒔 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟕𝟓
𝐑 𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟕𝟖𝛀
𝑹𝒔
𝑽𝒔 A shunt of resistance 0.006678Ω should be
connected in parallel with the
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒈 + 𝑰𝒔 galvanometer.
𝑰 𝒔 = 𝑰 − 𝑰𝒈
𝑰𝒔 = 𝟏𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓
𝑰𝒔 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟕𝟓𝑨

3. A moving coil galvanometer of internal resistance 4Ω gives a maximum deflection when a

current of 2mA flows through it. A shunt of resistance 0.06Ω is used to convert the
galvanometer into an ammeter.
(i) Find the current through the shunt.
(ii) The maximum current that can be measured by the set up.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2 (i)
𝑰𝒈 = 2𝑚𝐴 = = 0.002𝐴
1000 𝑽𝒈 = 𝑽𝒔
𝑹𝒈 = 4𝛺 , 𝑽𝒈 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈 = 𝑰 𝒔 𝑹𝒔
𝑰 =? 𝑰𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝑨 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐 × 𝟒 = 𝑰𝒔 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔
𝑮 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝑰𝒔
𝑰𝒔 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖
𝑰𝒔 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟔
𝑰𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝑨
𝑹𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝛀, 𝑽𝒔
(ii)
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒈 + 𝑰𝒔
𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟑
𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝑨

4. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 5Ω and current sensitivity of 2 divisions per

milliampere gives a full-scale deflection of 16 divisions.
(i) Calculate current through the galvanometer.
(ii) Calculate the voltage across the galvanometer if 1division represents 2V.
(i) (ii)
Current sensitivity = 2div/mA Voltage sensitivity = 1div/2V
Full scale deflection = 16divisions Full scale deflection = 16divisions
2𝑑𝑖𝑣 1𝑚𝐴 1 𝑑𝑖𝑣 2𝑉
16𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐈𝐠 16𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐕𝐠
16
𝐈𝐠 = = 8𝑚𝐴 𝐕𝐠 = 16 × 2 = 32𝑉
2

EXERCISE:
1. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 4Ω gives a full scale deflection of 1.5mV. How
can it be converted to voltmeter which can measure a maximum voltage of 2𝑉?
Ans: [𝟓𝟑𝟐𝟗. 𝟑𝛺]
2. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 10Ω gives a full scale deflection of 25𝑚𝐴. How
can it be converted to an ammeter which can measure a maximum current of 2.5𝐴?
Ans: [𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝛺]
3. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 50Ω gives a full scale deflection of 5mV. How can
it be converted to an ammeter which can measure a maximum current of 2𝐴?
Ans: [𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓𝛺]
4. Consider a full scale deflection when a current of 15mA flow through it. If the resistance of
the galvanometer is 5Ω, find the magnitude of the resistance (multiplier) to be used for it to
measure a maximum 𝑝. 𝑑 of 15V
Ans: [𝟗𝟗𝟓𝛺]
5. A moving coil galvanometer has resistance of 0.5Ω and full scale deflection of 2mA. How
can it be modified to read current to voltage 10V
Ans: [4999 Ω]
6. A moving coil galvanometer has resistance of 0.5Ω and full scale deflection of 2mA. How
can it be adopted to read current 6A?
Ans: [1. 67 × 10−4 𝛺]

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

7. Consider a moving coil galvanometer which has resistance of 5Ω and full scale deflection
when a current of 15mA. A suppose a maximum current of 3A is to be measured using this
galvanometer. What is the value of the shunt required.
Ans: [𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝛺]
8. A galvanometer of internal resistance of 20Ω and full scale deflection of 5mA. How can it be
modified for use as;
(i) 1.0A ammeter
(ii) 100V voltmeter
Ans: (i). [𝟏. 𝟎𝟓𝛺] (ii). [𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟎𝛺]
9. A milliammeter has a full scale reading of 0.01A and has resistance 20Ω. Show how a
suitable resistor may be connected in order to use this instrument as a voltmeter reading up to
10V.
Ans: [𝟗𝟖𝟎𝛺]

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
When a conductor (e.g. wire) moves across a magnetic field such that it cuts the magnetic field
lines (magnetic flux), an emf/current is induced in the conductor.
Therefore, an emf is induced whenever magnetic flux changes and the induced emf causes
current to flow.

Definition:
Electromagnetic induction is the process by which an emf is induced in the coil due to
change in magnetic flux linking the coil.

Factors that determine the magnitude of induced emf/current:

(i) Number of turns;
The magnitude of induced emf is increased by increasing the number of turns of the coil.

(ii) Strength of the magnet;

The magnitude of induced emf can be increased by using a strong magnet to provide a
stronger magnetic field.

(iii) Area of coil in magnetic field;

The magnitude of induced emf is increased by placing a large area of coil into the
magnetic field.

(iv) Rate at which magnetic flux changes;

Increasing the speed of motion of a magnet in the coil increases the size of emf induced.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Direction of induced emf/current:

The direction of induced current can be found by Fleming’s right hand rule.
It states that if the thumb, first and second fingers are placed at right angles to each other,
• thumb points in the direction of force (motion)
• the first finger points in the direction of magnetic field
• second finger points in the direction of induced current.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:

There are two laws of electromagnetic induction namely;
− Faraday’s law
− Lenz’s law

Faraday’s law:
It states that the magnitude of induced emf in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linking the coil.

Lenz’s law:
It states that the induced current flows in a direction so as to oppose the change causing it.

Experiment to verify Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction:

Ends of a solenoid are connected to a galvanometer.
A magnet with its south pole facing towards the solenoid is moved into the coil and then pulled
out.

𝑨 𝑩
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒅
A
𝑺 𝑵

𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒔

𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑩 𝒂 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒉 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆

𝑮𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

When a magnet is moved/plunged into the solenoid;

▪ The galvanometer deflects to the left. This is because current is induced in the solenoid and
it flows in a clockwise direction to produce a South pole to oppose the approaching magnet.
(Fleming’s right hand rule)
▪ The magnet is repelled by the solenoid. This is because the induced current is flowing in the
direction that makes end B of the solenoid to be a south pole.

𝑨 𝑩
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒅

𝑺 𝑵
𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑩 𝒂 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆

A B
𝑮𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
When a magnet is pulled out of the solenoid;
▪ The galvanometer deflects to the right. This is because current is induced in the solenoid and
it flows in an anticlockwise direction to produce a North pole to oppose the leaving magnet.
(Fleming’s right hand rule)
▪ The magnet is attracted by the solenoid. This is because the induced current is flowing in the
direction that makes end B of the solenoid to be a north pole.

Note: The speed of deflection of pointer on the galvanometer increases when the magnet is
moved in and out at a faster rate.

Example:
1. The figure below shows a conductor connected to a galvanometer and placed in a magnetic
field of two magnets.

𝑺 𝑵
State what happens
(a) When the conductor is moved down.
The galvanometer deflects to the left showing that current is induced in the conductor and
it flows in clockwise direction.

(b) When the conductor is moved up.

The galvanometer deflects to the right showing that current is induced in the conductor
and it flows in anticlockwise direction.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(c) when conductor is slowly moved up and then moved down faster
The galvanometer deflects to the right slowly and then to the deflects to the left at a faster
rate.

2. The figure below shows a magnet moved towards a cylindrical coil connected to a
galvanometer.

𝑺 𝑵 𝑨 𝑩

(a) Explain what will be observed in the figure above.

The galvanometer deflects to the left because current is induced and it flows in a clockwise
direction so that the end A is made a North pole to oppose the approaching magnet thus
the magnet is repelled.
(b) State how the magnitude of current induced in the figure above can be increased.
- By increasing the number of turns of the coil.
- By using a stronger magnet.
- By increasing the speed at which the magnet is moving into the coil.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

It is applied in;
• Generators
• Transformers

GENERATORS
A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
There are two types of generators namely;
▪ Direct current generator (dynamo)
▪ Alternating current generator (alternator)

D.C generator (Dynamo)

Structure:
It consists of the following;
❖ Permanent magnets which provide strong magnetic fields.
❖ An armature/ rectangular coil which rotates in the magnetic field.
❖ Carbon brushes which get current from split rings (commutators)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

B C
F

F
A D
N S
𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉

𝑳𝑶𝑨𝑫
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒖𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓
(𝑺𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 / 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈)

Mode of operation of a d.c generator

▪ When the rectangular coil ABCD rotates, the magnetic flux linking the coil changes and an
emf is induced in the coil causing current to flow in the coil.
▪ When the coil passes over the vertical position, the split rings change contacts from one
carbon brush to another. This reverses the direction of current in the coil.
▪ Therefore, the direction of current flowing through the load remains the same.

A graph of induced emf against time for a d.c generator.

𝑬𝒎𝒇

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

Note: 𝑽𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

• The induced emf or current is maximum
when the plane of the coil is horizontal.
This is because cutting of the magnetic
field lines is greatest at this point by the
moving coil (𝑖. 𝑒. 900 ) N S
• The induced emf or current is minimum
when the plane of the coil is vertical. This
is because cutting of the magnetic field
lines is minimum at this point by the
moving coil (𝑖. 𝑒. 00 )
𝑯𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

A.C generator (Alternator):

In A.C generators slip rings are used instead of split rings.
Note: A slip ring is a device that connects a stationary object (carbon brush) to a rotating object
(rectangular coil)
Therefore, slip rings are always fixed.

Structure:
It consists of the following;
❖ Permanent magnets which provide strong magnetic fields.
❖ An armature / rectangular coil which rotates in the magnetic field.
❖ Carbon brushes which get current from the slip rings

B C
F

F
A D
N S
𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉
c

𝑳𝑶𝑨𝑫
𝑺𝒍𝒊𝒑 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

Mode of operation of an A.C generator

▪ When the rectangular coil ABCD rotates, the magnetic flux linking the coil changes and an
emf is induced in the coil causing current to flow in the coil.
▪ When the coil passes over the vertical position, the slip rings change contacts from one
carbon brush to another. This reverses the direction of current in the coil.
▪ Therefore, the direction of current flowing through the load also changes.

A graph of induced emf against time for an A.C generator.

𝑬𝒎𝒇

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

TYPES OF INDUCTION
There are two types namely;
▪ Self -induction
▪ Mutual induction

Self- induction:
This is the process by which an emf is induced in the coil due to changing current in the same
coil.
The magnetic flux due to the current in the coil links that coil and if the current changes, the
resulting flux change induces an emf in the coil itself.

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒊𝒍

Mutual induction:
This is the process by which an emf is induced in the coil due to changing current in the nearby
coil.
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝟏 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝟐
𝑪𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝟐

𝑰𝟏 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝟐 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅

𝑮𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

In mutual induction, emf is induced in coil 2 (secondary coil) due to change in current in coil 1
(primary coil).
This is applied in transformers

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

TRANSFORMERS
This is an electric device that is used to step up or step down voltage.
OR
This is an electric device that is used to increase or decrease alternating voltage.

Transformers are normally used in electrical appliances e.g. radio receivers, TV sets, battery
chargers etc. where the input voltage has to be changed.

Structure of a transformer:
It consists of a laminated soft iron ring around which primary and secondary coils are wound.
The soft iron ring concentrates the magnetic fields produced.

𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑽𝒑 𝑽𝒔 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍
𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍

Mode of operation of a transformer:

▪ When alternating voltage 𝐕𝒑 is applied to the primary coil, alternating current flows through
the primary coil.
▪ The alternating current creates a changing magnetic flux in the primary coil which links up
with the secondary coil.
▪ An emf 𝐕𝒔 is induced in the secondary coil due to the changing magnetic flux.
▪ The induced emf depends on the number of turns in the secondary coil.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS:
There are two types namely;
(i) Step up transformer;
This is the type of transformer whose number of turns in the secondary coil is greater than
the number of turns in the primary coil.
They are usually put at power and transmission stations.

(ii) Step down transformer;

This is the type of transformer whose number of turns in the secondary coil is less than the
number of turns in the primary coil.
They are usually put near consumer places and in electrical appliances.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

ENERGY/POWER LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

ENERGY LOSS HOW IT IS MINIMIZED
(i) Energy loss due to heating effect By using low resistance thick copper wires.
(𝐈2 𝐑);
This is because of the resistance of the
coils.
(ii) Energy loss due to eddy currents; By using a laminated soft iron core.
Eddy currents are currents induced in
the core due changing magnetic flux
and they cause unnecessary heat.
(iii) Energy loss due to hysteresis; By using a soft iron core which can be easily
This happens when magnetization of magnetized and demagnetized.
the core is reversed. So, if it is not
easily magnetized and demagnetized,
some power is wasted in overcoming
internal friction.
(iv) Energy loss due to flux leakage; By using an E-shaped iron core so that all the
This occurs when some magnetic flux flux in the primary coil links up to the
fails to link up to the secondary coil. secondary coil.

Uses of eddy currents:

▪ They are used in electromagnetic brakes.
▪ They are used to detect cracks in metals.
Transformer equations:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐕𝑝 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐍𝑝
=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐕𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐍𝑠

𝐕𝑝 𝐍𝑝
=
𝐕𝑠 𝐍𝑠

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 = 𝐈𝑠 𝐕𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 = 𝐈𝑝 𝐕𝑝

𝐈𝑠 𝐕𝑠
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐈𝑝 𝐕𝑝

Definition:
An ideal transformer is a transformer where there are no energy losses.
Therefore, an ideal transformer is 100% efficient i.e. 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
In real life situations, there is no transformer which is 100% efficient.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
1. A transformer is used to step down an alternating voltage from 240V to 12V. Calculate the
number of turns on the secondary coil if the primary coil has 2000 turns.

𝐕𝒑 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝐕𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐𝑽 𝐕𝒑 𝐍𝒑
=
𝐕𝒔 𝐍𝒔
𝐍𝒑 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐍𝒔 =? 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
=
𝟏𝟐 𝐍𝒔
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟐
𝐍𝒔 =
𝟐𝟒𝟎

𝐍𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔.

2. A transformer whose efficiency is 80% has an output power of 12W. Calculate the input
current if the input voltage is 240V.

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝐕𝒑 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝐏𝒐 = 𝟏𝟐𝑾 𝟏𝟐
𝟖𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝑰
𝐈𝒑 =? 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒊 =
𝟖𝟎
𝑷𝒊 = 𝟏𝟓𝑾

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟖𝟎% 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡, 𝑷𝒊 = 𝐈𝑝 𝐕𝑝

𝟏𝟓 = 𝐈𝒑 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝟏𝟓
𝐈𝒑 =
𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝐈𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓𝑨
3. A transformer is converted to 240V a.c mains. If the primary coil has 1200 turns and a
resistor of 3Ω is connected to secondary coil of 60 turns.
Calculate;
(i) p.d across the secondary coil.
(ii) current through the 3Ω resistor.
(i) (ii)
𝐕𝒑 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝐕𝒔 =? 𝐕𝒑 𝐍𝒑 From ohm’s law;
=
𝐕𝒔 𝐍𝒔 𝐕𝒔 = 𝐈𝒔 𝐑
𝐍𝒑 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐍𝒔 = 𝟔𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟐 = 𝐈𝒔 × 𝟑
= 𝟏𝟐
𝐕𝒔 𝟔𝟎 𝐈𝒔 =
𝐈𝒔 =? 𝟐𝟒𝟎 × 𝟔𝟎 𝟑
𝐕𝒔 = 𝐈 𝒔 = 𝟒𝑨
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑹 = 𝟑𝛀
𝐕𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐𝑽

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. A transformer is designed to work on a 240V, 60W supply. It has 3000turns in the primary
and 200 turns in the secondary and it is 80% efficient. Calculate the current in primary and
secondary coils.
Current in primary coil Current in second coil
𝐕𝒑 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝐕𝒔 =? 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐈𝑝 𝐕𝑝 𝐏𝒐
𝛈= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟔𝟎 = 𝐈𝑝 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝐏𝒊
𝐍𝒑 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐍𝒔 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟔𝟎
𝐈𝒑 = 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝐏𝒐 = 𝐈𝑠 𝐕𝑠
𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝐈𝒑 =? 𝐈𝒔 =? 𝐈𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝑨 𝐈𝑠 𝐕𝑠
𝟖𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟔𝟎
𝐕𝒑 𝐍𝒑 𝐈𝑠 × 𝟏𝟔
𝐏𝒊 = 𝟔𝟎𝑾 𝐏𝒐 =? = 𝟖𝟎 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐕𝒔 𝐍𝒔 𝟔𝟎
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚, 𝛈 = 𝟖𝟎% 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 𝟖𝟎 × 𝟔𝟎
𝐕𝒔 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑰𝒔 =
𝟐𝟒𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐕𝒔 =
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑰𝒔 = 𝟑𝑨
𝐕𝒔 = 𝟏𝟔𝑽

5. A setup transformer is designed to operate from a 240V supply with delivery energy at 250V.
If the transformer is 90% efficient, determine the current into the primary winding when the
output terminals are connected to 250V, 100W lamp.

𝐕𝒑 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝐕𝒔 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝑽 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝐏𝒐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑾 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟗𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐈𝒑 =? 𝑷𝒊
𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒊 =
𝟗𝟎
𝑷𝒊 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝑾

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟗𝟎% 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡, 𝑷𝒊 = 𝐈𝑝 𝐕𝑝

𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏 = 𝐈𝒑 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏
𝐈𝒑 =
𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝐈𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟐𝟗𝑨

6. An electric power generator produces 24kW at 240V, the voltage is stepped up to 400V for
transmission to a factory. The total resistance of the transmission wire is 0.5Ω.
(i) What is the ratio of number of turns in primary to number of turns in secondary is the
transformer.
(ii) Find the power loss in transmission lines assuming both transformers are 100% efficient.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝐕𝒑 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝐕𝒔 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑽 (i) (ii)

𝐕𝒑 𝐍𝒑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐏𝒐 = 𝐈𝒔 𝐕𝒔
=
𝐕𝒔 𝐍𝒔 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝐈𝒔 × 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝐍𝒑 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 𝐈𝒔 =
𝐏𝒊 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑾 𝐏𝒐 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑾 𝐍𝒔 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟎
since they are 100% 𝐍𝒑 𝟑 𝐈𝒔 = 𝟔𝟎𝑨
= Power loss in wires
𝐈𝒑 =? 𝐍𝒔 𝟓
𝑷 = 𝐈𝒔 𝟐 𝐑
𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝛀 𝐍𝒑 : 𝐍𝒔 = 𝟑: 𝟓 𝑷 = 𝟔𝟎𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟓
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝑾

7. A transformer is designed to operate at 240V main supply and deliver 9V. The current drawn
from the main supply is 1A if the efficiency of the transformer is 90%. Calculate
(i) maximum power output
(ii) power lost
(i)
𝐕𝒑 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝐕𝒔 = 𝟗𝑽 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡, 𝑷𝒊 = 𝐈𝑝 𝐕𝑝
𝑷𝒊 = 𝟏 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝐈𝒑 = 𝟏𝑨 𝑷𝒊 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽
𝐏𝒊 =? 𝐏𝒐 =?
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑷𝒐
𝟗𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝟗𝟎 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝑷𝒐 =
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟗𝟎% 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒐 = 𝟐𝟏𝟔𝑾
(ii)
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒐
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 − 𝟐𝟏𝟔
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟒𝑾
EXERCISE:
1. A transformer has 800 turns in its primary coil and 3200 turns in its secondary coil.
If it is connected to an alternate voltage of 240V. What is the output voltage?
Ans: [𝟗𝟔𝟎𝑽]
2. If one wishes to step down voltage from 240V to 10V, determine the number of turns
in the secondary if the primary coil has 4800 turns.
Ans: [𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔]
3. A step up transformer is 80% efficient if the number of turns of the coil is 2400 turns
and 500 turns. Given that the input voltage and the output current are 240V and 0.25A.
Calculate the output voltage and input current.
Ans: [𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟐𝑽, 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝑨]

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. Find the ratio of number of turns of the primary to the number of turns in the secondary,
if the voltage of 12V is stepped up to 18V.
Ans: [𝟐: 𝟑]
5. A 3V, 6W bulb is connected to the secondary coil of a transformer whose input voltage
is 12V. Given that the transformer is 90% efficient and the bulb works at full capacity.
Calculate the current in the secondary coil and the current in the primary coil
Ans: [𝟐𝑨, 𝟏. 𝟖𝑨]
6. An electric power is generated at 11kV. Transformers are used to raise the voltage to
440V for transmission over long distances using cables. The output of transformers is
19800W and they are 90% efficient. Find the input current to the transformer and the
output current to the cables.
Ans: [𝟒𝟓𝑨, 𝟐𝑨]
7. A transformer is designed to produce an output of 240V when connected to a 25V supply.
If the transformer is 80% efficient, calculate the input current when the output is connected
to a 240V, 75W lamp.
Ans: [𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑨, 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟓𝑨]
8. An 𝑎. 𝑐 transformer operates on a 240V mains. The voltage across the secondary which has
960 turns is 20V.
(i) find the number of turns in the primary coil.
(ii) if the efficiency of the transformer is 80% calculate the in the primary coil when a
resistor of 40Ω is connected across the secondary.
Ans: [𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟎𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔, 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟐𝟏𝑨]
9. A transformer whose secondary col has 60 turns and primary 1200 turns has its secondary
connected to a 3Ω resistor if its primary is connected to a 240V 𝑎. 𝑐 supply. Calculate the
current flowing in the primary assuming that the transformer is 80% efficient.
Ans: [𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝑨]
10. A transformer is designed to work on a 240V, 60W supply, it has 3000 turns in the primary
and 200 turns in the secondary and its efficiency is 80%. Calculate the current in the
secondary coil.
Ans: [𝟑𝑨]
11. An a.c transformer operates on 240V mains. It has 1200 turns in the primary and gives 18V
across the secondary.
(i) find the number of turns in the secondary
(ii) if the efficiency of the transformer is 90% calculate the current in the primary coil
when a resistor of 50Ω is connected across the secondary
Ans: [𝟗𝟎𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔, 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝑨]

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

ALTERNATING AND DIRECT CURRENT

Direct Current (D.C) is the current which flows in one direction only.
All batteries produce direct current.
Alternating Current (A.C) is current which flows in opposite directions periodically.
This means that the direction of current flowing in a circuit is constantly being reversed back and
forth.

The electric current supplied to our homes is alternating current. This comes from power plants
that are operated by the electric company.
AC can be converted to DC by using rectifier

Advantages of A.C over D.C

A.C is easy to generate.
A.C is easy to transmit to around the country with minimal power loss.
Alternating current can easily be stepped up and down for home consumption.

Disadvantages of A.C over D.C

A.C cannot be used to charge a battery.
A.C cannot be used in electroplating.
A.C cannot be used in electrolysis.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
1. a) i) Define the term neutral point as applied to magnetism.
ii) Briefly explain how a rod of steel can be magnetized using the single touch stroking
method.
b) Briefly explain how the soft iron core causes power loss in a transformer.
c) i) What is a magnetic field.
ii) Draw a diagram of the magnetic field pattern when a bar magnet is placed in the
earth’s magnetic field with its south pole facing the geographical north.
d) List four features of magnetic flux.
2. a) Define the following terms as applied to magnetism.
i) Ferromagnetic material.
ii) Neutral point.
b) The figure below shows an electromagnet made by a pupil in the laboratory. The
electromagnet is to pick up and release a metal object.

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

i) Name a suitable material for X and explain why it is made from this material.
ii) Name two metals which a magnet will not attract.
iii) State two changes which a student could make so that a heavier metal object
could be lifted by the electromagnet.
c) A galvanometer of resistance 5Ω gives a full scale deflection for a current of 15mA.
How may it be converted into?
i) An ammeter reading up to 3A.
ii) A voltmeter reading up to 6V.
Ans: i) [𝟐. 𝟓𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎Ω] ii) [𝟑𝟗𝟓Ω]
3. a) i) What is a magnetic field.
ii) State the law of magnetism.
b) i) Explain with the aid of diagrams, how a steel bar can be magnetized by the single
touch method.
ii) Sketch the magnetic field pattern around two bar magnets whose north poles face
each other.
c) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe how a simple a.c generator works.
4. a) Describe briefly the structure and action of an a.c transformer.
b) i) State any three causes of energy losses in a transformer.
ii) How are these losses reduced in a practical transformer?
c) Explain why it is an advantage to transmit electrical power at high voltage.
d) An electric power is generated at 11kV. Transformers are used to raise the voltage to
440kV for transmission over large distances using cables. The output of transformers is
19.8MW and they are 90% efficient. Find;
i) The input current to the transformer.
ii) The output current to the cables.
Ans: i) [𝟐𝒌𝑨] ii) [𝟒𝟓𝑨]
5. a) Explain how a piece of iron can be magnetized by the single touch method. Illustrate
your answer with a diagram.
b) How can you determine the polarity of a magnet?
c) Explain why a magnet loses its magnetism when placed in a coil of a wire carrying an
alternating current.
d) Describe the motion of a beam of electrons directed midway between the north and
south poles of a permanent magnet.
6. a) Describe with the aid of a labeled diagram, the structure and principle of operation of an
a.c generator.
b) An electric power generator produces 24kW at 240V a.c. The voltage is stepped up to
4000V for transmission to a factory, where it is then stepped down to 240V. The total
resistance of the transmission wires is 0.5Ω.
i) What is the ratio of the number of turns in the primary to the number of turns in
the secondary of the step down transformer?
ii) Find the power lost in the transmission lines assuming both transformers are 100%
efficient.
Ans: i) [𝟓𝟎: 𝟑] ii) [𝟏𝟖𝑾]
c) i) What power would have been lost if the same electric power had been transmitted
directly to the factory through the same transmission wires without use of
transformers.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

ii) Comment on differences between the power losses in (b) (ii) and (c) (i) above.
Ans: i) [𝟏𝟓𝒌𝑾]
7. a) i) Draw a labeled diagram to show essential parts of a d.c motor.
ii) Describe briefly how a d.c motor works.
b) State three ways of increasing the torque of the motor.
c) i) What factors make the efficiency of a motor less than 100%?
ii) How is each factor in (c) (i) above minimized?
d) An electric motor of efficiency 90% operates a water pump. The pump raises 0.9kg of
water through 10m every second.
i) What is meant by the term efficiency?
ii) State the energy changes which take place.
iii) Find the electrical power supplied to the motor.
Ans: iii) [𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑾]
8. a) i) What is a magnetic field?
ii) Draw a diagram of the magnetic field pattern between the north poles of two bar
magnets placed near each other.
b) Describe how you can plot the magnetic field around a wire carrying a current
perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
c) Draw a diagram to show what happens when two straight conductors placed vertically
near each other carry a current in
i) The same direction.
ii) The opposite direction.
d) Describe briefly two methods of magnetizing an iron rod.
e) A transformer is designed to produce an output of 220V when connected to a 25V
supply. If the transformer is 80% efficient, calculate the input current when the output is
connected to a 220V, 75W lamp.
Ans: [𝟑. 𝟕𝟓𝑨]
9. a) State three factors on which the magnitude of the force exerted on a wire carrying a
current in a magnetic field depends.
b) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe the action of a moving coil galvanometer
c) A moving coil galvanometer has a coil of resistance 4Ω and gives a full scale deflection
when a current of 25mA passes through it. Calculate the value of the resistance required
to convert it to an ammeter which reads 15A at full scale deflection.
Ans: [𝟔. 𝟔𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Ω]
10. a) With the aid of a diagram explain, the use of keepers to store magnets.
b) i) Describe using a labeled diagram how a telephone receiver works.
ii) State two ways by which the strength of an electromagnet can be increased.
c) i) A part from electrical method, mention two other methods of demagnetization.
ii) Explain how the above methods mentioned lead to magnetization.
d) Describe how you would demagnetize a bar magnet by the electrical method.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

11. a) What is a transformer

b) The diagram below shows a model of a transformer in which the primary coil, P is
connected to d.c and the secondary coil, S is connected to the galvanometer, G.

𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑲

𝑷 𝑺 𝑮

i) What is observed just as the switch, K is closed.

ii) What will be the effect of closing switch, K very fast in (i) above?
iii) What is observed when the switch is left closed?
iv) What is observed as the switch is opened.
v) When is observed if the d.c source is replaced by an a.c source of low frequency
c) A transformer of efficiency 80% is connected to a 240V a.c supply to operate a heater of
resistance 240Ω. If the current flowing in the primary circuit is 5A.
i) Calculate the potential difference across the heater.
ii) If the heater is cooled by oil of specific heat capacity 2,100𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 and the
temperature of oil rises by 200 in 3 minutes, find the mass of oil used in cooling.
Ans: i) [𝟒𝟖𝑽] ii) [𝟒. 𝟏𝟏𝒌𝒈]
12. a) i) What is meant by a magnetic field.
ii) Suggest any three characteristics of the magnetic field.
b) i) Describe in details how an iron bar can be magnetized by electrical method.
ii) A galvanometer has resistance of 2Ω and gives a 50mA full scale deflection.
Calculate the value of resistance that is used so that the meter reads current up to 2A.
Ans: ii) [𝟓. 𝟏𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 Ω]
c) The diagram below is a transformer, study it and answer the questions that follow.

𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟕𝟓
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝐑

i) Find the potential difference across R.

ii) If the current in the mains is 0.55A. What is the current in the secondary coil?
iii) With a reason name the type of the transformer.
Ans: i) [𝟏𝟐𝑽] ii) [𝟏𝟏𝑨]
13. a) State any two factors which determine the magnitude of a force exerted on a current
carrying conductor.
b) With the aid of a well labeled diagram, describe the structure and mode of action of a
moving coil loud speaker.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

c) State the factors which determine the pitch and loudness of the sound produced by a
moving coil loud speaker.
d) A D.C motor has an armature resistance of 4Ω. If it draws a current of 10A when
connected to a supply of 200V, calculate the
i) Power wasted in the windings
ii) Efficiency of the motor
Ans: i) [𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑾] ii) [𝟖𝟎%]
14. a) The diagram below shows a coil connected to a centre-zero galvanometer, G.

𝐒 𝐍
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

𝐆
State and explain the deflection of the galvanometer needle when the magnet is
i) Held stationary at one end of the coil
ii) Moved slowly towards the coil
iii) Left at rest inside the coil
iv) Moved away from the coil
v) Moved quickly in an out of the coil about twice per second
b) i) State four ways in which power is lost in a transformer
ii) How can the power loss be minimized in each case
c) Distinguish between a d.c motor and a d.c generator
d) An electric motor taking a current of 5A at 240V is connected by cable to a generator
some distance away. If the p.d at the terminals of the generator is 250V, calculate
i) The resistance of the cable
ii) The power supplied by the generator and loss of power in the cable.
15. a) A bar magnet is placed with its axis along the magnetic meridian with its south pole
pointing north.
i) Sketch the magnetic flux pattern near the magnet in the earth’s field.
ii) With reference to the sketch, explain what is meant by a neutral point in a magnetic
field
b) i) Describe an experiment to determine the magnetic field pattern of a bar magnet using
iron fillings.
ii) State one advantage and one disadvantage of the method in (b) (i).
c) Describe how the earth’s magnetic meridian may be determined.
d) A galvanometer has a coil of resistance 8Ω and gives a full scale deflection when a
current of 0.5mA is supplied. Calculate the resistance that can be used to convert it into
an ammeter measuring up to 5A.
Ans: [𝟖. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Ω]
16. a) i) What is a magnetic field
ii) State the law of magnetism
b) i) Explain with the aid of a diagram how a steel bar can be magnetized by the single
touch method.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

ii) Sketch the magnetic field pattern around two bar magnets whose north poles face
each other.
17. a) With the aid of a labeled diagram describe how a simple ac generator works
b) Explain with the aid of a diagram what happens when two vertical, parallel conductors
are placed near one another and carry current in
i) The same direction
ii) The opposite direction
c) i) Describe with the aid of a diagram, how a direct current generator works
ii) State three ways of increasing the emf produced by the generator
18. a) What is meant by magnetic saturation
b) Explain why freely suspended bar magnet swings until it points North South.
c) With the aid of a diagram explain the use of magnetic keepers.
19. a) State any two factors which determine the magnitude of the emf induced in a coil
rotating in magnetic field.
b) i) Draw a diagram to show the construction of a step-down transformer
ii) A transformer is used to step-up an alternating voltage from 20V to 240V. Calculate
the number of turns in the primary coil if the secondary coil has 1200 turns.
Ans: [𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔]
20. The figure shows a circuit
𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏

𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔
a) Describe what is observed when the key, K, is closed
(i) Closed
(ii) Closed and then again opened
b) State two ways by which the effect of what was observed in (a) (i)
above can be increased.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕

Experiment 18

PY
A small mass is attached to a length of thread as shown in Figure 18. This is referred to as the
plumbline.

CO
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PL
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Fig. 18
(a) Suggest a suitable title for this experiment.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Carry out the following instructions referring to Figure 18.
(c) Measure and record the lengths of the three sides of the triangular sheet of card.
length 1 = ………………………………….
length 2 = ………………………………….
length 3 = ………………………………….
(01 mark)
(d) (i) Hang the card on the nail through hole A.
(ii) Hang the plumbline from the nail so that it is close to the card but not touching it.
(iii) When the card and plumbline are still, make a small mark at the edge of the card
where the plumbline crosses the edge.
(iv) Remove the card and draw a line from the mark to hole A.
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Experiment 12
Imagine you are conducting an experiment to investigate the period of a pendulum. The apparatus
is set up as described in the instructions, and you refer to Figure 12.1 and Figure 12.2. Follow the
given steps to perform the experiment.

PY
Fig. 12.1 Fig. 12.2
(a)

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Start by measuring the distance ݀ between the bottom of the split cork and the floor.

݀ ൌ ………………………………….cm
This distance ݀ must remain constant throughout the experiment.
(01 mark)
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(b) • Adjust the length of the pendulum until the distance x, measured from the centre of the
bob to the floor, is 50.0 cm.
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• Displace the bob slightly and release it so that it swings. Figure 12.2 shows one complete
oscillation of the pendulum.
• Measure, and record in Table 12, the time ‫ ݐ‬for 10 complete oscillations.
M

• Calculate, and record in Table 12, the period T of the pendulum. The period is the time
for one complete oscillation.
• Calculate, and record in Table 12, ܶ ଶ . (02 marks)
SA

Table 12
x(ܿ݉) t(‫)ݏ‬ T(‫ݏ‬ሻ ܶ ଶ (‫ ݏ‬ଶ ሻ
50.0
45.0
40.0
35.0
30.0

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(c) From the experiment described above, identify:
(i) The independent variable ……………………………………………………………
(ii) The dependent variable ………………………………………………………………
(iii) The constant variable …………………………………………………………………

(d) Repeat the procedure in (b) using ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 45.0 cm, 40.0 cm, 35.0 cm and 30.0 cm.
(03 marks)
ʹ
(e) Plot a graph of ܶ (along the vertical axis) against ‫( ݔ‬along the horizontal axis). You do
not need to start your axes at the origin (0,0). (04 marks)

PY
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(f) Explain why timing 10 oscillations gives a more accurate result for the period ܶ than
timing one oscillation. (01 mark)

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(i) Measure and record in Table 25 the angle of incidence ݅ between the line AN and the
normal. Measure, and record in the table, the angle of reflection ‫ ݎ‬between the normal
and the line passing through P2 and P3.
Table 25

edge ݅ (௢ ) ‫(ݎ‬௢ )

A

(03 marks)
(j) Repeat the steps (e) – (i) but using edge B of the card instead of edge A.

PY
(k) In spite of carrying out this experiment with care, it is possible that the values of the
angle of reflection ‫ ݎ‬will not be exactly the same as the values obtained from theory.
Suggest two possible causes of this inaccuracy.
1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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(02 marks)
Insert your rayെtrace sheet opposite this page.
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(05 marks)

Experiment 26
M

Concave mirrors curve inward and are thicker at the center than at the edges, causing light rays
parallel to the optical axis to converge. These mirrors are employed in applications such as
reflecting telescopes for gathering and focusing light in astronomy, and in cosmetic mirrors
SA

where their ability to produce enlarged and upright images is utilized for personal grooming.
However, it is necessary to determine the focal length, ݂ of a concave mirror before its use.

(a) A concave mirror is placed in a holder and used to focus light from a window onto a
screen. The screen is adjusted until a sharp image is formed on it.
(i) Measure and record the distance ݀, between the screen and mirror.
݀ = ……………………………………. (01 mark)
(ii) Explain the meaning of distance . (01 mark)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
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(b) Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 38. Adjust the distance, ‫ݑ‬, of the torch bulb
from the mirror to ͳͷcm. Close switch ‫ ܭ‬. Adjust the position of the white screen, ܵଶ until
a sharply focused image of the wire gauze appears on it. Open switch ‫ ܭ‬.

ࡿ૛

Fig. 38

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(c) Measure and record the distance, ˜ of the screen ܵଶ from the mirror.
˜ = ……………………………………. (01 mark)
(d) CO
Calculate the values of ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ܸ െ ݀ and ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ ݑ‬െ ݀ .

‫…………………………………… = ݕ‬. (01 mark)

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‫…………………………………… = ݔ‬. (01 mark)

(e) Repeat procedures (f) to (h) for values of ‫ ݑ‬ൌ ͵ͷǤͲǡ ͶͲǤͲǡ ͶͷǤͲǡ ͷͲǤͲand ͷͷǤͲܿ݉.
M

ଵ
(f) Tabulate your results including values of .
௫
Table 38
SA

(06 marks)

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(g) From the experiment described above, identify:
(i) The independent variable ……………………………………………………………
(ii) The dependent variable ………………………………………………………………
(iii) The constant variable …………………………………………………………………

ଵ
(h) Plot a graph of ‫ ݕ‬against . (06 marks)
௫

PY
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 (i) Determine the slope, S of the line of best fit.
Show your working and indicate on the graph the values you use to calculate the gradient
G.

S = ........................................................ (02 marks)

(j) Calculate the value of ݂ଵ from ݂ଵ ൌ ξܵ.

݂ଵ = ........................................................ (02 marks)

ଵ
(k) Determine the value of the constant, ݂ of the concave mirror using ࢌ ൌ ሺ݂ଵ ൅ ݀ ሻ
ଶ

PY

B= ........................................................ (02 marks)
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Experiment 27
This experimental investigation has two part, (I) and (II).
PART I
E

A concave mirror is mounted in a mirror holder and a pin in cork is placed such that its pointed
PL

end lies along the axis of the mirror. The pin is moved towards and away from the mirror until it
coincides with its image by no-parallax.
M

(a) Suggest a suitable title for this experiment. (01 mark)

……………………………………………………………………………………………..
SA

……………………………………………………………………………………………..
(b) State one suitable hypothesis that could be investigated. (01 mark)
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
(c) With the apparatus provided, set up this experiment. Measure and record the distance, N
between the pin and the mirror.

= ……………………………………. (01 mark)

N
(ii) Calculate, the quantity, Bfrom: B L sWt N

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 ݂ = ........................................................ (02 marks)

PART II

(a) Set up a new arrangement of apparatus as shown in Figure 27. Place the mirror, wire
gauze and bulb such that distance, T L s wB
.
x

PY
y
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Fig. 27

Close switch, -and adjust the position of the screen until a clear image of the wire
gauze is obtained on the screen.
(i) Measure and record the distance, Ubetween the mirror and screen.
E

U= ……………………………………. (01 mark)

PL

(b) Repeat procedures (a) to (c) for T L t rBÆt wBÆu wBÆv rBand v wB
U
(c) Tabulate your results including values of .
M

(06 marks)
T
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……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
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(d) From the experiment you have just carried out, state; (04 marks)
(i) The aim of the experiment ……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
T (ii) The independent variable ……………………………………………………………
(ii) The dependent variable ………………………………………………………………
(iii) The constant variable …………………………………………………………………
‫ݕ‬
(e) Plot a graph of against ‫ݕ‬. (06 marks)
‫ݔ‬

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 ଶଶ
(g) The resistance ܴௐ of the wire is calculated using the equation: ܴௐ =
ே
௏ೄ
where ܰ = െͳ
ଵ଴଴ீ
Use your value of VS recorded in (b) and your value of G calculated in (f) to calculate ܴௐ .
Show your working.

ܴௐ = …………………………………….Ω (01 mark)

Experiment 48
In this experiment you will investigate the resistance of a light-emitting diode (LED).
You are provided with:
• a power supply
• a light-emitting diode PY
CO
• 5 resistors of resistance 150 Ω
• a switch
• connecting wires and crocodile clips.
The supervisor has set up the circuit shown in Figure 48.
E

The crocodile clip shown in the diagram in Figure 48 is a movable contact that can be attached at
different points in the circuit.
PL
M
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Fig. 48
You are also provided with a voltmeter and two additional connecting wires.

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(a) (i) Make sure that the movable crocodile clip and wire is not touching any other part of
the circuit.
Connect the voltmeter between the terminals T1 and T2 of the power supply. Record
the reading VS on the voltmeter.
Disconnect the voltmeter from the power supply.
VS = …………………………………….V (01 mark)
(ii) Attach the movable crocodile clip to one of the wires either side of the crocodile clip
labelled A.
Connect the voltmeter between F and G.
Close the switch.
Record the reading V on the voltmeter.
Open the switch.

PY
VS = …………………………………….V (01 mark)
(iii) Using your answer from (a)(ii), calculate the current ‫ܫ‬௅ா஽ in the LED using the
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௏
equation ‫ܫ‬௅ா஽ ൌ
ଵହ଴
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‫ܫ‬௅ா஽ = …………………………………….A (01 mark)

PL

(iv) The total number of resistors connected in series with the LED is ݊. When the
movable crocodile clip is attached by A, the value of ݊ is 5.
Using your answers from (a)(i) and (a)(ii), calculate the voltage ܸ௅ா஽ across the
M

LED using the equation

VLED = VS – nV.
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ܸ௅ா஽ = …………………………………….A (01 mark)

(v) Using your answers from (a)(iii) and (a)(iv), calculate the resistance RLED of the
LED using the equation
ܸ‫ ܦܧܮ‬
ܴ௅ா஽ ൌ
‫ ܦܧܮܫ‬

ܴ௅ா஽ = …………………………………….Ω (01 mark)

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 (b) (i) In the appropriate row in Table 48, record your readings and calculations
from (a)(ii), (iii), (iv) and (v).
Add appropriate headings with units to each column. (01 mark)
(ii) Repeat the procedure in (a)(ii) to (a)(v) with the movable crocodile clip
connected by B, C, D and E.
Record your readings and calculations in Table 48.
Table 48
Position of n
crocodile clip
by A 5
by B 4
by C 3

PY
by D 2
by E 1

(c)
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From the experiment described above, identify: (03 marks)
(03 marks)

(i) The independent variable ……………………………………………………………

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(ii) The dependent variable ………………………………………………………………
(iii) The constant variable …………………………………………………………………
PL

(d) Using the grid on next page, plot a graph of RLED (along the vertical axis) against ILED
(along the horizontal axis). Draw the curve of best fit. (04 marks)
M

(e) The values of the supply voltage and the resistance of the resistors have been carefully
selected for use with this LED in this practical exercise.
SA

Suggest two reasons why these values are suitable.

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
(04 marks)

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 PY
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 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

This chapter deals with the behavior of materials used in construction of structures (e.g. bridges,
vehicles, dams, roofs etc.) under the action of external forces.
These materials include;
• Timber • Rubber • Metals • Glass
• Concrete • Bricks • Plastics • Stones
Before these materials are used, they are tested under different conditions to see whether they can
withstand weather conditions and the action of external forces. The behavior of these materials under
test are called mechanical properties.

Definition:
Mechanical properties of matter are the behavior of matter when acted upon by external forces.

These mechanical properties include;

a) STRENGTH:
This is the ability of a material to withstand an applied force before it breaks.
Materials that have this property are said to be strong.
 A strong material is a material that can withstand a large force before breaking.
Strong materials include; concrete, metals, etc.

Factors that affect the strength of a material

▪ Magnitude of applied force:
It is easier for a material to withstand a small force than a large force. Therefore, strength of a
material increases when a small force is applied than when a large force is applied.
▪ Cross-sectional area of a material:
A material of large diameter (large cross-sectional area) is able to withstand a large force than
a material of small diameter.
Therefore, materials with large cross-sectional areas are stronger than material with small
cross-sectional areas.
▪ Nature of the material:
Different materials withstand different forces before breaking e.g. a steel rod is able to
withstand large forces than a piece of wood.

b) STIFFNESS:
This is the ability of a material to resist any force that try to change its shape and size.
OR
This is the ability of a material to resist bending when a force is applied on it.
Materials that have this property are said to be stiff.
 A stiff material is a material that resists any forces that try to change its shape and size.
Stiff materials are not flexible and they require a large force to be bent.
Stiff materials include; concrete, steel, iron etc.
How to increase the stiffness of a material:
▪ By reducing the length of a material.
▪ By reducing the temperature of a material.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
c) DUCTILITY:
This is the ability of a material to be changed or molded into different shapes and sizes without
breaking.
Materials that have this property are said to be ductile.
 A ductile material is a material that can be changed or molded into different shapes and
sizes without breaking.
Ductile materials are flexible and they can be bent greatly before they break.
Ductile materials include; copper wire, plasticine, rubber etc.

d) BRITTLENESS:
This is the ability of a material to break suddenly without bending when a force is applied on it.
Materials that have this property are said to be brittle.
 A brittle material is a material that breaks suddenly without bending when a force is applied
on it.
Brittle materials are not flexible and they cannot be molded into other shapes. They break
easily (fragile) without undergoing plastic deformation.
Brittle materials include; chalk, glass, bricks, dry biscuits, concrete, charcoal, etc.

e) ELASTICITY:
This is the ability of a material to regain its original shape and size when a stretching force is
removed.
Materials that have this property are said to be elastic.
 An elastic material is a material that can regain its original shape and size when a stretching
force is removed.
Elastic materials include; rubber springs, etc.
The extension of an elastic material depends on;
→ Nature of a material.
→ Magnitude of stretching force.

f) PLASTICITY:
This is the ability of a material not to regain its original shape and size when a stretching force is
removed.
Materials that have this property are said to be plastic (inelastic).
 A plastic material is a material that cannot regain its original shape and size when a
stretching force is removed.
Plastic materials include; plasticine, clay, etc.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

HOOKES’S LAW
It states that the extension of a material is directly proportional to force applied provided that the
elastic limit is not exceeded.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑭) 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒍𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝒆)
𝑭∝𝒆
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒆
Where;
F Force applied
e Extension
K Spring constant / Proportionality constant / Elastic constant
The SI unit of the spring constant, K is 𝑵𝒎−𝟏 .
𝑬𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (𝒍𝟐 ) − 𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (𝒍𝟏 )

Examples:
1. A force of 3N is applied on an elastic wire of length 10cm. If its new length after the application
of force is 12cm, calculate;
a) Extension.
𝒍𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝒄𝒎, 𝒍𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎,
𝒆 = 𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏
𝒆 = 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎
𝒆 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎
b) Elastic constant.
𝟐
𝒆 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎, 𝑭 = 𝟑𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒆
𝟑 = 𝑲 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝟑
𝑲=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝑲 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟏

2. A spring extends by 0.5cm when a load of 0.4N hangs on it.

i) Calculate the spring constant.
𝟎. 𝟓
𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎, 𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒆
𝟎. 𝟒 = 𝑲 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝟎. 𝟒
𝑲=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑲 = 𝟖𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟏
ii) Find the force required to cause an extension of 0.06m.
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒆
𝑭 = 𝟖𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔
𝑭 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
NOTE:
 If force, 𝐹1 acts on an elastic material, and produces an extension, 𝑒1 and then force, 𝐹2 acts
on the same elastic material and produces an extension, 𝑒2 , then;
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐 𝑭𝟏 𝒆𝟏
= 𝒐𝒓 =
𝒆𝟏 𝒆𝟐 𝑭𝟐 𝒆𝟐
Examples:
There is no need of converting units for extension if the two extensions have the same units.
3. A force of 50N causes an extension of 5mm on stretched material. Calculate its extension if a
force of 150N is applied.
𝑭𝟏 = 𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝒆𝟏 = 𝟓𝒎𝒎, 𝑭𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝒆𝟐 =?
𝑭𝟏 𝒆𝟏
=
𝑭𝟐 𝒆𝟐
𝟓𝟎 𝟓
=
𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒆𝟐
𝟏𝟓𝟎 × 𝟓
𝒆𝟐 =
𝟓𝟎
𝒆𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝒎𝒎

4. A mass of 10kg is hang on a spring and it produces an extension of 2cm. What will be the
extension if a force of 150N is applied?
𝑭𝟏 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝒆𝟏 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎, 𝑭𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝒆𝟐 =?
𝑭𝟏 𝒆 𝟏
=
𝑭𝟐 𝒆 𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐
=
𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒆𝟐
𝟏𝟓𝟎 × 𝟐
𝒆𝟐 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒆𝟐 = 𝟑𝒄𝒎

5. When a force of 1N is applied on a spring, the length of the spring increases from 7.4cm to
8.4cm. Calculate;
a) The elastic constant of the spring.
𝟏
𝒆 = (𝟖. 𝟒 − 𝟕. 𝟒) = 𝟏𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒎, 𝑭 = 𝟏𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒆
𝟏 = 𝑲 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏
𝟏
𝑲=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏
𝑲 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟏
b) The extension produced when a force of 50N is applied.
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒆
𝟓𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝒆
𝟓𝟎
𝒆= = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
6. A spring has a natural length of 12cm. When a load P is suspended from it, its length increases to
22cm and when a load of 250N is attached to it, its length increases to 27cm. Find the value of P.
𝑭𝟏 = 𝑷, 𝒆𝟏 = (𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐) = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝑭𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝒆𝟐 = (𝟐𝟕 − 𝟏𝟐) = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝑭𝟏 𝒆 𝟏
=
𝑭𝟐 𝒆 𝟐
𝑷 𝟏𝟎
=
𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝟏𝟓
𝟐𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑷=
𝟏𝟓
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟔𝟔. 𝟖𝑵

7. A mass of 500g causes an extension of 2cm. Calculate the mass that can cause an extension of
0.5cm.
𝒎𝟏 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒈, 𝒆𝟏 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎, 𝒎𝟐 =?, 𝒆𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝑭𝟏 𝒆 𝟏
=
𝑭𝟐 𝒆 𝟐
𝒎 𝟏 𝒈 𝒆𝟏
=
𝒎 𝟐 𝒈 𝒆𝟐
𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟐
=
𝒎𝟐 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟓
𝒎𝟐 =
𝟐
𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒈

EXERCISE:
1. A mass of 0.5kg causes a spiral spring to extend by 4cm. Calculate the mass that would cause an
extension of 6cm.
2. A force of 10N extends a wire by 2cm.
i) Find the constant of proportionality.
ii) Find the extension produced by the force of 50N.
3. A spring produces an extension of 6mm when a load of 9N is hung from its free end. What load
would cause the same spring to stretch by 16mm?
4. A metallic cube suspended freely from the end of the spring caused it to stretch by 5cm. 500g
mass suspended from the same spring stretched it by 2cm.
a) Find the weight of the metallic cube.
b) By what length will the spring stretch if a mass of 1.5kg is attached to its end?
5. A spring stretches by 4mm when supporting a mass of 15kg. By how much would it stretch when
supporting a load of 55N?
6. A spring increase its length from 20cm to 25cm when a force is applied. If the spring constant is
100𝑁𝑚−1, calculate the force applied.
7. A 5.0cm long spring was used in an experiment. When a load of 2000N is suspended from it, its
length increases to 6.5cm and when a load Q is attached to it, its length increases to 8.0cm. Find
the value of Q.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
8. A vertical spring of length 30cm is stretched to 36cm when an object of mass 100g is placed in
the pan attached to it. The spring is stretched to 4ocm when a mass of 200g is placed in the pan.
Find the mass of the pan.
9. A spring of natural length 8.0 × 10−2 𝑚 extends by 2.5 × 10−2 𝑚𝑚 when a weight of 10N is
suspended on it.
i) Find the spring constant.
ii) Determine the extension when a weight of 15N is suspended on the spring.
10. A force of 500N extends a wire by 2mm. If the force is reduced by a half, what will be the new
length of the wire if the original length is 10cm.

An experiment to verify Hooke’s law

𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒖𝒍𝒆

𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓

▪ The experiment is set up as shown above.

▪ The initial position of the pointer, 𝑷𝟏 is read and recorded.
▪ A standard mass, 𝒎 is attached at the end the spring.
▪ The new position of the pointer, 𝑷𝟐 is read and recorded.
▪ The extension, 𝒆 of the spring is determined from the expression, 𝒆 = 𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 .
▪ The above procedures are repeated with different masses.
▪ The results are then put into a suitable table including values of the load (force) i.e. 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑔.
𝒎(𝒌𝒈) 𝑳(𝑵) 𝑷𝟐 (𝒄𝒎) 𝒆(𝒄𝒎)

▪ A graph of 𝑳 against 𝒆 is plotted.

𝑳(𝑵)

𝒆(𝒎)
▪ A straight-line graph through the origin is obtained.
▪ This shows that 𝑳 is directly proportional to 𝒆 hence verifying Hooke’s law.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
NOTE:
 In order to get accurate results in the above experiment, the elastic limit of the spring should
not be exceeded.

A graph of load against extension for copper wire (ductile material):

𝑳(𝑵)
𝑴
𝑷 − 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕
𝑬 𝒀
𝑩 𝑬 − 𝑬𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕
𝑷 𝒀 − 𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑴 − 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 (𝑩𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔)
𝑩 − 𝑩𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕

𝑶𝑹 − 𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑶 𝑹 𝒆(𝒎)

Between O and P:
The extension, 𝑒 is directly proportional to applied force (Load, 𝐿) hence Hooke’s law is obeyed in
this region. In this region, the material can regain its original shape and size when the stretching
force is removed.
Between P and E:
In this region, the material undergoes elastic deformation until it reaches the elastic limit, 𝐸.
In this region, Hooke’s law is not obeyed but the material can regain its original shape and size when
the stretching force is removed.
Beyond E:
Point, 𝐸, is the elastic limit of the material. Therefore, beyond E, the material undergoes plastic
deformation whereby it cannot regain its original shape and size when the stretching force is
removed.
The material is permanently stretched between Y an M.
Beyond M:
This point represents the maximum stress a material can withstand (i.e. the maximum load it can
handle). Addition of any extra load (force) at this point makes the wire to break on reaching the
breaking point B.

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
❖ Proportional limit:
This is a point beyond which Hooke’s law is not obeyed.
❖ Elastic limit:
This is a point beyond which a material cannot regain its original shape and size when a
stretching force is removed.
❖ Yield point:
This is a point beyond which a material is permanently stretched and there is a permanent
increase in length when the stretching force is removed.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
❖ Elastic deformation:
This is a temporary deformation which occurs before the elastic limit and the material can
regain its original shape and size when the stretching force is removed.
❖ Plastic deformation:
This is a permanent deformation which occurs after the elastic limit and the material cannot
regain its original shape and size when the stretching force is removed.

TENSILE STRESS, TENSILE STRAIN AND YOUNG’S MODULUS

TENSILE STRESS:
This is the ratio of force applied to the cross-sectional area of a material.
OR
This is the force acting per unit cross-sectional area of a material.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑭
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑨
The SI unit of tensile stress is 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 (𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠).

Question: Distinguish between Pressure and Tensile stress.

Pressure is the force acting normally per unit surface area of a material.
WHILE
Tensile stress is the force acting per unit cross-sectional area of a material.

TENSILE STRESS:
This is the ratio of extension to the original length of the material.
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝒆
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 =
𝒍𝟏
Tensile strain has no units since extension and original length have the same units.

YOUNG’S MODULUS:
This is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain of a material.
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝐹⁄
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = 𝑒 𝐴
⁄𝑙1
𝐹𝑙1
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝐴𝑒
The SI unit of Young’s modulus is 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 (𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠).

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Examples:
1. A copper wire of length 10cm is subjected to a force of 2N. If its cross-sectional area is 5𝑐𝑚2
and a force causes it to extend by 0.2cm, calculate;
i) Tensile stress.
ii) Tensile strain.
iii) Young’s modulus.
𝒍𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝑭 = 𝟐𝑵, 𝑨 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒄𝒎
i) Tensile stress ii) Tensile strain iii) Young’s modulus
𝟓 𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑨 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟐 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝟏 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝑭 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑨 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝟐 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑵𝒎−𝟐
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝟒𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐

2. A mass of 2.4kg is attached to the end of a long vertical wire 2m long and produces an extension
of 0.5mm. If the diameter of the wire is 0.78mm, calculate;
i) Tensile stress.
ii) Tensile strain.
iii) Young’s modulus.
𝒅 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖
𝒎 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝒌𝒈, 𝒍𝟏 = 𝟐𝒎, 𝒓= = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝒎𝒎, 𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
i) Tensile stress
𝟐𝟐
𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 = × 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟖𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝟕
𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟖
𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟖𝒎𝒎𝟐 = = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟐. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟒𝑵
𝑭
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑨
𝟐𝟒
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝟒. 𝟕𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑵𝒎−𝟐

ii) Tensile strain iii) Young’s modulus

𝟎. 𝟓 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝒆= = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝒆 𝟓. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝒍𝟏 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 = 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑵𝒎−𝟐
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 =
𝟐
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
3. A mass of 2000g is placed at the end of the wire 15cm long and cross-sectional area 0.2𝑐𝑚2 . If
the mass causes an extension of 1.5cm, calculate;
i) Stress.
ii) Strain.
iii) Young’s modulus.
𝒎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒈, 𝒍𝟏 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎, 𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒄𝒎,
i) Stress
𝟎. 𝟐
𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟐 = = 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 = × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑨
𝟐𝟎
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑵𝒎−𝟐

ii) Strain iii) Young’s modulus

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝒆 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝒍𝟏 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝟏. 𝟓 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟏
𝟏𝟓
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑵𝒎−𝟐

4. A piece of wire of diameter 0.64mm and length 12m is stretched through 2.5cm by a 5kg mass.
a) Determine the;
𝟐
𝟐𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒 𝟐
𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓 = ×( ) = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝟕 𝟐
−𝟏 𝟐
𝟑. 𝟐𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏
𝑨 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒎 = = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎𝑵
𝑭
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑨
𝟓𝟎
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝟑. 𝟐𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑵𝒎−𝟐
b) What force will stretch the wire through 4cm?
𝑭𝟏 𝒆 𝟏
=
𝑭𝟐 𝒆 𝟐
𝟓𝟎 𝟐. 𝟓
=
𝑭𝟐 𝟒
𝟓𝟎 × 𝟒
𝑭𝟐 =
𝟐. 𝟓
𝑭𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
5. A material stretched by 6cm develops a strain of 4.8 × 10−2 . Find the original length of the
material.
𝒆 = 𝟔𝒄𝒎, 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟒. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐
𝒆
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 =
𝒍𝟏
𝟔
𝟒. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 =
𝒍𝟏
𝒍𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎

EXERCISE:
1. Calculate the tensile stress when a force of 25N acts on a wire of cross-sectional area 5𝑚2.
2. The breaking stress of a material is 4.0 × 106 𝑁𝑚−2 . Calculate the force required to break a piece
of material of cross-sectional area 10𝑚2.
3. A string 4mm in diameter has original length 2m. The string is pulled by a force of 200N. If the
final length of the spring is 2.02m, determine;
a) Stress.
b) Strain.
c) Young’s modulus.
4. A piece of wire of diameter 0.32mm and length 14m is stretched through 2.8cm by a 10kg mass.
i) Determine the young’s modulus of the material.
ii) What force will stretch the wire through 12cm?
5. An elastic material of cross-sectional area 32𝑚2 is 4m long. When a force of 1.6 × 105 𝑁 is
applied to the material, its length increases by 1mm. Calculate;
a) The stress in the material.
b) The strain in the material.
6. A mass of 200kg is placed at the end of the wire 15cm long and cross-sectional area 0.2𝑐𝑚2 . If
the mass causes an extension of 1.5cm, calculate the young’s modulus of the material.

COMPRESSION AND TENSILE FORCES

Compression forces:
When compression forces act on a material, they cause the particles of the material to be pressed
more closely together. This causes a decrease in length of a material but the thickness of the material
increases.

𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

Tensile forces:
When tensile forces act on a material, they cause the particles of the material to be pulled further
apart from one another. This causes an increase in length of a material but the thickness of the
material decreases.

𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
SHEAR FORCE:
A shear force is the force needed to fracture the material in direction parallel to applied force.
A shear force is produced when two equal but opposite forces are applied on the body. Shear forces
causes a body to be twisted and deformed.

𝒐𝒓
𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒂 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆
𝒂 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
In Uganda, some of the important building or construction materials today are natural stones, timber,
glass, bricks, concrete, iron bars, iron sheets, etc.

NATURAL STONES:
These are inorganic minerals quarried from the earth’s surface.
These natural stones occur in form of basalt, flint, granite, limestone, marbles, sand stones, slate,
quartzite, limestone, etc.

BRICKS OR BLOCKS:
Bricks are made by mixing clay and water together. The mixture is then molded into different shapes
and then fired in a kiln at high temperatures.
Bricks are hard, stiff, brittle and strong under compression.

MORTAR:
Mortar is a mixture of sand and cement made into paste by adding water. It is used for bonding
bricks

METALS:
These are used in construction of different structures e.g. ships, vehicles, buildings, etc.
Metals can be deformed into different shapes and sizes depending on the construction to be made.
Metals are usually stronger and durable when compared to timber.
Common metals used in construction include; iron for making iron sheets and nails, steel, etc.

TIMBER:
It is used for making furniture used to make scaffolds, bridges, bodies of vehicles, ceiling boards,
etc.
Advantages of timber as a construction material
→ It is cheap.
→ It is durable when seasoned and treated well.
→ It is easy to work with.
Disadvantages of timber as a construction material
→ It is not fire resistant.
→ It can get rotten if not treated and seasoned well.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Glass:
Glass is a magical construction material as it has various applications in doors and windows because
of its desirable properties.
Properties of glass that make it a desirable building material:
➢ It is transparent.
➢ It is weather resistance i.e. it can withstand the effects of rain, sun, wind.
➢ It is heat resistant i.e. its an insulator to heat.
➢ It is chemical resistant i.e. few chemicals can react with it.
➢ Its surface is hard and difficult to scratch.
➢ It is fire resistant.
Disadvantages of timber as a construction material
→ Glass is brittle i.e. it can break immediately when a maximum force is applied.

CONCRETE:
Concrete is a proportioned mixture of cement, sand, gravel (small stones) and water.
Concrete is used where heavy loads have to be supported e.g. in foundations of tall buildings, dams,
etc.
 Since concrete is a brittle material it is weak under tension (tensile forces) but strong under
compression.

Properties of concrete which make it a desirable building material

➢ It is weather resistant.
➢ It is fire resistant.
➢ It is strong under compression.
➢ It is durable i.e. it can be used for a long period of time.

NOTE:
 Although concrete is a desirable building material, it is unsuitable for use in structures under
tension since it has a small tensile strength (weak under tension). Therefore, to increase the
tensile strength of concrete, it has to be reinforced.

REINFORCED CONCRETE:
Reinforced concrete is concrete obtained by combining concrete with materials that have a high
tensile strength e.g. steel or iron bars, wire mesh, wooden strands, etc.

Question: State any materials that maybe used to reinforce concrete.

• Steel rods • Wire mesh
• Iron bars • Wooden stands

Advantages of reinforced concrete

→ It is strong under compression and under tension.
→ It is weather resistant.
→ It is fire resistant.
→ It is durable.
→ It has much greater ductility when still wet.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
STRUCTURES AND BEAMS
A structure is a make-up which consists of pieces of materials that are joined together.
In order to construct a structure that will be durable, beams and girders are put into use.

BEAMS:
A beam is a large and long piece of material used to provide main support to the structure.
Without a beam, a structure is unable to withstand the compressional and tensile forces.
NOTE:
 When a beam bends, one side of the beam is compressed (under compression) and the other
side is stretched out (under tension) but the centre of the beam is not stretched or
compressed (neutral).

❖ 𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 ❖ 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑵𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔
𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

From the diagram, the neutral axis is the central region of a beam that is not affected by either
compression or tensile forces. Therefore, if removed, the tensile and compressive strength of the
beam increases since less material is stuck in the middle.
This explains why pipes used in construction of structures are made hollow.

Advantages of hollow beams:

(Why are pipes used in construction of structures like bicycles and bridges are made hollow?)
→ They can withstand both compression and tensile forces.
→ Notches cannot spread easily thus there is less risk of breaking.
→ They are light.
→ They are economical since less material is used for construction.
→ Structures can expand and contract easily.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
NOTCHES AND CRACKS:
A notch is a cut or a weak point on a material.
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒄𝒉

𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍

Notches and cracks spread more easily when a material is under tension than when it is under
compression.
How a notch weakens a beam of a brittle material:

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
When a tensile (tensional) file is applied on a brittle material like glass with a notch, it will cause a
notch to be stretched (under tension) causing it to widen further hence weakening the material.

Question: Explain why in bridge, a beam with a notch lasts longer when a notch is on the top surface
than when the notch is on the lower surface.
When a notch is on the top surface of beam, it is under compression. Therefore, it
doesn’t spread easily since it can withstand compressional forces thus making it
stronger in this case.

𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒈𝒆

When a notch is the lower surface of the beam, it is under tension. Therefore, it spreads
easily since it cannot withstand tensional forces thus making it weak in this state.

𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒈𝒆

Methods of reducing notch effect:

▪ Structures are designed in such a way that all parts are under compression.
▪ Structures are laminated. i.e. layers of a structure are joined together e.g. tables are covered with
plywood on their top surfaces and pieces of timber are glued to get a stronger one.
▪ Surfaces of structures e.g. made as smooth as possible

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Applications of the notch effect:
→ Some papers like bank slips are designed in such a way that they perforations (notches) to
separate them easily.
→ Notches or cracks are put on glass so that it can easily cut into pieces.

STRENGTH AND TYPES OF STRUCTURES

There are many types and shapes of structures commonly used in Uganda. The type and shape of a
structure determines its strength.
The common types of structures include;
a) Rectangular structures:
These are made in form of a rectangle.
They are less rigid and weak compared to others. Therefore, they can easily collapse.

Rectangular structures can be made more rigid by placing a beam along one of its diagonals.

b) Triangular structures:
These are made in form of a triangle.
They are more rigid and strong compared to others. Therefore, they cannot easily collapse.

Since triangular structures are strong and rigid, this explains why structures like doors, house
roofs, water tanks are made with triangular shapes.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
GIRDERS
A girder is a piece of material which strengthens a structure.
In a structure, some girders are under tension and others are under compression.

TIES AND STRUTS:

Tie: This is a girder under tension.
Ties can be replaced by strings.
Strut: This is a girder under compression.

How to identify ties and struts in a given structure:

▪ Remove each of the girder one at a time from the structure and observe the effect it causes on the
points that were joined by that girder.
▪ If the points that were joined by the girder move further apart, then the girder is a tie.
▪ If the points that were joined by the girder move closer together, then the girder is a strut.
▪ Always note that the weight of the structure acts downwards.

NOTE:
 Therefore, the functions of ties prevent the points they join from moving further away and
struts prevent the points they join from moving closer together.

Examples:
1. The figure below shows a structure of a bridge. Identify the ties and struts in the structure.
𝑩 𝑪

𝑨 𝑫
𝑬

In order to determine each of the girders whether they are struts or ties, each of the girders is
removed and the effect noted.
❖ When BC is removed, point B moves close to point C. Then girder BC is a strut.
❖ When AB is removed, point A moves close to point B. Then girder AB is a strut.
❖ When CD is removed, point C moves close to point D. Then girder CD is a strut.
❖ When BE is removed, point E moves further away from point B. Then girder BE is a tie.
❖ When CE is removed, point E moves further away from point C. Then girder CE is a tie.
❖ When AE is removed, point A moves further apart from point E. Then girder AE is a tie
❖ When ED is removed, point E moves further apart from point D. Then girder ED is a tie

2. Identify the girders in the structure below.

𝑫
𝑬
𝑬𝑫 − 𝑻𝒊𝒆
𝑫𝑪 − 𝑻𝒊𝒆
𝑩𝑪 − 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕
𝑪 𝑨𝑩 − 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕
𝑨 𝑬𝑩 − 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕
𝑩
𝑩𝑫 − 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
❖ When ED is removed, the structure will bend at B. Therefore, D moves further away from E.
Then ED is a tie.
❖ When DC is removed, the load pulls point C downwards. Therefore, C moves further away from
D. Then DC is a tie.
❖ When BC is removed, the load pulls point C to come close to point B. Then BC is a strut.
❖ When AB is removed, the structure bends at E. Therefore, point B moves close to A. then AB is
a strut.
❖ When BD is removed, points E, D, C will become straight thus making point D to come closer to
B. Then BD is a strut. Similarly, BE is a strut.

3. The diagram below shows a structure firmly fixed on the wall. Identify the ties and struts.
𝟑

𝟏 − 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕
𝟐
𝟏
𝟐 − 𝑻𝒊𝒆
𝟑 − 𝑻𝒊𝒆
𝟒 − 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕
𝟒
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

4. The diagram below shows an arm of a crane used to carry a load. Name the forces acting on the
structure.

𝑲 − 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑲
𝑹 − 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑵 − 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

5. The diagram shows the framework of a bicycle.

𝑹

𝑴 𝑵

𝑸
Which of the parts labelled M, N, R and Q would be in;
a) tension.
𝑸 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹
b) compression when a heavy person sits on the seat.
𝑴 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Applications of struts and ties:
→ They are used in roof supports.
→ They are used in communication masts.
→ They are used in construction of bridges.
→ They are used to support water tanks.

EXERCISE:
1. The figure below shows part of a roof structure.

a) Copy the diagram and on it show how the structure

can be strengthened by using two other girders.
b) Label one tie and one strut on your diagram.

2. Explain the functions of the following girders in a structure.

a) Struts.
b) Ties.
3. The diagram below shows a structure of a simple bridge.

𝑾𝒐𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎

i) Mark the neutral axis of the beam.

ii) Explain the mechanical state of the beam.
iii) What would be the effect on the beam if a notch is made on the lower side of the beam.
iv) Indicate on the diagram how the bridge can be strengthened.
4. a) With the aid of a diagram, describe the effect of a shear force on the body.
b) State any three characteristics of concrete which make it a desirable building material.
c) State any three reasons why the pipes used in the structures of bicycles are made hollow.
5. a) Many construction materials are commonly used in Uganda.
i) State one advantage of glass as a construction material.
ii) Explain briefly how concrete maybe improved so that it can withstand tensional forces.
c) In construction of bridges, hollow cubes of strong metals are used instead of the solid ones.
What advantages do those bridges have?
6. Identify the ties and struts in the following diagrams.
a) b)

𝟐
𝑾𝒂𝒍𝒍
𝑨 𝑩
𝑪 𝟏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
7. The figure below shows an arrangement of three planks on a vertical frame.

𝟏 𝟐

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

State the planks that can be replaced by strings or ropes.

8. The diagram below shows the structure of a bridge.

𝟏

𝟐
𝟑 𝟒 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

a) Name the types of force that acts along the parts 1, 2, 3 and 4 when the bridge has been
loaded at the centre.
b) Name one material in each case that can be used to construct parts 2 and 4. Give a reason for
your answer.

9. a) Define the term “notch” as used in construction.

b) State three ways of reducing notches in beams.
c) Describe the advantages of reinforcing concrete.
10. The following readings were obtained in an experiment to verify Hooke’s law when a spring was
extended by hanging various masses on it.
Mass (g) 0 25 50 75 100 125
Extension (cm) 10.0 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.4 16.0
Plot a graph of mass against extension and use it to determine.
a) The mass when the extension is 12cm.
b) The extension for 0.02kg.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

Definition:
Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight.

States of matter
There are three states of matter namely;
→ Solids e.g. stone, wood, ice, etc.
→ Liquids e.g. milk, water, paraffin, etc.
→ Gases e.g. oxygen, nitrogen, etc.
Each of the above particles is made up of tiny particles called molecules.

Properties of the states of matter:

a) SOLIDS:
▪ Molecules in solids are closely packed together.
▪ Solids have a definite shape.
▪ Solids have a definite volume.
▪ The intermolecular forces between molecules of a solid are very strong.
▪ Solids are incompressible. i.e. their volumes cannot be reduced by squeezing.

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔

b) LIQUIDS:
▪ Molecules in liquids are fairly closely packed together.
▪ Liquids do not have a definite shape. They take the shape of the container in which they are
put.
▪ Liquids do not have a definite volume. They take the volume of the container in which they
are put.
▪ The intermolecular forces between molecules of a liquid are relatively weak compared to
those of solids.
▪ Liquids are incompressible. i.e. their volumes cannot be reduced by squeezing.

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔

c) GASES:
▪ Molecules in gases are widely spaced.
▪ Gases do not have a definite shape. They take the shape of the container in which they are
put.
▪ Gases do not have a definite volume. They take the volume of the container in which they are
put.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ The intermolecular forces between molecules of a gas are very weak compared to those of
solids and liquids.
▪ Gases are compressible. i.e. their volumes can be reduced by squeezing.

𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔

Question: Explain how it is possible to compress gases than solids.

This is because the molecules of gases are widely spaced (have free spaces in between
them) and the intermolecular forces between them are very weak. Therefore, if there is
squeezing of the molecules of a gas, also the free spaces are occupied by the squeezed
molecules thus reducing the amount of space occupied by these molecules.

EFFECT OF HEATING MATTER:

▪ When a solid is heated, its molecules gain kinetic energy and their speed is increased thus
vibrating more violently. This weakens the intermolecular forces of attraction and repulsion
between the solid molecules hence they start to separate. This causes a solid to change to liquid.
Question 1: Explain why ice melts to liquid when it is placed under sunshine.
This is because that the sun rays from the sun heats up the ice causing the molecules
of ice to gain kinetic energy thus increasing their speeds. This causes them to vibrate
more violently thus breaking or weakening the intermolecular forces between them
hence causing ice to melt to liquid.

▪ When a liquid is heated, its molecules gain kinetic energy and their speed is increased thus
vibrating violently. This weakens the intermolecular forces of attraction and repulsion between
the liquid molecules. This causes a liquid to boil and change to vapour.
Question 2: Explain vapour is seen when water is boiled
This is because when water is heated, its molecules gain kinetic energy thus
increasing their speeds. This causes them to vibrate more violently thus breaking or
weakening the intermolecular forces between them hence causing some molecules to
escape from the surface of the liquid which are seen as vapour.

EFFECT OF COOLING MATTER:

▪ When a gas or vapour is cooled, its kinetic energy reduces hence the speed of its molecules also
reduces. This causes the intermolecular forces between the gas molecules to start to build up.
Therefore, the gas changes to a liquid.
On further cooling, the liquid changes to a solid.

CHANGES OF STATES OF MATTER

𝑴𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑺𝑶𝑳𝑰𝑫 𝑳𝑰𝑸𝑼𝑰𝑫 𝑮𝑨𝑺
𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Melting: This is a process by which a solid change to a liquid. It occurs at a constant temperature
called melting point.
Evaporation: This is a process by which a liquid change to a gas. It occurs at a constant temperature
called boiling point.
Freezing: This is a process by which a liquid change to a solid. It occurs at a constant temperature
called freezing point.
Condensation: This is a process by which a gas change to a liquid.
Sublimation: This is a process by which a solid change to a gas or a gas changes to a solid.

KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

It states that matter is made up of small particles called molecules that are in a state of continuous
random motion and increase in temperature increases their speed.
Matter possesses kinetic energy due to the continuous movement of its molecules.
The kinetic theory of matter can be proved by Brownian motion or diffusion.

BROWNIAN MOTION:
This was illustrated by an English man called Robert Brown.
Definition:
Brownian motion is the continuous random movement of molecules of fluids.

An experiment to demonstrate Brownian motion using a smoke cell.

𝑶𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒓

𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒔 𝑴𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒆

𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

𝑺𝒎𝒐𝒌𝒆 𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍

𝑺𝒎𝒐𝒌𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

Procedures:
▪ Smoke particles are put in a smoke cell.
▪ The smoke particles are illuminated by a source of light from one side of the smoke cell.
▪ The smoke particles are then viewed using a microscope placed above the smoke cell.
Observation:
▪ The smoke particles are seen moving in a continuous random motion.
Explanation:
▪ The continuous random motion of the smoke particles is due to collision with the air molecules in
the smoke cell which are also in a constant random motion.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
▪ Brownian motion in liquids can be demonstrated by using a glass container containing water with
some pollen grains in it instead of a smoke cell. The pollen grains will also be seen moving with
a constant or continuous random motion.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON BROWNIAN MOTION

→ Increasing the temperature (heating):
When the temperature of the smoke cell is increased, the smoke particles are seen moving faster
and more randomly.
This is because the increase in temperature causes the kinetic energy of the smoke particles to
also increase thus increasing their speed. This makes the smoke particles to move faster than
before.
→ Decreasing the temperature (cooling):
When the temperature of the smoke cell is decreased (e.g. by placing the smoke cell in in ice
cubes), the smoke particles are seen moving slowly and less randomly.
This is because the decrease in temperature causes the kinetic energy of the smoke particles to
also decrease thus reducing their speed. This makes the smoke particles to move slower than
before.

EXERCISE:
1. Smoke is enclosed in a cell and then viewed through a microscope.
a) Explain what is observed.
b) State what is observed when the smoke cell is placed in ice blocks. Give a reason for your
answer.
2. Dust was introduced in a room with yellow light.
a) Explain what was observed.
b) Explain what happens when the temperature of the room is increased.

3. a) What is meant by the term “Brownian motion”.

b) Describe an experiment to demonstrate Brownian motion in liquids.

4. Describe the relationship between molecules of liquids, gases and solids in terms of;
a) The arrangement of molecules.
b) The separation of the molecules.
c) The forces of attraction between the molecules.
d) The compressibility of the three states of matter.

5. Draw a well labelled diagram you would use to describe Brownian motion using smoke.
a) How is the motion of the smoke particles best described?
b) Account for the motion of the smoke particles in (a) above.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

MOLECULAR PROPERTIES OF MATTER

The molecular properties of matter are as a result of the behavior of its molecules.
The behavior of molecules is seen in the following processes.
→ Diffusion.
→ Intermolecular forces.
→ Capillarity.
→ Surface tension.

DIFFUSION:
When a rotten egg is placed in one corner of a class room, the entire class room and even those in the
far corners can notice the bad smell of the rotten egg.
This is because the smell is spreading or moving from where it was put to the other areas of the
classroom.
Definition:
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration.

An experiment to demonstrate diffusion in liquids.

𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒍

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒓
𝑪𝒓𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒖𝒎
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆

Procedures:
▪ A beaker is filled with water.
▪ Some crystals of potassium permanganate (purple crystals) are placed at the bottom of the beaker
using a thistle funnel.
Observation:
▪ It is observed that the crystals of potassium permanganate dissolve in water and they spread
throughout the water forming a purple solution.
Explanation:
▪ The whole water becomes purple because the molecules of potassium permanganate have
diffused into water from the bottom (high concentration) to the top (low concentration).

NOTE:
▪ Another coloured substance that can be used is copper (ii) sulphate crystals (blue crystals).
The solution becomes blue if they are dissolved in water.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

An experiment to demonstrate diffusion in gases.

a) Using gas jars:

𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝒋𝒂𝒓𝒔

𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒔
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔

▪ Two gas jars of the same diameter are obtained.

▪ One gas jar is filled with a coloured gas e.g. bromine gas (brown in colour) and the other gas
jar is filled with air molecules.
▪ The gas jar containing air is inverted on the open end of the gas jar containing bromine gas.
▪ It is observed that after sometime, the brown colour of bromine gas is seen spreading into the
gas jar containing air.
▪ This shows that brown bromine gas is diffusing from the gas jar where it is more
concentrated to the gas jar where it is less concentrated.

b) Using a porous pot:

𝑯𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒂𝒔

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑷𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒕

Procedures:
▪ A water manometer is connected to a porous pot containing water.
▪ Hydrogen gas is passed into the air enclosed in the porous pot as shown above.
Observation:
▪ It is observed that the water level in the left arm of the manometer falls while that in the right arm
of the manometer rises.
Explanation:
▪ This shows that hydrogen gas molecules diffuse through the porous pot hence increasing the
pressure on the surface of water in the manometer thus pushing water down in the left arm. This
causes a rise in water in the right arm of the manometer.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF DIFFUSION

1. Temperature:
The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the temperature.
Therefore, the rate of diffusion increases with an increase in temperature and decreases with a
decrease in temperature.
This is because when temperature is increased, the speed of molecules increases thus spreading
faster and when the temperature is lowered, the speed of molecules decreases thus spreading at a
slow rate.
This explains why the smell from a latrine spreads faster during a dry day.

2. Size of diffusing molecules:

Smaller molecules diffuse faster than larger molecules. This is because large molecules occupy
more space than the small molecules thus it becomes difficult for them to pass through a material
with small pores.

3. Pressure:
The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the pressure.
Therefore, the rate of diffusion increases with an increase in pressure and reduces with a decrease
in pressure.
This is because when pressure is increased, the molecules are highly squeezed thus causing them
to collide more frequently hence making them to move faster.

4. Density of the gas molecules:

The rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the density of gas molecules.
Therefore, the higher the density, the lower the rate of diffusion and the lower the density, the
higher the rate of diffusion.
Lighter molecules diffuse faster than heavier molecules.

5. Concentration of diffusing material:

The higher the concentration of a diffusing material, the higher the rate of diffusion and the lower
the concentration of a diffusing material, the lower the rate of diffusion.
This explains why more concentrated sugar at the bottom of the cup spreads faster in porridge
than a low concentration of sugar at the bottom.

6. Size of pores in the porous material:

Large pores of a porous material allow many molecules to pass through them per unit time while
small pores allow very few molecules to pass through them. As a result, the rate of diffusion is
high when the size of pores is large and low when the size of pores is small.

NOTE:
 Diffusion is fastest in gases, relatively faster in liquids and very slow in solids. In liquids and
gases, particles or molecules move randomly from place to place. These particles collide with
each other thus changing directions. Eventually, the particles are spread through the whole
container.
 Diffusion is faster in gases because gas molecules are widely spaced therefore, the
intermolecular forces between them are very weak thus the molecules can easily move
randomly from place to place.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. Explain the following observations in daily life.
i) A small amount of perfume sprayed at one corner of a room spreads quickly and fills the
whole room.
ii) The smell from a pit latrine spreads faster to the surrounding areas on a dry day.
iii) If you put much sugar in tea, the tea will become sweet even if you don’t stir it.
2. a) What is meant by the term diffusion?
b) Describe an experiment to show diffusion in liquids.
c) A porous pot containing air is connected to a water mater manometer. Explain what happens
if hydrogen gas is let in the space surrounding it.
3. The figure below shows an arrangement to demonstrate diffusion.
𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒓

𝑷𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒕

𝑯𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒂𝒔
𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

Hydrogen gas is supplied for some time and then stopped. State and explain what is likely to be
observed when hydrogen gas supply;
a) is on.
b) is stopped.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES:
Molecular forces are forces of attraction or repulsion between molecules of matter.
These molecular forces hold molecules of matter. They become weak as temperature of matter is
increased.
The molecular forces include;
→ cohesion forces.
→ Adhesion forces.

COHESION FORCES:
These are forces of attraction between molecules of the same substance or same kind.
E.g.:
➢ Forces of attraction between a water molecule and another water molecule.
➢ Forces of attraction between glass molecules themselves.

ADHESION FORCES:
These are forces of attraction between molecules of different substances.
E.g.:
➢ Forces of attraction between a water molecule and a glass molecule.
➢ Forces of attraction between mercury molecules and paraffin molecules.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EFFECTS OF ADHESION AND COHESION FORCES

The magnitude of cohesive and adhesive forces determines;
• The ability of a liquid to wet another material.
• Shape of meniscus of the liquid.
• The rise or fall of a liquid in the capillary tube.

When adhesion forces are greater than cohesion forces (e.g. water and glass molecules):
The forces of attraction between water molecules and molecules of other substances e.g. glass
(adhesive forces) are greater than the forces of attraction between water molecules themselves
(cohesive forces).
This explains the following observations:
 When water is spilled (poured) on a clean glass surface, water spreads out and wets the glass.

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔

 When water is poured in a clean container, the meniscus of water curves upwards.

𝑴𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒖𝒔 (𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆)

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓

When cohesion forces are greater than adhesion forces (e.g. mercury molecules):
The forces of attraction between mercury molecules themselves (cohesive forces) are greater than the
forces of attraction between mercury molecules and molecules of other substances (adhesive forces).
This explains the following observations:
 When mercury is spilled (poured) on a clean glass surface, mercury forms small spherical
droplets and doesn’t wet the glass.
𝑺𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔
 When mercury is poured in a clean container, the meniscus of mercury curves downwards.

𝑴𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒖𝒔 (𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒙)

𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓

Question 1: Explain why when water is poured on glass, water wets it.
Water spreads on the glass surface due to greater adhesion forces between glass and
water molecules than the cohesion forces between water molecules themselves hence
wetting the glass.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Question 2: Explain why rain falls in droplets rather than a fine mist.
This is because water has very strong cohesive forces which pulls its molecules tightly
together forming droplets.

Revision questions:
1. Explain why water in a narrow glass tube has a concave meniscus (curves upwards) while
mercury, in the same tube has a convex meniscus (curves downwards).
2. Explain why when washing glass utensils, water remains attached to the utensils.

CAPILLARITY:
When a wick of a lamp is placed in paraffin, paraffin rises up the wick. This is due to capillary action.
Definition:
Capillarity is the rise or fall of a liquid in a narrow tube.

Capillary rise (elevation):

This is the rising of a liquid in a narrow tube (capillary tube).
Capillary rise occurs when adhesion forces between liquid molecules and glass tube molecules are
greater than the cohesion forces between liquid molecules themselves. The liquid is attracted more to
the surfaces of the tube thus causing it to rise.
 When a narrow tube (capillary tube) is dipped into a container containing water, water rises up in
the tube.
𝑵𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

 When two or more narrow tubes (capillary tubes) are dipped into a container containing water, the
rise of water depends on the diameter of the tube i.e. the rise of water is higher or greatest in a
small tube and lowest or least in the large tube.
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

Question: Explain why water climbs up a piece of paper that has been dipped into a glass of water.
This is because the adhesive forces between water molecules and glass molecules are
strong enough to pull the water molecules from glass and move them up the paper.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Capillary fall (depression):

This is the falling of a liquid in a narrow tube (capillary tube).
Capillary fall occurs when cohesion forces between liquid molecules themselves are greater than the
adhesion forces between liquid molecules and glass tube molecules. The liquid is attached or attracted
less to the surfaces of the tube thus causing it to fall.
 When a narrow tube (capillary tube) is dipped into a container containing mercury, mercury level
falls in the tube.
𝑵𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝒇𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒔

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

 When two or more narrow tubes (capillary tubes) are dipped into a container containing mercury,
the fall of mercury depends on the diameter of the tube i.e. the fall of mercury is higher or greatest
in a small tube and lowest or least in the large tube.
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

NOTE:
▪ Capillarity is disadvantageous and dangerous in construction of buildings because it causes
water to rise through the walls of the building from the ground. This can be prevented by
covering the damp proof course of a building with a non-porous material (water proof) e.g.
polythene.

Question 1: Explain why a non-porous material is often put on the damp proof course of a building
during construction.
The non-porous material prevents the rise of water through the walls of a building
from the ground. Therefore, if it is not put on the damp proof course of a building,
water rises through the walls by capillary action thus weakening the walls of the
building.

Question 2: Explain why mercury level falls when a capillary tube is dipped into a beaker containing
mercury.
This is because the cohesion forces between mercury molecules themselves are greater
than the adhesion forces between mercury molecules and capillary tube molecules.
The liquid is attached or attracted less to the surfaces of the tube thus causing it to
fall.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

APPLICATIONS OF CAPILLARITY:
→ Rising of paraffin in the wicks of stoves or lamps.
→ Movement of water and minerals from the roots to the other parts of the plant.
→ Absorption of water by a towel through its pores.
→ Absorption of liquids by a blotting paper or toilet paper.

Revision questions:
1. Explain how capillary rise occurs in a narrow tube.
2. Explain the following observations.
i) Water wets clean glass surfaces but not waxed glass surfaces.
ii) Water rises up in a narrow tube but mercury which is also a liquid falls in a narrow tube.
3. Explain why the lower part of the walls (near the floor) appear damp and begin to peel off a few
years after construction.

SURFACE TENSION:
Several insects are able to walk on water surfaces; and when water drops slowly, it stretches and
forms droplets. This is because at the surface of a water, there exists a force which makes the water
surface to behave like a stretched elastic skin.

Definition:
Surface tension is force acting on the surface of the liquid that makes the liquid surface to behave
like a stretched elastic skin.
OR
Surface tension is the tangential force acting normally per unit length of an imaginary line drawn on
the surface of the liquid.

Therefore;
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
The SI unit of surface tension is Newton per metre (𝑵𝒎−𝟏 ).

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

An experiment to show the existence of surface tension

𝑷𝒊𝒏 𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓

𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒓

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

Procedures:
▪ A beaker is filled with clean water.
▪ A blotting paper is placed carefully on the surface of water.
▪ A pin is gently placed on the blotting paper.
Observation:
▪ It is observed that after sometime, the blotting paper absorbs water and sinks to the bottom but
the pin remains floating on the water surface.
Explanation:
▪ The pin remains floating on the water surface because the surface of water behaves like a
stretched elastic skin.
▪ This demonstrates surface tension.

Explanation of surface tension using the kinetic theory of matter

𝑨
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

▪ A molecule B inside the liquid is surrounded by equal number of molecules on all sides.
Therefore, the intermolecular forces between it and the surrounding molecules is the same in all
directions. Thus, the resultant force on molecule B is zero.
▪ A molecule A on the surface of the liquid is only surrounded by molecules below it. Therefore,
the intermolecular forces between it and the surrounding molecules only acts downwards. Thus,
the resultant force on molecule A acts downwards.
▪ This downward resultant force on molecule A pulls the surface of the liquid downwards thus the
surface behaves like a stretched elastic skin.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Factors that affect surface tension:

a) Temperature:
Increase in temperature reduces surface tension. This is because an increase in temperature
weakens (breaks down) the intermolecular forces between the liquid molecules.

b) Impurities:
Adding impurities like soap solution and detergents (e.g. Omo, Nomi, Vim, etc.) weakens the
intermolecular forces between the liquid molecules thus reducing surface tension on the liquid
surface.

Question 1: State two ways of reducing surface tension of a liquid.

→ By adding soap solution and detergents like Omo, Nomi and Vim into the liquid.
→ By increasing the temperature of the liquid i.e. heating it.

Question 2: A razor blade on a filter paper is gently placed on the surface of water in a container.
i) Explain what happens after some time.
After sometime, the filter paper will absorb water and sink to the bottom of the
container but razor blade will remain floating on the surface of water.
The razor blade remains floating because the surface of water is behaving as a
stretched elastic skin.
ii) Explain what happens when some soap solution is carefully added to the water.
The razor blade will also sink if soap solution is added to the water. This is
because adding soap weakens the intermolecular forces between the water
molecules thus reducing the surface tension of the water.

Question 3: Explain why it is advisable to wash clothes using warm water.

This is because warming water reduces its surface tension. This helps the clothes to
absorb water and get wetted easily thus removing the dirt thoroughly well.

Question 4: Explain why soap is used in washing clothes.

This is because soap reduces surface tension of water hence causing water to
penetrate the clothes easily. This helps to remove the dirt from the clothes easily.

Question 5: During a rainy season we use normally use umbrellas, tents and rain coats.
a) Explain why umbrellas do not leak when it rains yet they are porous.
They do not leak because surface tension of water prevents it from penetrating the
fabric of the umbrella.

b) Explain why the inside of umbrellas in (a) above turn wet when the inside is
touched.
Touching the inside of the umbrella increases the temperature of water on the
outside part of the umbrella. This reduces the surface tension of water thus
penetrating the fabric of the umbrella hence wetting the inside of the umbrella.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Application of surface tension (Instances to show existence of surface tension):

➢ Small insects can walk on the surface of water without sinking.
➢ Dirt get removed easily when soap and detergents are added to water when washing clothes.
➢ Umbrellas, tents and rain coats are able to keep water off due to surface tension.
➢ A pin or needle or razor blade can float on water when gently put on it surface even though they
are denser than water.
➢ Water drops from a tap form spherical shape.
➢ When water is dropping slowly, a drop of water may remain attached from the tap for some time
before falling.

NOTE:
 Surface tension may also be demonstrated at home by using soap.

An experiment to demonstrate surface tension by using soap

▪ Make a ring of thin wire.
▪ Tie a thread loosely across the ring of thin wire as shown below.

𝑹𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇
𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝑳𝒐𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅

▪ Dip the ring inside a soap solution so that the ring is filled the soap film and pull it out.
▪ Break the soap film on one side of the thread.
▪ It is observed that the thread pulls tight and forms a perfect curve as shown below.

𝑻𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝒂 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆

▪ This shows that the thread is being pulled by a certain force on surface of the soap solution. This
force is what we call surface tension.

Revision questions:
1. Explain why it is not advisable to touch tent fabric material when it is raining.
2. Explain why it is not easy to wash clothes without soap.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

SIZE OR THICKNESS OF AN OIL MOLECULE

Matter is made of small or tiny particles called molecules. These particles are too small to see with
our human eyes. So how small are these molecules?
When oil is dropped on the surface of water, it spreads out until it forms an oil film which is just one
molecule thick i.e. (𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 = 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒).
Therefore, we can estimate the size of an oil molecule by finding the thickness of an oil film formed
on water through the oil drop experiment.

An experiment to estimate the size or thickness of an oil molecule

𝑳𝒚𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒅𝒆𝒓
𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑶𝒊𝒍 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒎 (𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒄𝒉)

𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓

▪ A clean container is filled with clean water.

▪ Lycopodium powder is sprinkled on the surface of water.
▪ A small drop of oil of known volume, 𝑽 is placed on the surface of water.
▪ The oil drop spreads and forms a circular oil film (patch) on the surface of water.
▪ The diameter, 𝒅 of the circular oil film on the surface of water is measured and recorded.
▪ The area, 𝑨 of the circular oil film is determined from;
𝟐
𝝅𝒅𝟐
𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓 𝒐𝒓 𝑨 =
𝟒
▪ The thickness or size of oil molecule is then determined from;
𝑽
𝒕=
𝑨
Assumptions made in the oil drop experiment:
The following diagrams may be used to understand the assumptions.
𝑶𝒊𝒍 𝒇𝒊𝒎 (𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒄𝒉)

𝑶𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 𝒕
𝑶𝒊𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆

➢ The oil drop is spherical.

➢ The oil film (patch) is cylindrical.
➢ The oil film is one molecule thick (monomolecular). i.e. thickness of an oil film is equal to size
or diameter of one oil molecule.
➢ The spaces between oil molecules in the oil film are negligible.
➢ The volume of oil drop is equal to volume of oil film (oil patch).

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Uses of lycopodium powder in the oil drop experiment:

→ It helps us to see the oil film clearly.
→ It makes the oil film stable for easy measurement of the diameter.

EXPLANATIONS BEHIND THE OIL DROP EXPERIMENT:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝟒 𝒅
𝝅𝐫𝐨 𝟑 = 𝝅𝐫𝐟 𝟐 𝒕 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝒉 = 𝒕 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓 =
𝟑 𝟐
𝒓𝒐 − 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝
𝒓𝒇 − 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ
NOTE:
 Sometimes, the oil drop may be determined or formed by mixing oil with another liquid to
form a solution. Then, the solution is dropped on the water surface.
Therefore, we have to find the volume of the oil drop (without the other liquid) dropped on
the surface of water.
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒅
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = ( ) × 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒅
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

 Number of oil molecules in an oil film can be obtained from;

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑

𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆
𝐍𝐎𝐓𝐄: 𝐃𝐢𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐨𝐢𝐥 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐤𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬 (𝐬𝐢𝐳𝐞) 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐢𝐥 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞

Examples:
1. In an oil drop experiment, the diameter of the oil film is 5𝑐𝑚 and the volume of oil drop used is
0.005𝑐𝑚3 . Find the thickness of an oil film.
𝒅 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎, 𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝒅 𝟓
𝒓 = = = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
Area of oil film:
𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝟐𝟐
𝑨= × 𝟐. 𝟓𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏 𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝟕
Thickness of oil film:
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
𝒕=
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒎
𝑽
𝒕=
𝑨
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝒕=
𝟏. 𝟗𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏
𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒄𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. In an oil drop experiment, an oil patch of radius 10𝑐𝑚 is formed by 2.5 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚3 of oil drop.
a) Calculate the approximate size of an oil molecule.
𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝑽 = 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑
Volume of oil drop: Thickness of oil molecule:
𝑽 = 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
𝒕=
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒎
Area of oil film: 𝑽
𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒕=
𝑨
𝟐𝟐 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝑨= × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝒄𝒎𝟐 𝒕=
𝟕 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐
𝒕 = 𝟕. 𝟗𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒄𝒎

b) State any two assumptions used.

→ Volume of oil drop is equal to volume of oil film.
→ Oil film is cylindrical.

3. In an oil drop experiment, the area of the oil film formed on the water surface is 0.655𝑐𝑚2 and
the volume of oil drop used is 0.0015𝑐𝑚3. Find the thickness of oil molecule.
𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟑
Thickness of oil film:
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
𝒕=
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒎
𝑽
𝒕=
𝑨
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝒕=
𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟓
𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎

4. In an experiment to estimate the thickness of an oil molecule, the radius of spherical oil drop is
0.25mm and the radius of the circular patch of oil formed on the water surface is 6.5cm.
Calculate the thickness of an oil molecule.
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒄𝒉 = 𝟔. 𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒎 = 𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝟎
𝒓 = 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒄𝒎 Area of oil patch:
𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐
Volume of oil drop: 𝟐𝟐
𝟒 𝑨= × 𝟔. 𝟓𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝟕
𝟑
𝟒 𝟐𝟐 Thickness of oil film:
𝑽 = × ( ) × (𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 )𝟑
𝟑 𝟕 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
𝑽 = 𝟔. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒄𝒎𝟑 𝒕=
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒎
𝑽
𝒕=
𝑨
𝟔. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
𝒕=
𝟏. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐
𝒕 = 𝟒. 𝟗𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒄𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. An oil drop of volume 10−3 𝑐𝑚3 forms a film on the water surface. The area of the film formed is
0.785𝑐𝑚2 . If the oil film is one molecule thick, estimate the thickness of the film.
𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑
Thickness of oil film:
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
𝒕=
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒎
𝑽
𝒕=
𝑨
𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝒕=
𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟓
𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎

6. A solution was made by dissolving 1𝑐𝑚3 of cooking oil in 199𝑐𝑚3 of methanol. When
0.004𝑐𝑚3 of the solution is dropped on the surface of water, an oil film of diameter 12𝑐𝑚 is
obtained. Calculate;
i) the volume of cooking oil in the drop.
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒅
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = ( ) × 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒅
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟏
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = ( ) × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒
𝟏 + 𝟏𝟗𝟗
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟑

ii) the thickness of the cooking oil molecule.

𝒅 𝟏𝟐 Thickness of oil film:
𝒓= = = 𝟔𝒄𝒎 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
𝟐 𝟐 𝒕=
Area of oil film: 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒎
𝑽
𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒕=
𝟐𝟐 𝑨
𝑨= × 𝟔𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝒄𝒎𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐
𝟕 𝒕=
𝟏. 𝟏𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐
𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒄𝒎

iii) the number of molecules in the oil film.

Volume of an oil molecule Number of oil molecules:
Recall: Diameter of oil molecule is equal to 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
thickness of oil molecule. 𝑵=
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐
𝒅 𝒕 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑵=
𝒓= = = = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒄𝒎 𝟐. 𝟗𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟏
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝑵 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟗𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝟒 𝟑
𝑽= 𝝅𝒓
𝟑
𝟒 𝟐𝟐
𝑽 = × ( ) × (𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 )𝟑
𝟑 𝟕
𝑽 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟏 𝒄𝒎𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

7. 1𝑐𝑚3 of oleic acid was dissolved in 999𝑐𝑚3 of alcohol to form 1000𝑐𝑚3 of solution. 1𝑐𝑚3
drop of the solution was put on the water surface. The drop spread to form a patch of diameter
28𝑐𝑚. Calculate;
a) Volume of oleic acid in 1𝑐𝑚3 drop of the solution.
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒅
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = ( ) × 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒅
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟏
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = ( )×𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝒄𝒎𝟑

b) The size of the oleic acid molecule.

𝒅 𝟐𝟖 Thickness of acid film:
𝒓= = = 𝟏𝟒𝒄𝒎 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
𝟐 𝟐 𝒕=
Area of acid film: 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒎
𝑽
𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒕=
𝟐𝟐 𝑨
𝑨= × 𝟏𝟒𝟐 = 𝟔𝟏𝟔𝒄𝒎𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏
𝟕 𝒕=
𝟔𝟏𝟔
𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒄𝒎

c) Volume of oleic acid molecule.

Recall: Diameter of acid molecule is equal to thickness of acid molecule.
𝒅 𝒕 𝟏. 𝟔𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
𝒓= = = = 𝟖. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒄𝒎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟒 𝟑
𝑽= 𝝅𝒓
𝟑
𝟒 𝟐𝟐
𝑽 = × ( ) × (𝟖. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 )𝟑
𝟑 𝟕
𝑽 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟖 𝒄𝒎𝟑

d) Number of oleic acid molecules in the patch.

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
𝑵=
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏
𝑵=
𝟐. 𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟖
𝑵 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔

8. 1𝑐𝑚3 of olive oil was added to 99𝑐𝑚3 of ethanol to form a solution. 2𝑐𝑚3 drop of the solution
was put on the water surface. The drop spread to form a film of radius 12cm. Calculate;
a) Volume of olive oil in 2𝑐𝑚3 drop of the solution.
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒅
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = ( ) × 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒅
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟏
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = ( )×𝟐
𝟏 + 𝟗𝟗
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

b) The thickness of the oil film.

𝒓 = 𝟏𝟐𝒄𝒎 Thickness of oil film:
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
Area of oil film: 𝒕=
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒎
𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝑽
𝟐𝟐 𝒕=
𝑨= × 𝟏𝟐𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝒄𝒎𝟐 𝑨
𝟕 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝒕=
𝟒. 𝟓𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐
𝒕 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒄𝒎

EXERCISE:
1. In an oil drop experiment, the radius of the oil film is 10cm and the volume oil drop used is
1.1 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚3. Estimate the thickness of an oil molecule.

2. If 1.8 × 10−4 𝑐𝑚3 of oil spreads to form a patch of area 150𝑐𝑚2 , calculate the size of an oil
molecule.

3. In an experiment to estimate the size of a molecule of olive oil, 0.12𝑚𝑚3 of the oil solution was
dropped on a clean water surface in a trough. The oil spreads to form a circular patch of an area
1.0 × 104 𝑐𝑚2 . Estimate the size of a molecule of olive oil.

4. 1𝑐𝑚3 of oil was added to 299𝑐𝑚3 of ether to form a solution. 2𝑐𝑚3 drop of the solution was put
on the water surface with sprinkled lycopodium powder. The drop spreads to form a film of
diameter 14cm. Calculate;
i) Thickness of the oil molecule.
ii) Number of oil molecules in the film.
iii) State any three assumptions made.
iv) Why was lycopodium powder used?

5. An oil drop of volume 1.0 × 10−9 𝑚3 spreads on a water surface to form an oil patch of area
5 × 10−2 𝑚2. If the patch is one molecule thick, find the approximate number of molecules in the
drop.

6. In an oil drop experiment to determine the thickness of an oil molecule, the following were done;
• 1𝑐𝑚3 of oil was dissolved in 99𝑐𝑚3 of ethanol to form 200𝑐𝑚3 of solution.
• 0.4𝑐𝑚3 of the dilute solution was dropped onto the surface of water.
• The diameter of the film formed was found to be 7cm.
Calculate the size of the oil molecule

7. A solution was made by dissolving 1𝑐𝑚3 of cooking oil in 1999𝑐𝑚3 of methanol. When
0.005𝑐𝑚3 of the solution is dropped on the surface of water, an oil film of diameter 14𝑐𝑚 is
obtained. Calculate;
i) the volume of cooking oil in the drop.
ii) The thickness of the oil molecule.
iii) The number of molecules in the oil film.

8. In an oil drop experiment, the area of the oil patch formed on the water surface is 0.700𝑐𝑚2 and
the volume of oil drop used is 0.0016𝑐𝑚3. Find the diameter of oil molecule.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

MACHINES
A machine is a device used to simplify work.
When using a machine, a force is applied at one point to overcome another force at another point.
A machine is used to;
• Convert energy from one form to another.
• Amplify the force used.

PRINCIPLE OF MACHINES:
It states that a small force applied (effort) moves a large distance to produce a bigger force that moves a
load through a small distance.

TERMS USED IN MACHINES

Effort (E):
This is the force applied at one point of a machine to overcome the load.
The SI unit is the Newton (N).

Load (L):
This is the force which is overcome by the effort.
The SI unit is the Newton (N).

Mechanical Advantage (M.A):

This is the ratio of load to effort.
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑳
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑬
Mechanical Advantage doesn’t have units.

Velocity Ratio (V.R):

This is the ratio of distance moved by the effort to distance moved by the load in the same time.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑫𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑫𝑳
Velocity Ratio doesn’t have units.

Work input (W.I):

This is the work done by the effort to overcome the load.
OR
This is the product of effort and the distance moved by the effort.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬
The SI unit of work input is a joule (J).

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Work output (W.O):

This is the work done by the machine to overcome the load.
OR
This is the product of load and the distance moved by the load.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝑳 × 𝑫𝑳
The SI unit of work output is a joule (J).
Work output is also referred to as work done on the load.

Energy wasted:
This is the difference between Work input and Work output.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

Efficiency (𝜼):
This is the ratio of work output to work input of a machine expressed as a percentage.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝜂) = × 100%
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐿 × 𝐷𝐿
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝜂) = × 100%
𝐸 × 𝐷𝐸
𝐿 𝐷𝐿
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝜂) = × × 100%
𝐸 𝐷𝐸
𝐿 1 𝐷𝐿
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑀. 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝐸 𝑉. 𝑅 𝐷𝐸
1
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝜂) = 𝑀. 𝐴 × × 100%
𝑉. 𝑅
𝑴. 𝑨
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (𝜼) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹

NOTE:
In practice, the efficiency of a machine is always less than 100%.

Reasons why efficiency of a machine is always less than 𝟏𝟎𝟎%:

➢ Some energy is wasted or lost in overcoming friction between the movable parts of a machine.
➢ Some energy is wasted or lost in lifting useless loads e.g. strings in pulleys.

How to increase the efficiency of a machine:

➢ By lubricating the movable parts of the machine i.e. oiling and greasing.
➢ By using light materials for useless loads.

Examples:
1. An effort of 200𝑁 moves a distance of 1.5𝑚 to lift a load of 480𝑁 through 1m. Calculate;
(i) Mechanical Advantage.
(ii) Velocity ratio.
(iii) Work output.
(iv) Work input.
(v) Efficiency.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒎, 𝑳 = 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟏𝒎

(i) Mechanical advantage (ii) Velocity ratio (iii) Work output
𝑳 𝑫𝑬 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝑳 × 𝑫𝑳
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑬 𝑫𝑳 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟒𝟖𝟎 × 𝟏
𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝟏. 𝟓 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝑱
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟏
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟒 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟓
(iv) Work input (v) Efficiency
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬 𝑴. 𝑨
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏. 𝟓 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑱 𝟐. 𝟒
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏. 𝟓
𝜼 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜼 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎%
2. If a lever is used to overcome a load of 50N by applying an effort of 10N. Find;
(i) Mechanical advantage of the lever system.
(ii) Efficiency of the system if the velocity ratio is 6.
𝑳 = 𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎𝑵, 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟔
(i) Mechanical advantage (ii) Efficiency
𝑳 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟓𝟎 𝟓
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎 𝟔
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑%

3. In a machine, 50N are used to overcome a load of 20kg. If the 20kg load moves a distance of 5cm
whenever the 50N moves a distance of 25cm.
Calculate;
(i) Mechanical advantage. (ii) Velocity ratio (iii) Efficiency.
𝟐𝟓
𝑬 = 𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒎,
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟓
𝑳 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑳 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎

(i) Mechanical advantage (ii) Velocity ratio (iii) Efficiency

𝑳 𝑫𝑬 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬 𝑫𝑳 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟒
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟓𝟎 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝟓
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟒 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜼 = 𝟖𝟎%

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. An effort of 100N is used to raise a load of 200N. If the effort moves through a distance of 4m,
calculate;
(i) Distance moved by the load if the velocity ratio is 5.
(ii) Energy wasted by the machine.
(iii) Efficiency of the machine.

𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟒𝒎, 𝑳 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑳 =?, 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓

(i) Distance moved by load (ii) Energy wasted. (iii) Efficiency
𝑫𝑬 Work input: 𝑾. 𝑶
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑫𝑳 𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬 𝑾. 𝑰
𝟒 𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟒 𝟏𝟔𝟎
𝟓= 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑫𝑳 𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑱 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝟒 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑫𝑳 = Work output:
𝜼 = 𝟒𝟎%
𝟓 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝑳 × 𝑫𝑳
𝑫𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝒎 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟖
𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝑱

𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝑾. 𝑶 − 𝑾. 𝑰
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟔𝟎
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑱

5. In a machine which is 75% efficient, an effort of 300N is used to lift a load of 900N. If the load is
moved through a distance of 2m, find the;
(i) Mechanical advantage.
(ii) Velocity ratio.
(iii)Distance moved by the effort.

𝑬 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟐𝒎, 𝑳 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑬 =?, 𝜼 = 𝟕𝟓%

(i) Mechanical advantage (ii) Velocity ratio (iii) Distance moved by effort
𝑳 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑫𝑬
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹 𝑫𝑳
𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟑 𝑫𝑬
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟕𝟓% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝟒=
𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑽. 𝑹 𝟐
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟒 × 𝟐
𝟕𝟓%𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎%
𝑫𝑬 = 𝟖𝒎
𝟑𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟕𝟓%
𝟑𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟕𝟓%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. An effort of 100N moves through 12cm while moving a Load of 400N through 2cm. Find;
i) the mechanical advantage.
ii) the velocity ratio
iii) the efficiency of the machine.
2. A water pump raises 2000kg of water through a vertical height of 22m. If the efficiency of the water
pump is 80%, calculate the work input.
3. A simple machine raises a load of 60N through a distance of 2m by an effort of 20N which moves
through a distance of 8m. Calculate the machine’s efficiency.
4. A load of 100N is raised through 6m when an effort of 40N moves through a distance of 24m.
Calculate the;
i) mechanical advantage.
ii) velocity ratio.
iii) energy wasted by the machine.
iv) efficiency of the machine.
5. A simple machine raises a load of 300kg through 0.5m when an effort of 150N is applied through a
distance of 12.5m. Calculate the;
i) work input into machine.
ii) work output by the machine.
iii) efficiency of the machine.

Examples of simple machines include;

▪ Levers ▪ Wheel and axle
▪ Pulleys ▪ Gears
▪ Inclined planes ▪ Screws
▪ Hydraulic machines ▪ wedges

LEVERS
A lever is a rigid body is free to turn about a fixed point.
The fixed point at which the lever turns is called the pivot or fulcrum.

Classes of levers:
There are three classes of levers namely;
➢ First class lever.
➢ Second class lever.
➢ Third class lever.

FIRST CLASS LEVERS

This is the type of lever where the pivot is between the load and the effort (LPE).

Examples include;
▪ Crow bar ▪ See saw
▪ Beam balance ▪ Claw hammer
▪ Pair of scissors ▪ Shears
▪ Pair of pliers ▪ Secateurs

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

See saw Pair of scissors Claw hammer

Pair of pliers Crow bar

SECOND CLASS LEVERS

This is the type of lever where the load is between the pivot and the effort (PLE).

Examples include;
▪ Wheel barrow ▪ Bottle opener
▪ Nut cracker ▪ Office punching machine

Wheel barrow Nut cracker Bottle opener

THIRD CLASS LEVERS

This is the type of lever where the effort is between the load and the pivot (LEP).

Examples include;
▪ Spade ▪ Broom
▪ Pair of tongs ▪ Fishing rod
▪ Tweezers ▪ Stapling machine

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Spade Broom Fishing rod

Stapling machine Forceps Tweezers

NOTE:
Consider the diagram below.

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

▪ The operation of a lever depends on the principle of moments.

▪ The efficiency of a lever can be increased by the effort distance (distance of the effort from the
turning point).

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

PULLEYS
A pulley is a wheel with a grooved rim on which a rope passes.

𝑹𝒐𝒑𝒆

𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒗𝒆
Types of pulley systems:
There are three types of pulleys namely;
• Single fixed pulley.
• Single movable pulley.
• Block and tackle pulley.

SINGLE FIXED PULLEY:

This is a type of pulley system in which the pulley is fixed on the rigid support.
In a single fixed pulley, the load is tied to one end and the effort applied to another end of the rope.
As the rope is pulled downwards, the load is raised upwards.
Therefore, a single fixed pulley eases work by changing the direction of the application of the effort.

𝑬
𝑳
Assuming, there is no friction in the groove and the rope is weightless;
At equilibrium;
𝑼𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 = 𝑫𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝑳=𝑬
𝑳 𝑬
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑴. 𝑨 = = =𝟏
𝑬 𝑬
In real practice, the effort is always greater than the load because it is used overcome friction in the
groove and also used to lift the weight of the groove. Therefore, mechanical advantage is always less
than 1.
However, the distance moved by the effort is always equal to the distance moved by the load i.e.
𝑫𝑬 = 𝑫𝑳
𝑫𝑬 𝑫𝑳
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑽. 𝑹 = = =𝟏
𝑫𝑳 𝑫𝑳

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

SINGLE MOVABLE PULLEY:

This is the type of pulley system in which the pulley moves along with the rope.
One end of the rope is fixed to a rigid support and the effort is applied on the other end.
The advantage of this pulley system is that less effort is required to lift the load thus raising it easily.

𝑬 𝑬

𝑳
Assuming, there is no friction in the groove and the rope is weightless;
At equilibrium;
𝑼𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 = 𝑫𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝑳=𝑬+𝑬
𝑳 = 𝟐𝑬
𝑳 𝟐𝑬
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑴. 𝑨 = = =𝟐
𝑬 𝑬
In real practice, the effort is always greater than the load because it is used overcome friction in the
groove and also used to lift the weight of the groove. Therefore, mechanical advantage is always less
than 2.
However, the distance moved by the effort is always twice the distance moved by the load i.e.
𝑫𝑬 = 𝟐𝑫𝑳
𝑫𝑬 𝟐𝑫𝑳
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑽. 𝑹 = = =𝟐
𝑫𝑳 𝑫𝑳

BLOCK AND TACKLE PULLEY SYSTEM:

This is the type of pulley system where two or more pulleys are combined to form a machine with high
velocity ratio and high mechanical advantage.
It consists of two blocks namely;
• Fixed block.
• Movable block.
These blocks are joined by a single rope called the “tackle”.

NOTE:
➢ Velocity ratio is equal to the number of strings supporting the movable block.
➢ Velocity ratio is also equal to the number of pulleys on the system.
➢ The effort applied is equal to the tension in each string supporting the movable block.
➢ For an odd number of pulleys in the system, the fixed block should have one more pulley than the
movable block.
➢ For an even number of pulleys in the system, the fixed and the movable blocks should have the same
number of pulleys.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

PASSING THE STRINGS (ROPES):

❖ If the number of pulleys is odd (velocity ratio is odd), the string must be tied and start from the
movable block.
❖ If the number of pulleys is even (velocity ratio is even), the string must be tied and start from the
fixed block.

Examples of block and tackle pulley systems include;

𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒

𝑬 𝑬 𝑬 𝑬
𝑬
𝑬
𝑬
𝑬 𝑬
𝑬
𝑬 𝑬 𝑬
𝑳
𝑳

𝑳
𝑳
𝑳

𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟔 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟕

𝑬 𝑬 𝑬

𝑳
𝑳
𝑳

Examples:
1. A block and tackle pulley system shown in the figure below is used to lift a load of 220N when an
effort of 110N is applied.
(i) State the velocity ratio of the system.
(ii) Calculate the mechanical advantage of the system.
(iii) Calculate the efficiency of the pulley system.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(i) (iii) Efficiency

𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = 𝟑 𝑴. 𝑨
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹
(ii) Mechanical advantage 𝟐
𝑬 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝑵 𝑳 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑
𝑬 𝜼 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟕%
𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟏𝟏𝟎
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐

𝑳 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝑵

2. A pulley system of velocity ratio 5 is used to lift a load of 500N. The effort needed is found to be
200N.
a) Draw the arrangement of the above system.
b) Calculate the efficiency of the system.
(a) (b)
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓
Mechanical advantage
𝑳
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑬
𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟓
Efficiency
𝑴. 𝑨
𝑳 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹
𝟐. 𝟓
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟓
𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜼 = 𝟓𝟎%

3. A man uses a block and tackle pulley system to raise a load of 720N through a distance of 10m using
an effort of 200N. If the pulley system has a velocity ratio of 5, find the;
a) Mechanical advantage. b) Efficiency. c) Distance moved by effort.
𝑳 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎, 𝑫𝑬 =?
𝑬 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑫𝑬
𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 𝑫𝑳
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟑. 𝟔 𝑫𝑬
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑. 𝟔 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝟓=
𝟓 𝟏𝟎
𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎
𝜼 = 𝟕𝟐% 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟓𝟎𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

d) Work input. e) Work output. f) Energy wasted

𝑫𝑬 = 𝟓𝟎𝒎, 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎, 𝑳 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎𝑵
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝑳 × 𝑫𝑳 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑾. 𝑰 − 𝑾. 𝑶
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐸. 𝑊 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟕, 𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑱 𝐸. 𝑊 = 𝟐, 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝑱

4. A block and tackle pulley system with a velocity ratio of 5 and 60% efficient is used to lift a load of
60kg through a vertical height of 2m. Calculate the effort that must be applied on the system.
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓, 𝜼 = 𝟔𝟎%, 𝑳 = 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟐𝒎
𝑴. 𝑨
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑳
𝑽. 𝑹 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑴. 𝑨 𝑬
𝟔𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝟓 𝟑=
𝑬
𝟔𝟎% × 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨 𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝟑𝟎𝟎% 𝑬=
𝟑
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑

5. Below is a frictionless pulley system of velocity ratio 4.

If the weight of the pulley system is 4N, calculate;

(i) Effort required to raise the load.
(ii) Mechanical advantage of the system.
𝑬 =? (iii)Efficiency of the system.

𝑳 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵

𝑼𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 = 𝑫𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔

𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒔) 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 = 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 + 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒚𝒔 + 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑬 + 𝑬 + 𝑬 + 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒 + 𝟎
𝟒𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟒
𝟐𝟎𝟒
𝑬=
𝟒
𝑬 = 𝟓𝟏𝑵
Mechanical advantage Efficiency
𝑳 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑬 𝑴. 𝑨
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟓𝟏 𝟑. 𝟗𝟐
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟐 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟒
𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜼 = 𝟗𝟖%

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

6. The pulley system below has a mass of 0.6kg

Calculate;
(i) Effort required to raise the load.
(ii) Mechanical advantage.
(iii) Efficiency of the pulley system.
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕

𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑵

(i) Effort (ii) Mechanical (iii) Efficiency

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒚 = 𝒎𝒈 advantage 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑
𝑾 = 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟔𝑵 𝑳
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑬 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑼𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 = 𝑫𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟔
𝑬+𝑬+𝑬 =𝑳+𝑾 𝟒𝟐 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟔 𝟑
𝟑𝑬 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝟔 𝜼 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟑%
𝟏𝟐𝟔
𝑬=
𝟑
𝑬 = 𝟒𝟐𝑵

7.
The figure besides shows a load of 10N being raised
slowly by the aid of a simple frictionless pulley system.
(i) State the velocity ratio of the system.
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 (ii) Calculate the effort required to raise the load if the
mass of each pulley is 0.2kg.
(iii)If the load is raised through a distance of 5m,
calculate the efficiency of the pulley system.
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
(i) 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = 𝟐

(ii) Effort Mechanical advantage (iii) Efficiency

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒚 = 𝒎𝒈 𝑳 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑾 = 𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝑵 𝑬 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟕
𝟏𝟎 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐
𝑼𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 = 𝑫𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝟔 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬+𝑬= 𝑳+𝑾 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟕
𝜼 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟓%
2𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐
𝟏𝟐
𝑬=
𝟐
𝑬 = 𝟔𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. The effort required to raise a load of 100N is 40N as shown below.
Calculate;
a) Mechanical advantage.
b) Efficiency.
c) Work done on the load if it is raised through a distance
𝟒𝟎𝑵 of 6m.

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵

2. A block and tackle pulley system is used to lift a mass of 2000kg. If this machine has a velocity ratio
of 5 and an efficiency of 80%,
(i) Sketch a possible arrangement of the pulleys.
(ii) Calculate the mechanical advantage of the system.
(iii) Determine the effort applied.

3. An effort of 125N is used to lift a load of 500N through a height of 2.5m using a pulley system. If
the distance moved by the effort is 15m, calculate;
a) the work done on the load.
b) the work done by the effort.
c) Efficiency of the pulley system.

4. An effort of 50N is required to raise a load of 200N using a pulley system of velocity ratio 5.
a) Draw a diagram to show the pulley system.
b) Find the efficiency of the system.
c) Calculate the work wasted when the load is raised through 120cm.
d) Give two reasons why the efficiency of the above pulley is less than 100%.

5. A pulley system of velocity ratio 3 supports a load of 20N. given that the tension in each string is
8N, calculate;
(i) The effort required to raise the load.
(ii) The mechanical advantage.
(iii) The efficiency of the pulley system.
(iv) The distance moved by the effort if the load moves through a distance of 2m.
(v) The weight of the lower pulley.

6. Draw a diagram showing a single string pulley system of velocity ratio 6. Given that the weight of
the lower block and the pulleys is 10N, calculate the efficiency of the pulley system if an effort of
1500N is required to raise a load of 4990N.

7. A block and tackle pulley system has a velocity ratio of 4. If its efficiency is 75%, find;
a) Mechanical advantage.
b) Load that can be lifted with an effort of 500N.
c) Work done if the load is raised through a vertical distance of 4.0m.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THE VARIATION OF MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE OR

EFFICIENCY OF PULLEY SYSTEM WITH THE LOAD
(Experiment to determine efficiency of a pulley system)

𝑬 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒑𝒂𝒏

𝑳 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒏
▪ A known load (L) is placed on the load pan.
▪ Known weights are added on the effort pan until the load just begins to rise upwards.
▪ The total weight (E) on the effort pan is noted and recorded.
▪ The experiment is repeated with different loads.
▪ The results are put in a suitable table including values of mechanical advantage and efficiency.
▪ A graph of efficiency against load is plotted.
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚

𝟏𝟎𝟎%

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
Explanation of the graph:
As the load increases, the efficiency of the pulley system also increases. This is because;
• When the load is small, a large effort is used to overcome friction force between moving parts and
lift the weight of the movable block. This leads to a small mechanical advantage and small efficiency
for a small load.
• When the load is increased, the friction force and the weight of the movable become very small.
Therefore, a large portion of the effort is used to lift the load while a small portion of the effort
overcomes friction and lifts the weight of the movable block. This leads to a large mechanical
advantage and large efficiency for a small load.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
❖ The velocity ratio of the above pulley system is 4 but not 5 since we consider the arrangement of
pulleys where the load is attached.
❖ The of table of results is as shown below.
𝐿(𝑁) E(N) 𝐿 𝑀. 𝐴
(𝑀. 𝐴) × 100% (𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦)
𝐸 𝑉. 𝑅

❖ If the variation of mechanical advantage with load is required, then a graph of mechanical
advantage is plotted as shown below.
𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒅𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑽. 𝑹

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
APPLICATIONS (USES) OF PULLEYS
• They are used at construction sites to lift heavy building materials from the ground.
• They are used in raising (hoisting) flags.
• They are used in lifts and elevators.
• They are used in cranes for loading and offloading ships at ports.
• They are used in fetching water from underground wells.
• They are used in drawing stage curtains in theatres.

INCLINED PLANES
An inclined plane is a sloping surface or plane inclined at angle to the ground.
An inclined plane allows a load to be raised using a small effort than it were to be lifted vertically
upwards.

Examples of inclined planes;

• Stair cases.
• Raising cows up to the truck using a slopping piece of wood.
• Sloping roads in mountains.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Structure of an inclined plane

𝒍 𝑬

𝑳 𝒉

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐷𝐸 ) = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒(𝑙)

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐷𝐿 ) = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒(ℎ)

Velocity ratio of an inclined plane:

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐷𝐸 )
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐷𝐿 )
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑉. 𝑅 =
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝒍
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝒉

NOTE; Considering the angle of inclination, 𝜃;

ℎ 1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =
𝑙 𝑉. 𝑅
𝟏
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

Examples:
1. A brick of weight 20N is lifted through a height of 3m along a smooth inclined plane of length 15m
by applying an effort of 5N as shown below.

𝟑𝒎
𝟐𝟎𝑵

Calculate;
i) Mechanical advantage ii) Velocity ratio iii) Efficiency
𝑳 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵, 𝑬 = 𝟓𝑵 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟑𝒎, 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟏𝟓𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑳 𝑫𝑬 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒
𝑬 𝑫𝑳 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟓 𝟓
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟓 𝟑
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟒 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟖𝟎%

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. A load of 400N is pulled along an inclined plane as shown below.

Calculate;
i) Work input.
ii) Work output.
𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎 iii) Efficiency of the plane.
𝟓𝒄𝒎

i) Work input. ii) Work output. iii) Efficiency

𝟏𝟓 𝟓 𝑾. 𝑶
𝑫𝑬 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒎, 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎, 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑾. 𝑰
𝑬 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑵 𝑳 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝟐𝟎
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝑳 × 𝑫𝑳 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟗%
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝑱 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟐𝟎 𝑱

3. An inclined plane shown below was used to lift a load of 50kg using an effort of 200N.
Calculate;
(i) Mechanical advantage.
𝟑𝟎𝒎 (ii) Velocity ratio.
𝟏𝟎𝒎 (iii) Efficiency.
(iv) Angle of inclination.
𝜽

i) Mechanical advantage ii) Velocity ratio iii) Efficiency

𝑳 = 𝒎𝒈 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎, 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨
𝒍 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑳 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟓
𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝒉
𝑳 𝟑𝟎 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟑
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝜼 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑%
𝑬 𝟏𝟎
𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑
𝑴. 𝑨 = iv) Angle of inclination
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒉 𝟏𝟎 𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = = =
𝒍 𝟑𝟎 𝟑
𝟏
𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝟑
𝜽 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟓°
4. A woman uses an inclined plane to lift a load of 500N through a vertical distance of 4m. the inclined
plane makes an angle of 30° to the horizontal. If the efficiency of the inclined plane is 72%,
calculate the effort need to raise the load.
𝒍 =?, 𝒉 = 𝟒𝒎 4 𝑀. 𝐴 𝐿
ℎ 𝒍 = = 𝟖𝒎 𝜂 = × 100% 𝑀. 𝐴 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 30° 𝑉. 𝑅 𝐸
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = Then; 𝑀. 𝐴 500
𝑙 72% = × 100%
4 𝑙 8 2 1.44 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 30° = 𝑉. 𝑅 = = 𝐸
𝑙 ℎ 4 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 𝑬 = 𝟑𝟒𝟕. 𝟐𝑵
𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30° = 4 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. An effort of 50N is used to move a 300N box along an inclined which rises vertically 1m for every
8m distance along the plane. Find
i) the velocity ratio.
ii) the mechanical advantage.
iii) the efficiency of the inclined plane.

2. A body of 100N is moved along a sloped wooden plank PQ by an effort of 90N as shown below.
𝑸

𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝜽
𝑷 𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝑹

Calculate;
a) the length of the plane.
b) angle of inclination.
c) velocity ratio.
d) Mechanical advantage.
e) Efficiency of the plane.

3. A trolley of weight 10N is pulled from the bottom to the top of the inclined plane by a steady force
of 2N. If the height and the distance moved by the force are 2m and 20m respectively, calculate;
a) Mechanical advantage.
b) Work done by the effort.
c) Work done on the load.
d) Efficiency of the inclined plane.

4. A load of 40N is pulled steadily along an 80% efficient inclined plane by a force, F as shown
below. Find the
i) Velocity ratio of the system
ii) Mechanical advantage.
iii) Force, F.

𝟒𝟎𝑵
𝟑𝟎°

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

WHEEL AND AXLE

It consists of a wheel of large radius attached to an axle of small radius. The wheel and axle have a
common axis of rotation.
𝑨𝒙𝒍𝒆 𝑨𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝑹

𝒓 𝒓
𝑹

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 (𝑬) 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 (𝑳) 𝑬 𝑳

The effort (𝑬) is applied to one end of the rope passing over the wheel of radius, 𝑹 while the load is
applied at the other end of the rope passing over the axle of radius, 𝒓.
The wheel and the axle are circular therefore, for one complete turn;
❖ The effort moves through a distance equal to the circumference of the wheel (𝟐𝝅𝑹).
❖ The load moves through a distance equal to the circumference of the axle (𝟐𝝅𝒓).

Velocity ratio of a wheel and axle:

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐷𝐸 )
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐷𝐿 )
2𝜋𝑅
𝑉. 𝑅 =
2𝜋𝑟
𝑹
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝒓
Therefore, velocity ratio of a wheel and axle is given by;
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 (𝑹)
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒙𝒍𝒆 (𝒓)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
1. A machine consisting of a wheel of radius 50cm and axle of radius 10cm is used to lift a load of
400N with an effort of 100N. Calculate the efficiency of the machine.
Mechanical advantage Velocity ratio Efficiency
𝑳 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝑹 = 𝟓𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑳 𝑹 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑬 𝒓 𝟒
𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟎 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟓
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟒 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟖𝟎%

2. The efficiency of the machine below is 75%.

Calculate;
𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 i) its velocity ratio.
ii) its mechanical advantage.
𝟐𝒄𝒎
iii) the effort applied.

𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑵

i) Velocity ratio ii) Mechanical advantage iii) Effort

𝑹 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒓 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑳
𝑹 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑽. 𝑹 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒓 𝑴. 𝑨 𝟕. 𝟓 =
𝟐𝟎 𝟕𝟓% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟐 𝑬=
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎 𝟕𝟓% × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨
𝟕. 𝟓
𝟕𝟓𝟎% 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟕. 𝟓

3.
The figure besides shows a wheel and axle. When an
𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎 effort of 300N is applied, a load of 900N is raised.
𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎
Calculate;
a) Work output.
b) Work input.
c) Efficiency.
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝟒𝟎
𝑹 = 𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎
𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝐷𝐸 = 2𝜋𝑅 = 2 × 𝜋 × 0.4 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝝅 𝒎

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝐷𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 2 × 𝜋 × 0.1 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝝅 𝒎
i) Work output ii) Work input iii) Efficiency
𝐿 = 900𝑁 𝐸 = 900𝑁
𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝑳 × 𝑫𝑳 𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟐𝝅 𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟖𝝅 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝝅 𝑱 𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝝅 𝑱 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝝅
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝝅
𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜼 = 𝟕𝟓%

4. In a wheel and axle machine, an effort of 10N raises a load of 30N. The radius of the wheel is
150mm and the radius of the axle is 30mm. Find the efficiency of the machine.
Mechanical advantage Velocity ratio Efficiency
𝑳 = 𝟑𝟎𝑵, 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎𝑵 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎, 𝒓 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑳 𝑹 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑
𝑬 𝒓
𝟑𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟔𝟎%

5. The diagram below shows a 75% simple machine used to raise a load of 72N.
𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝟕𝟐𝑵

𝑬
a) Name the type of machine above.
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒙𝒍𝒆
b) Determine the effort required to raise the load.
Velocity ratio Mechanical advantage Effort
𝑹 = 𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑳
𝑹 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑽. 𝑹 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟕𝟐
𝒓 𝑴. 𝑨 𝟒. 𝟓 =
𝟔𝟎 𝟕𝟓% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟔 𝟕𝟐
𝟏𝟎 𝑬=
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟔 𝟕𝟓% × 𝟔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨
𝟒. 𝟓
𝟒𝟓𝟎% 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟔𝑵
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟒. 𝟓

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Applications of wheel and axle in daily life

• It is applied in screw drivers.
• It is applied in steering wheels in cars.
• It is applied in a wind las to draw water from wells.

EXERCISE
1. A machine consists of a wheel of 40cm and an axle of radius 10cm. If an effort of 20N raises a load
of 60N, find the efficiency of the machine.
2. The system below is a wheel and axle of radii 40cm and 4cm respectively.
Assuming that the efficiency of the system is 50%,
𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎 calculate;
𝟒𝒄𝒎
a) Effort required.
b) Work output.
c) Work input.
d) Energy wasted.
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵

3. A wheel and axle machine is constructed from a wheel of diameter 20cm and mounted on an axle of
diameter 4cm.
a) Calculate;
i) Velocity ratio of the machine.
ii) Mechanical advantage of the machine if its 100%.
b) Explain why the actual mechanical advantage of this machine is likely to be less than the value
obtained above.
4. A common windlass is used to raise a load of 480N by an application of an effort 200N at right
angles to the handle. If the handle has a radius of 33cm from the axis and the radius of the axle is
11cm, calculate;
a) Velocity ratio.
b) Efficiency of the windlass.

GEARS
A gear is a device consisting of a set of toothed wheels that control the movement (speed) of a machine.

Applications of gears in daily life

They are applied in;
• Clocks • Bicycles • Motor vehicles
• Motors • Watches

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

In gears;
❖
❖ The effort is applied to the shaft of the small gear (wheel) called a driving wheel.
❖ The load is applied to the shaft of the large gear (wheel) called a driven wheel.

𝑫𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝑫𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

NOTE:
➢ The more the number of teeth on the gear, the less the speed of rotation of the gear and the less
the number of teeth on the gear, the higher the speed of rotation of the gear.
➢ Therefore, the fastest gear is the driving wheel with the smallest number of teeth.

Velocity ratio of a gear system:

Velocity ratio of a gear system may be given by the following formulae;
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

Examples:
1. A driving wheel of 25 teeth interlocks with another wheel of 100 teeth. The gear system has an
efficiency of 85%.
Calculate;
a) Velocity ratio.
b) Mechanical advantage of the system.
a) b)
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 25 𝑴. 𝑨
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 100 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑴. 𝑨
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝟖𝟓% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝟖𝟓% × 𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑𝟒𝟎%
𝟐𝟓 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑. 𝟒

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. A bicycle has 120 teeth in the driven gears and 40 teeth in the driving gears. Calculate;
a) Velocity ratio.
b) Mechanical advantage if the bicycle is 80% efficient.
a) Velocity ratio b) Mechanical advantage
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 40 𝑴. 𝑨
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 120 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑴. 𝑨
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝟖𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝟖𝟎% × 𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨
𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎%
𝟒𝟎 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟒

3. In a gear system, the driven wheel has 40 teeth and the driving wheel has 10 teeth. The system is
used to carry a load of 300N when an effort of 100N is applied. Determine;
i) Velocity ratio.
ii) Mechanical advantage.
iii) Efficiency.

i) Velocity ratio ii) M.A iii) Efficiency

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 10 𝑳 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 40 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟑
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑉. 𝑅 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟒
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟒𝟎 𝜼 = 𝟕𝟓%
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟏𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒

4. A certain gear has 60 teeth and drives another gear with 150 teeth. How many revolutions will the
driven gear make when the driving gear makes 200 revolutions.

Velocity ratio 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 60 𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 150
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝟐. 𝟓 =
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝑹
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝑹=
𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝟐. 𝟓
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑹 = 𝟖𝟎 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝟔𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟓

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. The figure below shows two gear wheels.

𝑨
𝑩

𝟏𝟔𝟎𝑵
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵
a) How should gears A and B engage each other so that a low mechanical advantage is obtained.
𝑨 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉.
b) Calculate the efficiency of the gear system.
Velocity ratio M.A Efficiency
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 8 𝑳 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 12 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑉. 𝑅 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝟏. 𝟓
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑%
𝟏𝟐
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟖
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟓

6. Two gear wheels A and B with 80 and 20 teeth respectively lock into each other. They are fastened
to axles such that a weight of 150N attached to one axle of the gear wheel B raises a load of 450N
attached to another axle of the gear wheel A as shown below.

𝟒𝟓𝟎𝑵

𝑨 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑵
𝑩

Calculate;
i) Velocity ratio ii) M.A iii) Efficiency
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐵 = 20 𝑳 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐴 = 80 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝟑
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑉. 𝑅 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝟒
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟖𝟎 𝜼 = 𝟕𝟓%
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟐𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. A bicycle has a chain wheel with 32 teeth, and the driven wheel has 80 teeth. If the efficiency is
88%, find the;
i) Velocity ratio.
ii) Mechanical advantage.
2. A gear with 30 teeth drives another gear with 75 teeth. How many revolutions will the driven gear
make when the driving gear makes 100 revolutions.
3. Two gear wheels A and B with 20 teeth and 10 teeth respectively are fastened together such that the
weight of 160N is attached to one wheel and rises a load of 400N applied on the other wheel.
If wheel B drives A, Calculate;
a) Velocity ratio of the system.
b) Efficiency.
4. A gear has a driven wheel moving at 20𝑚𝑠 −1 and a driving wheel moving at 4𝑚𝑠 −1 . The gear
carries a load of 300N and is overcome by an effort of 150N. Calculate the efficiency of the gear
system.
5. In the gear system below, 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 are the number of teeth on the system. The gear system has an
efficiency of 60%.
𝑵𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑵𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎

𝑳 𝑬
Calculate;
a) Velocity ratio.
b) Load that can be raised by an effort of 200N.

SCREWS
This is a device with thread-like windings on it.
It is used to fix or hold materials together.

𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔

𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 (𝑷)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Pitch of a screw:
This is the distance between any two successive threads of a screw.

NOTE:
❖ In order to use a screw, a screw driver or brace or screw jack is used to drive screws in and out of the
material.
❖ An effort is applied on the handles of those devices above to drive the screw (load) in and out of the
material.

Diagram of a brace
𝑯𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆

𝑹
𝑳𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒓𝒎

𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉

❖ When the handle moves through one complete turn (complete circular path), the screw enters or
leaves the wood through a distance equal to the pitch of the screw.
❖ Distance moved by the effort in one complete turn is equal to the circumference of a circle described
by the handle.
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆
𝑫𝑬 = 𝟐𝝅𝑹
(Where radius, 𝑅 of the circle is equal to the length of the lever arm)

❖ Distance moved by the load (screw) in one complete turn is equal to the pitch of the screw.
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘
𝑫𝑳 = 𝑷

Velocity ratio of a screw:

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐷𝐸 )
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐷𝐿 )
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝟐𝝅𝑹
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉

Examples:
1. In a screw jack, the length of the lever arm is 56cm and a pitch of 4cm. It is used to lift a load.
Calculate its velocity ratio.
𝑹 = 𝟓𝟔𝒄𝒎, 𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 = 𝟒𝒄𝒎
𝟐𝝅𝑹
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝟐𝟐
𝟐 × 𝟕 × 𝟓𝟔 𝟑𝟓𝟐
𝑽. 𝑹 = =
𝟒 𝟒
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟖𝟖

2. A screw of pitch 5cm is used to lift a load of 890.8N in a car jack. The lever makes a circle of
circumference 10cm and has an efficiency of 85%.
Calculate;
a) Velocity ratio of screw.
b) Mechanical advantage of screw.
c) Effort applied on the handle.
a) Velocity ratio b) Mechanical advantage c) Effort
𝑪 = 𝟓𝟔𝒄𝒎, 𝑷 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑳
𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑽. 𝑹 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟖𝟗𝟎. 𝟖
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝑴. 𝑨 𝟏. 𝟕 =
𝟏𝟎 𝟖𝟓% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟖𝟗𝟎. 𝟖
𝟓 𝑬=
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟖𝟓% × 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨
𝟏. 𝟕
𝟏𝟕𝟎% 𝑬 = 𝟓𝟐𝟒𝑵
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟕

3. A screw has a pitch of 5mm. If an effort of 30N is rotated through one turn of radius 50cm to lift a
load of 750N, find;
i) Velocity ratio.
ii) Mechanical advantage.
iii) Efficiency.
i) Velocity ratio ii) M.A iii) Efficiency
𝑹 = 𝟓𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝑳 𝑴. 𝑨
𝟓 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 = 𝟓𝒎𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟏𝟎 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝟐𝟓
𝟐𝝅𝑹 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟑𝟎 𝟔𝟐𝟖
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐𝟓
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐 × 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟓𝟎 𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝜼 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟖%
𝑽. 𝑹 = =
𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟓
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟔𝟐𝟖

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. A screw with a lever arm of 56cm has two successive threads which are 2.5mm apart. It is used to
lift a load of 800N. If its 25% efficient, calculate the mechanical advantage of the screw.
d) Velocity ratio e) Mechanical advantage
𝑹 = 𝟓𝟔𝒄𝒎, 𝑴. 𝑨
𝟐. 𝟓 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝟎 𝑴. 𝑨
𝟐𝟓% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐𝝅𝑹 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟖
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝟐𝟓% × 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟖 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨
𝟐𝟐
𝟐 × 𝟕 × 𝟓𝟔 𝟑𝟓𝟐 𝟑𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = = 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟖 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑𝟓𝟐

5. The handle of a screw jack is 14cm long. The screw jack is used to drive a screw of pitch 20cm. if an
effort of 5N is applied on the jack to move a screw of 15N, calculate
i) Velocity ratio.
ii) Mechanical advantage.
iii) Efficiency.
i) Velocity ratio ii) M.A iii) Efficiency
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟒𝒄𝒎, 𝑳 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟐𝝅𝑹 𝟏𝟓 𝟑
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝟓 𝟒. 𝟒
𝟐𝟐 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑 𝜼 = 𝟔𝟖. 𝟐%
𝟐× × 𝟏𝟒 𝟖𝟖
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟕 =
𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒. 𝟒

6. A screw has 6 successive threads and describes a circular path of diameter 0.28mm when a screw
driver is attached to it. Determine the velocity ratio of the machine if the distance between the 6
threads is 0.12mm.
𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖 𝟐𝝅𝑹
𝑹= = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝒎𝒎 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝟐𝟐
There are 5 pitches between the 6 threads. 𝟐 × 𝟕 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖
𝑽. 𝑹 = =
𝟓𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝒎𝒎 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒
𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟔𝟕
𝑷= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒𝒎𝒎
𝟓

NOTE:
➢ The velocity ratio of the screw is always very large because the length of the handle is very big
compared to the pitch of the screw.
➢ The efficiency is always very low because screws have a very high friction since the threads
are very rough. This helps screws to firmly hold materials together.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. The pitch of a screw jack is 2.5mm. With a lever arm of 56cm long, the jack is used to lift a car of
mass 790kg. if the screw jack is 75% efficient, determine;
a) Velocity ratio
b) Mechanical advantage.
c) Effort applied.
2. The pitch of a bolt is 1mm. to tighten the bolt, Ssekwe uses a spanner of a long arm of length 80cm.
Calculate the velocity ratio of the spanner.
3. A screw jack is found to be 70% efficient. If an effort of 20N is used to lift a vehicle of 5000N and
the pitch of the screw is 2mm. What is the length of the lever arm.
4. A screw of pitch 2.5cm is used to raise a load of 200kg when an effort of 50N is applied to the screw
arm of length 20cm. Calculate;
i) Mechanical advantage.
ii) Velocity ratio.
iii) Efficiency.
5. A Screw jack of pitch 2.5mm is operated by a force of 100N acting at a distance of 7cm from the
axis about which the handle rotates and lifts a car weighing 792kg. calculate its efficiency.

HYDRAULIC PRESS OR LIFT

It’s a device used to lift a large load using a small effort. Its operation is based on the knowledge of
Pascal’s principle. (See topic: Pressure)
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟏
𝑨𝟐 𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓

(𝑷𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓) (𝑹𝒂𝒎 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓)

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

Velocity ratio of a hydraulic press:

Let 𝑫𝑬 be the distance moved by the small piston and 𝑨𝟏 be the area of the small piston.
Let 𝑫𝑳 be the distance moved by the small piston and 𝑨𝟐 be the area of the large piston.

When an effort is applied on the small piston:

▪ The volume of the liquid pushed down by the small piston is equal to the volume of the liquid lifts
up the large piston with the load.
RECALL: 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 × 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 31

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑨𝟏 × 𝑫𝑬 = 𝑨𝟐 × 𝑫𝑳
𝑫𝑬 𝑨𝟐
=
𝑫𝑳 𝑨𝟏
▪ Since the pistons are circular, their areas equal to the area of a circle.
𝑨𝟏 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 , 𝑨𝟐 = 𝝅𝑹𝟐
𝑫𝑬 𝑨𝟐 𝝅𝑹𝟐
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, = =
𝑫𝑳 𝑨𝟏 𝝅𝒓𝟐

Therefore;
𝑫𝑬 𝑹𝟐
𝑽. 𝑹 = =
𝑫𝑳 𝒓𝟐

Where 𝑹 − 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛.

𝒓 − 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛.
𝑫𝑬 − 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡.
𝑫𝑳 − 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑.

Examples:
1. The radius of the effort piston of a hydraulic lift is 1.4cm while that of the load piston is 7.0cm. This
machine is used to raise a load of 1200N. Given that the machine is 80% efficient, calculate;
a) Velocity ratio
b) Mechanical advantage.
c) Effort applied.

a) Velocity ratio b) Mechanical advantage c) Effort

𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝒄𝒎, 𝑹 = 𝟕𝒄𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑳
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑹𝟐 𝑽. 𝑹 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝒓 𝑴. 𝑨 𝟐𝟎 =
𝟕𝟐 𝟖𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝟏. 𝟒𝟐 𝟖𝟎% × 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨 𝑬=
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟎
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎% 𝑬 = 𝟔𝟎𝑵
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎

2. A hydraulic press is used to lift 400N using an effort of 20N. The diameter of the large cylinder is
100cm and the diameter of the small cylinder is 10cm. Find;
i) Velocity ratio ii) M.A iii) Efficiency
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑳
𝒓= = 𝟓𝒄𝒎, 𝑹= = 𝟓𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨
𝟐 𝟐 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐 𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑹 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒓 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐
𝟓𝟎 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐
𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟐𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 32

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

3. A hydraulic machine has a ram cylinder (large cylinder) of diameter 30cm and a pump cylinder
(small cylinder) of diameter 2cm. If the effort applied to the small piston is 70N and the efficiency of
the machine is 80%, calculate the;
a) Velocity ratio
b) Mechanical advantage.
c) Load lifted.

a) Velocity ratio b) Mechanical advantage c) Effort

𝟐 𝟑𝟎 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑳
𝒓 = = 𝟏𝒄𝒎, 𝑹= = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝑽. 𝑹 𝑬
𝑹𝟐 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑳
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟖𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝟏𝟖𝟎 =
𝒓 𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝟕𝟎
𝟏𝟓𝟐 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 × 𝟕𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟖𝟎% × 𝟐𝟐𝟓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝟏
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎

EXERCISE:
1. A hydraulic machine has a large cylinder of 30cm and a small cylinder of 1cm. Given that the
machine is 80% efficient and that the effort applied on the small piston is 50N, calculate;
a) Velocity ratio
b) Mechanical advantage.
c) Maximum load that can be raised.

2. The area of the effort piston of a hydraulic lift is 56𝑐𝑚2 while that of the load piston is 224𝑐𝑚2 .
This machine is used to raise a load of 300kg through a height of 2.5mm. given that the machine is
75% efficient, calculate;
a) Velocity ratio
b) Mechanical advantage.
c) Effort applied.
d) Distance moved by the effort.

NOTE:
➢ If two simple machines are combined together, the overall velocity ratio is equal to the product of
the individual velocity ratios of the two machines.
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟏 × 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 33

SSEKWE ROBERT

REFRACTION THROUGH PRISMS

A prism has two refracting surfaces. It uses a principle of reversibility of light, therefore light can
be incident on either surface.
When a ray of light is incident on the first surface at an angle of incidence 𝑖1 , it is refracted at an
angle of refraction, 𝑟1 with an angle of deviation, 𝑑1 .
The ray then emerges out on the second surface at an angle of emergence 𝑖2 , with an angle of
refraction, 𝑟2 and angle of deviation, 𝑑2 .

𝒊𝟏 𝒅
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒊𝟐

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝒅𝟏 = 𝒊𝟏 −𝒓𝟏

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝒅𝟐 = 𝒊𝟐 −𝒓𝟐
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝒅 = 𝒅𝟏 +𝒅𝟐
𝒅 = ( 𝒊𝟏 −𝒓𝟏 ) + ( 𝒊𝟐 −𝒓𝟐 )
𝒅 = 𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 −𝒓𝟐
𝒅 = ( 𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 ) − ( 𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐 )
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑨 = 𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐
𝒅 = (𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 ) − 𝑨
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑨 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒎
NOTE:
If a ray of light does not emerge out but instead grazes on one surface of the prism, then
the angle of refraction at that surface is equal to the critical angle.

𝒊𝟏
𝒓𝟏 𝒄 𝒊𝟐

N.B:
For calculations involving prisms, it is easier to consider refractions at each side separately using
the law of reversibility of light.

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Examples:
1. A ray of light is incident on a glass prism of refractive index 1.5 at an angle of 400 . Given
that the ray emerges out an angle of 58.40 . Find the;
i) angle of refraction at both surfaces
ii) refracting angle of the prism.
iii) total deviation of the prism.
i)
𝑨 𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐭 𝐟𝐢𝐫𝐬𝐭 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞
∩𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = ∩𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 ∩𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = ∩𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
𝟒𝟎𝟎 ∩𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝟏 = ∩𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 ∩𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝟐 = ∩𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐
𝒓𝟏 𝒓 𝟓𝟖. 𝟒𝟎
𝟐
𝟏 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 𝟏 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟓𝟖. 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐
𝑨 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟐𝟖 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟕 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐
𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟐𝟖 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟕
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐 =
𝟏. 𝟓 𝟏. 𝟓
𝒊𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 , 𝒊𝟐 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟒𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟕𝟖
𝒓𝟏 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟖𝟓) 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟕𝟖)
𝒓𝟏 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟒𝟎 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟔𝟎

ii) ii)
𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝑨 = 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 𝒅 = (𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 ) − 𝑨
𝑨 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟑𝟒. 𝟔𝟎 𝒅 = (𝟒𝟎𝟎 + 𝟓𝟖. 𝟒𝟎 ) − 𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑨 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒅 = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟒𝟎 − 𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒅 = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟒𝟎

2. A ray of light propagating from a liquid is incident on a prism of refracting angle 500 and
refractive index 1.6 at an angle of 300 as shown below.

𝟓𝟎𝟎

𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝒓𝟏 𝒓
𝟐
𝒆

𝟓𝟎𝟎

If the refractive index of the liquid is 1.35. Calculate

i) Angle of refraction, 𝑟1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2
ii) Angle of emergency, 𝑒
iii) Angle of deviation

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i) ii)
𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐭 𝐟𝐢𝐫𝐬𝐭 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞
∩𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = ∩𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 ∩𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = ∩𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
∩𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝟏 = ∩𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 ∩𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒆 = ∩𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐
𝟏. 𝟑𝟓 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟓𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟔𝟐
𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟔𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒆 =
𝟏. 𝟔 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟏𝟗 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟗
𝒓𝟏 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟏𝟗) 𝒆 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟗)
𝒓𝟏 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 𝒆 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟏𝟎

𝑨 = 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 iii)
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 + 𝒓𝟐
𝒅 = (𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 ) − 𝑨
𝒓𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟎
𝒅 = (𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝟑𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 ) − 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒅 = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟎
3. A ray of light is incident at an angle of incidence, 𝑖 a triangular prism of refractive index 1.52
as shown below. Find the angles marked 𝑐, 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖.

𝟔𝟎𝟎

𝒊
𝒓
𝒄
𝟔𝟎𝟎

𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞

∩𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = ∩𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 𝑨 = 𝒓 𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐
∩𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝟐 = ∩𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐 𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 𝒓 + 𝒄
𝟏 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟗𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒄 𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 𝒓 + 𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝟎
𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒄 𝒓 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 − 𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝟎
𝟏 𝒓 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟗𝟎
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒄 =
𝟏. 𝟓𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟕𝟗 𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞
𝒄 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟕𝟗) ∩𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = ∩𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
𝒄 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝟎 ∩𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝟏 = ∩𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏
𝟏 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟖. 𝟗𝟎
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟐𝟒
𝒊 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟐𝟒)
𝒊 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟓𝟎

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4. The figure below shows light incident normally on a glass prism in air.
a) Copy and complete the diagram.
b) Calculate the refractive index of the prism if the critical angle of
glass is 420

a) b)
𝟏
𝟎 ∩𝒈 =
𝟒𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒄
𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝟏
∩𝒈 =
𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝟐𝟎
∩𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟗
𝟒𝟓𝟎

𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝟒𝟓𝟎

The ray took that path since the angle of

incidence is greater than the critical angle of
glass i.e. 𝟒𝟓𝟎 > 𝟒𝟐𝟎

EXERCISE
1. A prism of refractive index 1.5 and refracting angle 600 has an angle of refraction 280 on the
first refracting face. Determine;
i) Angle of incidence (Ans: 𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟎 )
ii) Angle of refraction on second refracting surface (Ans: 𝟑𝟐𝟎 )
iii) Angle of emergency (Ans: 𝟓𝟐. 𝟔𝟎 )
iv) Angle of deviation (Ans: 𝟑𝟕. 𝟒𝟎 )

2. A ray of light is incident on a glass prism at an angle, 𝑖 as shown below.

𝒊
𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝟒𝟑𝟎

Find the refractive index of the prism, refracting angle and angle of incidence, 𝑖.
Ans: ∩𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕, 𝑨 = 𝟓𝟖𝟎 , 𝒊 = 𝟐𝟕𝟎

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3. A ray of light is incident on a glass prism of an angle, 𝑖 as shown below.

𝟔𝟎𝟎

𝒊
𝒚
𝒙 𝟒𝟎𝟎

If the refractive index of the prism is 1.5, find the angles marked 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑖.
Ans: 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟒𝟎 , 𝒚 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟔𝟎 , 𝒊 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟒𝟎

4. The diagram below shows a ray of yellow light incident at an angle of 500 on one side of an
equilateral triangular glass prism of refractive index 1.52.
𝟔𝟎𝟎

𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒓 𝒆

Calculate the angles marked 𝑟 and 𝑒.

Ans: 𝒓 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 , 𝒊 = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟗𝟎

Experiment to determine the refractive index of glass using a glass prism:

𝑹

𝒊
𝑵 𝒓 𝒓
𝑷𝟐 𝑴
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟑
𝑷𝟒
𝑷 𝑸
Procedures;
▪ Fix a white sheet of paper on a soft board using drawing pins.
▪ Place a glass prism on the white sheet of paper and draw its outline PQR.
▪ Remove the glass prism and draw a normal at N to meet PQ.
▪ Using a protractor, measure angle of incidence, 𝑖 from the normal and fix two pins 𝑃1 and 𝑃2
along it.
▪ Replace the glass prism back to its outline.
▪ Look through the glass prism from the opposite side QR and fix pins 𝑃3 and 𝑃4 such that they
appear to be in line with the images of pins 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 .
▪ Remove the glass prism and the pins 𝑃3 and 𝑃4 .
▪ Draw a line to join the marks of pins 𝑃3 and 𝑃4 to meet at M and then join N to M.
▪ Measure the angle of refraction, 𝑟.

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▪ Repeat the procedures above for different values of 𝑖 .

▪ Tabulate your results including values of sin 𝑖 and sin 𝑟.
𝑖(°) 𝑟(°) sin 𝑖 sin 𝑟

▪ Plot a graph of sin 𝑖 against sin 𝑟.

▪ Determine the slope of the graph.

Conclusion:
▪ The graph is a straight line and its slope is equal to the refractive index of the glass prism.

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓

REFRACTION THROUGH LENSES

Lenses are spherical surfaces made from a transparent material.
The materials used to make these lenses may be glass, plastics and water.

Types of lenses;
There are two types of lenses namely;
• Convex (converging) lenses.
• Concave (diverging lenses.

CONVERGING (CONVEX) LENSES:

These are thicker in the middle than at the edges.
A convex lens is called a converging lens because all parallel rays incident to it meet at one point
after refraction.
Examples of converging lenses include;

𝑩𝒊 − 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒙 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒐 − 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒙 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒙 𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒖𝒔

DIVERGING (CONCAVE) LENSES:

These are thicker at the edges than in the middle.
A concave lens is called a diverging lens because all parallel rays incident to it appear to diverge
from one point after refraction.

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Examples of diverging lenses include;

𝑩𝒊 − 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒖𝒔 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒐 − 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆

TERMS USED IN LENSES

𝐏 𝐏 𝐏 𝐏
𝟐𝑭 𝑭 𝐎 𝟐𝑭 𝑭 𝐎 𝑭 𝟐𝑭
𝑭 𝟐𝑭

Pole of a lens (P):

This is the mid-point of the surface of the lens.

Optical centre (O):

This is the centre of the lens between its poles.

Principal axis:
This is a straight line passing through the optical centre and principal focus of a lens.

Principal focus, F of a converging lens:

This is a point on the principal axis where all rays close and parallel to the principal axis
converge to after refraction.

𝑭 𝟐𝑭

Principal focus, F of a diverging lens:

This is a point on the principal axis where all rays close and parallel to the principal axis appear
to diverge from after refraction.

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𝟐𝑭 𝑭

Focal length ( f ):
This is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus of the lens.

RULES FOR DRAWING RAY DIAGRAMS IN LENSES

CONVERGING LENS DIVERGING LENS

1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted
refracted passing through the principal such that it appears to be coming from the
focus, F. principal focus, F.

𝐅 𝐅

2. A ray passing through the principal focus A ray that pass through the principal focus is
is refracted parallel to the principal axis. refracted parallel to the principal axis.

𝐅 𝐅

3. A ray passing through the optical centre A ray passing through the optical centre is not
is not refracted or undeviated refracted or undeviated

𝐅 𝐅
𝐅 𝐅

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IMAGES FORMED BY CONVEX (CONVERGING) LENSES

The nature of the image formed depends on the position of the object from the lens.

(a) Object beyond 2F:

Nature of image, I formed:
✓ Between F and 2F.
✓ Real
✓ Inverted (upside down)
𝐈 ✓ Diminished (smaller than object)
𝐎 𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝟐𝐅

(b) Object at 2F:

Nature of image, I formed:
✓ Between at 2F.
✓ Real
✓ Inverted (upside down)
𝐈
✓ Same size as object
𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝟐𝐅
𝐎

(c) Object between 2F and F:

Nature of image, I formed:
✓ Beyond 2F.
✓ Real
✓ Inverted (upside down)
𝐈
✓ Magnified (bigger than object)
𝟐𝐅 𝐎 𝐅 𝐅 𝟐𝐅

(d) Object at F:
Nature of image, I formed:
✓ At infinity.
✓ Magnified

𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝟐𝐅
𝐎

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(e) Object between F and optical centre:

Nature of image, I formed:
✓ Beyond 2F.
✓ Virtual
✓ Upright
✓ Magnified

𝐈 𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐎 𝐅 𝟐𝐅

NOTE:
A converging lens acts as a magnifying glass when the object is placed between the
principal focus and the optical centre.

(f) Object at infinity:

Nature of image, I formed:
✓ Formed at F.
✓ Real
✓ Inverted (upside down)
✓ Diminished (smaller than object)

𝐈
𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝟐𝐅

QN:
Explain how a converging lens can be used as a magnifying glass.
A converging lens can used as a magnifying glass when the object is placed between the
principal focus and the optical centre.

𝐈 𝟐𝐅 𝐅𝐎 𝐅 𝟐𝐅

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IMAGES FORMED BY CONCAVE (DIVERGING) LENSES

For all positions of the object, the image formed by a concave lens is always virtual, upright and
diminished.

𝟐𝐅 𝐎 𝐅 𝐈 𝐅 𝟐𝐅

CONSTRUCTION OF ACCURATE RAY DIAGRAMS ON A GRAPH PAPER

Steps taken:
❖ Draw a horizontal line which acts as the principal axis.
❖ Choose a suitable scale for the object and its position depending on the given distances.
❖ Measure focal length, f and mark positions F and 2F (𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟐𝑭 = 𝟐𝒇)
❖ Use any two rules to draw ray diagrams.

Examples:
1. An object of height 4cm is placed at a distance of 60cm from a converging lens of focal
length 20cm. Find by scale drawing the position, height and nature of the image.

Axis Scale
Conversion
Vertical axis ▪ Height of object, O:
𝟏: 𝟐𝒄𝒎
4
= 2𝑐𝑚
2
Horizontal axis 𝟏: 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 ▪ Focal length, f:
20
= 2𝑐𝑚
10
▪ Object distance, U:
60
= 6𝑐𝑚
10

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𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑽
Hint: (3 × 10)
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝑵𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
- 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝐈
𝐎 - 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑
𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝟐𝐅
- 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙

𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
Hint: (1 × 2)
𝒉𝒊 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎

2. An object of height 2cm is placed at a distance of 10cm from a converging lens of focal
length 30cm. Find by scale drawing the position, the height and the nature of the image.

Axis Scale Conversion

Vertical axis 𝟏: 𝟏𝒄𝒎 ▪ Height of object, O:
2
= 2𝑐𝑚
1
Horizontal axis 𝟏: 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 ▪ Focal length, f:
30
= 3𝑐𝑚
10
▪ Object distance, U:
10
= 1𝑐𝑚
10

𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑽
Hint: (1.5 × 10)
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎

𝑵𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
- 𝑈𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
- 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
- 𝑉𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐈 𝐎 𝐅 𝟐𝐅
𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
Hint: (3 × 1)
𝒉𝒊 = 𝟑𝒄𝒎

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒗 𝟏𝟓
𝑴= =
𝒖 𝟏𝟎
𝑴 = 𝟏. 𝟓

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3. An object of height 10cm is placed at a distance of 60cm from a diverging lens of focal
length 20cm. Find by accurate diagrams, the;
i) Image position
ii) Height of image
iii) Nature of image
iv) Magnification

Axis Scale Conversion

Vertical axis 𝟏: 𝟓𝒄𝒎 ▪ Height of object, O:
10
= 2𝑐𝑚
5
Horizontal axis 𝟏: 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 ▪ Focal length, f:
20
= 2𝑐𝑚
10
▪ Object distance, U:
60
= 6𝑐𝑚
10

i) 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑽
Hint: (1.5 × 10)
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎

ii) 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆

Hint: (0.5 × 5)
𝒉𝒊 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒄𝒎

𝐎 𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐈 𝐅 𝟐𝐅 iii) 𝑵𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆

- 𝑈𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
- 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑
- 𝑉𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
iv) 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒗
𝑴=
𝒖
𝟏𝟓
𝑴=
𝟔𝟎
𝑴 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓

4. An object 5cm tall placed in front of a converging lens forms an inverted image 10cm tall
and 30cm from the lens. By construction, find the position of the object and focal length of
the lens.

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Axis Scale Conversion

Vertical axis 𝟏: 𝟓𝒄𝒎 ▪ Height of object, O:
5
= 1𝑐𝑚
5
▪ Height of image, I:
10
= 2𝑐𝑚
5
Horizontal axis 𝟏: 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 ▪ Image distance, V:
30
= 3𝑐𝑚
10

𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑼
Hint: (1.5 × 10)
𝑼 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎

𝑭𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉, f
Hint: (1 × 10)
𝐅 𝐈
𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝐎

Recall: Light rays are

reversible

5. An object 32.5cm from a diverging lens of focal length 12cm. By scale drawing and using
height of your own choice, find the position and nature of the image.

Let height of object be 10cm

Axis Scale Conversion
Vertical axis 𝟏: 𝟓𝒄𝒎 ▪ Height of object, O:
10
= 2𝑐𝑚
5
Horizontal axis 𝟏: 𝟓𝒄𝒎 ▪ Focal length, f:
12
= 2.4𝑐𝑚
5
▪ Object distance, U:
32.5
= 6.5𝑐𝑚
5

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𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑽
Hint: (1.75 × 5)
𝑽 = 𝟖. 𝟕𝟓𝒄𝒎

𝑵𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
- 𝑈𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
- 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑
𝐎 𝐈 - 𝑉𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝟐𝐅 𝐅 𝐅

LENS FORMULA
The both formula for both converging and diverging lenses is given by;
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒇 = 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝒖 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝒗 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑛𝑐𝑒
Sign convention;
It states that “real” is positive and “virtual” is negative.
Note:
When calculating using the lens formula;
▪ The focal length, image distance and object distance of a converging lens are positive.
▪ The focal length and image distance of a diverging lens are negative but the object
distance remains positive.

Examples;
1. An object of height 10cm is placed at a distance of 60cm from a diverging lens of focal
length 20cm. Find the position of the image and state its nature.

𝒖 = 𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒗 =? , 𝒇 = −𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
Image position; −𝟐𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝒗
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + − =
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗 −𝟐𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝒗
𝟏 −𝟏
=
𝒗 𝟏𝟓
𝒗 = −𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎

The image is;

▪ Virtual (since V is negative)
▪ Upright and diminished (it is a diverging lens)

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2. An object of height 4cm is placed at a distance of 60cm from a converging lens of focal
length 30cm. Find the position and height of the image.
𝒖 = 𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒗 =? , 𝒇 = 𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒉𝒐 = 𝟒𝒄𝒎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒗 𝒉𝒊
= + =
Image position; 𝟑𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝒗 𝒖 𝒉𝒐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟔𝟎 𝒉𝒊
= + − = =
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗 𝟑𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝒗 𝟔𝟎 𝟒
𝟏 𝟏 𝒉𝒊 = 𝟒𝒄𝒎
=
𝒗 𝟔𝟎
𝒗 = 𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎

POWER OF A LENS
Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length in metres.
Its SI unit is Dioptres (D).
𝟏
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔 =
𝒇𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉(𝒎)
𝟏
𝑷=
𝒇(𝒎)
Examples:
1. Calculate the power of a converging lens of focal length 10mm.
𝟏𝟎 𝟏
𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒎 𝑷=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏
𝟏 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑫
𝑷=
𝒇

2. Calculate the power of a diverging lens of focal length 10cm.

−𝟏𝟎 𝟏
𝒇 = −𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = −𝟎. 𝟏𝒎 𝑷=
𝟏𝟎𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟏
𝟏 𝑷 = −𝟏𝟎𝑫
𝑷=
𝒇

NOTE:
If two lenses are combined, we get their total power of combination.
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔 + 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔

3. Two converging lenses of focal length 15cm and 20cm are placed in contact. Calculate the
power of combination.
𝟏𝟓 𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒎 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑷= +
𝟐𝟎 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
𝑷= +
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝟎. 𝟐
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝑫

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4. A converging lens of focal length 20cm is placed in contact with a diverging lens of focal
length 100mm. find the power of the combination.
𝟐𝟎 𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎
−𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑷 = +
𝒇𝟐 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 = = −𝟎. 𝟏𝒎 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
𝑷= +
𝟎. 𝟐 −𝟎. 𝟏
𝑷 = −𝟓𝑫

METHODS OF DETERMINING FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONCAVE MIRROR

(Methods of determining radius of curvature of a concave mirror)

(a) Using a distant object/approximate/rough method:

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔

𝑹𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒂
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕

𝑺𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒔 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒆𝒓
𝒇
▪ The apparatus is arranged as shown above.
▪ Light from a distant object e.g. a window is focused onto the screen.
▪ The converging lens is moved to and fro until a sharp image of a distant object is obtained on
the screen.
▪ The distance between the sharp image (screen) and the lens is measured and it is
approximately equal to the focal length of the lens.

(b) Using plane mirror method:

𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒃
𝑰

𝑺𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓

𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒛𝒆 (𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕)
𝒇

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▪ An illuminated wire gauze is placed in front of the converging lens.

▪ A plane mirror is placed behind the lens to reflect back the light that passes through the lens.
▪ The converging lens is moved to and fro until a sharp image of the wire gauze is formed on
the screen near the object. At this point the image and the object will be at the principal
focus.
▪ The distance between the lens and the screen is measured and it is equal to the focal length, f
of the converging lens.

(c) Using object and image distances (Lens formula method):

𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒔
(𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒛𝒆)

𝑺𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏

𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒃

𝒖 𝒗
▪ The apparatus is arranged as shown above with the lens between the screen and the object.
▪ The lens is placed at a known distance, u from the wire gauze.
▪ The screen is moved to and fro until a clear image of the object is formed on it.
▪ The image distance, V is then measured and recorded.
▪ The experiment is repeated for different values of object distance, u and the corresponding
values of image distance are obtained.
1 1
▪ The results are tabulated including values of and .
𝑢 𝑣
𝒖 𝒗 𝟏 𝟏
𝒖 𝒗

▪ The focal length for all values is calculated from;

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗
▪ The accurate focal length is obtained by getting the mean value of the calculated focal
lengths.

APPLICATIONS OR USES OF LENSES

• The eye uses a lens to focus images on the retina.
• Lenses are used in spectacles to correct eye defects.
• Lenses are used in lens cameras.
• Lenses are used in projectors.
• Lenses are used in microscopes.

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OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
(Applications of lenses)
Optical instruments help us to see near and far objects clearly.
They include;
▪ Slide projectors ▪ Telescopes
▪ Lens cameras ▪ Periscopes
▪ Human eye ▪ Microscopes

SLIDE PROJECTORS
The projector is used to project the image of a slide onto the screen. It forms a real image.
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑺𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔

𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑺𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆/𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒎

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒓
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
Functions of the parts of the projector:
Source of light:
It provides a powerful beam of light which illuminates the whole system.

Concave reflector:
It reflects back light rays that would have been wasted.

Condenser:
It is made up of two plano-convex lenses which converge and concentrate light onto the slide.

Slide / film:
It acts as the object whose image is to be projected.

Projection lens:
It magnifies the image of the slide on the screen.

Screen:
This is where the real image of the slide is formed.

Heat filter:
It absorbs any heat from the source which would melt the slide.

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Examples:
1. A projection lens is used to produce a sharp image of an object when the object and the
screen are 160cm apart. If the linear magnification is 7, calculate the focal length of the lens
used.
𝑀 = 𝟕, 𝒖 + 𝒗 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎 ⟹ 𝒗 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 − 𝒖 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒗 = +
𝑴= 𝒇 𝒖 𝒗
𝒖 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝟔𝟎 − 𝒖 = +
𝟕= 𝒇 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟒𝟎
𝒖 𝟏 𝟐
𝟕𝒖 + 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 =
𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝒇 𝟑𝟓
𝒖= 𝟑𝟓
𝟖 𝒇=
𝒖 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝟐
𝒗 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎 𝒇 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝒗 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎
2. A slide projector using slide 5cm by 5cm produces a picture of 3cm by 3cm on the screen at
a distance of 24cm from the projection lens. How far from the lens must the slide be?
𝒉𝟎 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝒉𝒊 = 𝟑𝒄𝒎 𝒗 = 𝟐𝟒𝒄𝒎 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟓
𝒉𝒊 𝒗 𝒖 =
𝟑
= 𝒖 = 𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝒉𝟎 𝒖
𝟑 𝟐𝟒
=
𝟓 𝒖

LENS CAMERA
It consists of a light-tight box with a convex lens at the front side.
It has a light sensitive film at the back on which a real, inverted and diminished image.
The inner surface is painted black to prevent the reflection of stray rays of light which would
blur the image.

𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒑𝒉𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒎
𝑭𝒊𝒍𝒎 𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒐𝒍

𝑭𝒊𝒍𝒎
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔

𝑳𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒃𝒐𝒙
𝑺𝒉𝒖𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑨𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆

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Functions of the parts of the lens camera:

Converging lens:
It focuses the image of the object on the film.

Diaphragm:
It controls the size of the aperture thus controlling the amount of light entering the camera.
The brightness of the image depends on the amount of light entering the camera.

Shutter:
It controls the amount of light reaching the film.

Film:
It is a light-sensitive part where a real, inverted and diminished image is formed.

HUMAN EYE
𝑺𝒖𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑰𝒓𝒊𝒔 𝑪𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒊𝒅

𝑨𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒉𝒖𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂

𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒏𝒆𝒂
𝑷𝒖𝒑𝒊𝒍

𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒔 𝑶𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔

𝑽𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒉𝒖𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒓
𝑪𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒎𝒖𝒔𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

Light enters the eye through the cornea. The eye lens focusses the image of the object onto the
retina.
The retina is sensitive to light and sends messages to the brain through the optic nerves.
Light entering the eye is controlled by the iris.
The lens changes its size so as to focus images of far and near objects on the retina and this is
referred to as accommodation.

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Functions of the parts of the eye:

Lens:
The convex lens changes in size so as to focus light onto the retina.

Ciliary muscle:
This changes the focal length of the eye lens by changing its size.

Iris:
It controls the amount of light entering the eye by regulating the size of the pupil.

Retina:
This is where the image is formed.

Optic nerves:
They transmit signals of the image from the retina to the brain for interpretation.

NOTE:
▪ Eye brows stop sweat from running into the eyes.
▪ Eye lashes help to stop dust blowing into the eye.
▪ Blinking of the eye prevents dust and other particles from reaching the surface of the
cornea.

Important definitions
Accommodation: This is the ability of the eye to change the focal length of its lens so as to
focus images of near and far objects on the retina.
OR
This is the ability of the eye to focus images of near and far objects on the
retina by changing the size of the eye lens.

Near point: This is the closest or nearest point at which an eye can have a clear vision/image.
For a normal eye, the near point is 25cm.

Far point: This is the most distant or furthest point at which the eye can have a clear
vision/image.
For a normal eye, the far point is at infinity.

EYE DEFECTS AND THEIR CORRECTIONS

This is a situation where the eye is unable to focus images of near and far objects on the retina.

There are two common eye defects namely;

▪ Short sightedness (Myopia)
▪ Long sightedness (Hypermetropia)

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SHORT SIGHTEDNESS (MYOPIA)

A short-sighted person can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see far objects clearly.
The images of the near objects are formed on the retina.
The images of far objects are formed in front of the retina because the eye ball is too long.
This causes a shorter focal length of the eye lens.
𝑵𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒚 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑭𝒂𝒓 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕

𝑰 𝑰
𝑶

𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂 𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂

Correction of short sightedness:

It is corrected by wearing spectacles containing a diverging (concave) lens.
The diverging lens diverges the light rays from the far object before entering the eye and the
convex lens of the eye converges the diverged rays onto the retina thus forming a clear image.

𝑹𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆

𝑭𝒂𝒓 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑰

𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂
𝑫𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔

LONG SIGHTEDNESS (HYPERMETROPIA)

A long-sighted person can see far objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects clearly.
The images of the far objects are formed on the retina.
The images of nearby objects are formed behind the retina because the eye ball is too short.
This causes a longer focal length of the eye lens.
𝑵𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒚 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑭𝒂𝒓 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕

𝑰 𝑰
𝑶

𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂 𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂

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Correction of long sightedness:

It is corrected by wearing spectacles containing a converging (convex) lens.
The converging lens converges the light rays from the near object before entering the eye and the
convex lens of the eye converges the converged rays onto the retina thus forming a clear image.

𝑶 𝑰

𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔
Astigmatism:
This is where light rays entering the eye fails to come to a single focus point. The person
sees a distorted image. A person suffering from astigmatism faces eye strains and headaches
after prolonged reading and watching televisions.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE EYE AND THE CAMERA

• Both have a convex lens.
• Both form a real, inverted and diminished image.
• Both have a system which controls the amount of light entering i.e. Iris is to eye and
Diaphragm is to camera.
• Both have a light sensitive part where images are formed i.e. retina is to eye and film is to
camera.
• The camera is painted black inside and the eye is impregnated with a black pigment called
choroid.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE EYE AND CAMERA

Human eye Lens camera
• The eye lens is biological (natural). • The camera lens is artificial.
• The eye lens has a changing focal • The camera lens has a fixed focal length.
length. • The distance between the camera lens is
• The distance between the eye lens and adjustable.
retina is fixed. • Forms an image on the film.
• Forms an image on the retina. • Amount of light entering the camera is
• Amount of light entering the eye is controlled by the diaphragm.
controlled by the iris.

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COLOURS AND DISPERSION OF LIGHT

Colours of objects depend on the colour of light which reaches our eyes.
It is proved that white light is made up of a mixture (band) of seven colours i.e. Red, Orange,
Yellow, Green , Blue, Indigo and Violet. (ROYGBIV)
This band of colours in white light is referred to as a spectrum.
Definition;
A spectrum is a band of seven colours that form white light.

DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT:

❖ Dispersion is the splitting of white light into its constituent colours.
When white light is passed into a prism, it is deviated and separated into seven colours. This is
because the refractive index for a prism is different for each colour.
Therefore, each colour moves at a different speed.

𝑹
𝑶
𝒀
𝑮
𝑩
𝑰
𝑽
𝒅 − 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
▪ Red colour which has the least refractive index is deviated least.
▪ Violet colour which has the highest refractive index is deviated most.

PURE SPECTRUM
A pure spectrum is a spectrum is a spectrum in which the colours do not overlap (i.e. one colour
not mixing with the another colour)

𝑳𝟐
𝑳𝟏 𝑺𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏
𝑹
𝑺𝒍𝒊𝒕
𝑽
𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒎

𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

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▪ An illuminated slit is placed at the principle focus of the first converging lens, 𝐿1 .
▪ The converging lens, 𝐿1 converges a parallel beam of light onto the prism.
▪ Dispersion of light occurs at the prism thus separating the light into different colours.
▪ A second converging lens, 𝐿2 is placed at the other side of the prism.
▪ A screen is then placed at the principle focus of the second converging lens, 𝐿2 .
▪ The second converging lens, 𝐿2 focus each constituent colour of white light onto the screen
at different points without overlapping hence forming a pure spectrum.

NOTE:
❖ The first lens, 𝐿1 helps to produce a parallel beam of light from the source of light
(i.e. rays from the principal focus are refracted as parallel)
❖ The slit should be made narrow to reduce the overlapping of colours.
❖ The combination of the slit and first lens is called a collimator (to collimate means to
make it parallel)

FORMATION OF A RAIN BOW

▪ When white light from the sun is incident on a rain drop in the atmosphere, it undergoes
refraction and then dispersed into different colours of the spectrum.
▪ The spectrum is internally reflected back in the opposite direction from where it came from.
▪ The spectrum finally emerges out (refracts out) and this is viewed as a rain bow.

𝑾𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

𝑽𝒊𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒕
𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑

𝑹𝒆𝒅

COLOURS
The colour of an object depends on the colour falling on it and the colour the object reflects.
Therefore, an object absorbs all other colours and reflects the colour we see.
Examples
❖ A green leaf appears green in white light (day light) because the leaf absorbs all other colours
in white light and reflects only green.
❖ White object appears white in white light because it absorbs no colour and reflects all the
colours in white light.
❖ A blue shirt appear black in a dark room because there is no light falling on it in a dark hence
it reflects nothing.

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TYPES OF COLOURS:
There are three types of colours namely;
• Primary colours
• Secondary colours
• Complementary colours

Primary colours:
These are colours which cannot be obtained by mixing any other colours.
Examples include; Red, Blue, and Green (RGB)

Secondary colours:
These are colours which are obtained by mixing any two primary colours.
Examples include;
𝑌𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑅𝑒𝑑 + 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
𝐶𝑦𝑎𝑛 = 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 + 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎 = 𝑅𝑒𝑑 + 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒

Complementary colours:
These are colours which produce white light when mixed together.
Examples include;
𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 + 𝑌𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑑 + 𝐶𝑦𝑎𝑛 = 𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 + 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎 = 𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒

Note: When all the three primary colours are mixed together, white light is produced.

𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝑴 𝑩𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒀 − 𝒀𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘

𝐖 𝑴 − 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂
𝒀 𝑪 𝑪 − 𝑪𝒚𝒂𝒏
𝑾 − 𝑾𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏

COLOUR FILTERS:
A colour filter is a transparent coloured material which allows light of its own colour type to pass
through it and absorbs other colours.
That’s to say;
• Green filter allows only green light to pass through it.
• White filter allows red, green and blue light to pass through it.
• Cyan filter allows only blue and green light to pass through it.
• Magenta filter allows only red and blue light to pass through it
ETC

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Examples:
❖ When white light is incident on a red filter, it allows only red light to pass through it
(transmits) and absorbs blue and green light.
𝑾𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑹𝑮𝑩) (𝑹)

𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓

❖ A green filter allows only green light to pass through it and absorbs other colours when
placed in white light.
𝑾𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑹𝑮𝑩) (𝑮)

𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓

❖ When yellow light is incident on a blue filter, no colour is allowed to pass through it.
Therefore, red and green light is absorbed hence we see black.
𝒀𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑹𝑮)
𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌

𝑩𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓

❖ When magenta light is incident on a cyan filter, only blue light will pass through it but red
and green lights are absorbed.
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑩𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑹𝑩) (𝑩)

𝑪𝒚𝒂𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓
(𝑩 + 𝑮)
❖ When white light is incident on the cyan filter and then magenta filter; cyan filter allows only
green and blue light to pass through it and then the magenta filter allows only blue light to
pass through it.
𝑾𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑪𝒚𝒂𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑩𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑹𝑮𝑩) (𝑩𝑮) (𝑩)

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑪𝒚𝒂𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓
(𝑹 + 𝑩)
(𝑩 + 𝑮)

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Further examples:
1. A girl wearing a red dress with white strips passes under green light. What will be the colour
of her dress under green light?
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑮) 𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 + 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏
The dress will appear
black with green strips

𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

2. A house is painted green and blue. What will be the colour of the house when viewed under
magenta light?
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑹 + 𝑩) 𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 + 𝑩𝒍𝒖𝒆 The house will appear
𝑮 𝑩 𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝑩 black and blue

𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒔𝒆

3. What colour will be observed when a girl wearing yellow dress with blue dots dances in a
disco hall with green light?
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
(𝑮) 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 + 𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌
The dress will appear
green with black dots

𝒀𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

EXERCISE:
1. What colour should filter X have so that red light is seen on the screen.

𝑾𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑭𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑿 𝑺𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏

2. Explain the appearance of a student wearing a green sweater in a disco hall with yellow light.
3. Explain why an object why an object illuminated by white light appears black.
4. State why most car registration numbers plates are printed black on a yellow background.

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EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
1.a) What is meant by focal length of a lens
b) Where should an object be placed in front of a converging lens in order to obtain
i) Diminished real image
ii) A real image, same size as the object
iii) A magnified real image
iv) A magnified virtual image
c) An object 4cm high is placed perpendicularly on the principal axis 10cm away from a
converging lens of focal length 15cm. With the aid of a ray diagram, determine nature, position
and magnification of the image formed
Ans: 30cm, 3
d) Mention two applications of the image formed
2.a) Define the following
i) Critical angle ii) Total internal reflection
b) Explain briefly why the sky appears blue
c) State two applications of a concave mirror
d) i) An object 8Cm high is placed perpendicularly on the axis and 12cm away from a concave
mirror. With the aid of a ray diagram, find the focal length of the mirror if the height of the
image formed is 2cm
Ans: 2.4cm
ii) State the nature of the image formed in (i) above
3.a) Explain dispersion as applied to light
b) i) What is a pure spectrum
ii) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe briefly how a pure spectrum is produced
c) i) Distinguish between a primary and a secondary colour
ii) The figure below shows colours mixed by addition. Name the colours represented by
letters labeled A, B, C and D

Red Blue

Green
d) State the colour of a yellow dress in green light
4.a) Define the following as applied to a concave mirror
i) Centre of curvature
ii) Principal axis
b) State and explain one application of
i) Concave mirror ii) Convex mirror
c) Describe an experiment to measure the focal length of a concave mirror
d) An object of height 1cm is placed 15cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 10cm. If
the object is perpendicular to the principal axis, find by construction the position, the size
and nature of the image.
Ans: 30cm, 2cm

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5. a) The diagram below shows a ray of yellow light incident at an angle of 50o on one side of
an equilateral triangular glass prism of refractive index 1.52

60o

50o
r

i) Calculate the angles marked r and e

Ans: r = 30.30, e = 48.90
ii) State and explain what would be observed if the ray above were of white light
b) Explain, with the aid of a diagram, why the writing on a piece of paper placed under a
glass block appears raised when observed from above
c) State
i) The conditions necessary for total internal reflection to occur
ii) One application of total internal reflection
6. a) i) State the laws of refraction of light
ii) Describe an experiment to verify the laws of refraction of light
b) An object 5cm tall placed in front of a converging lens, forms an inverted image twice as
tall as the object and 30cm from the lens. By construction, find the position of the object,
the focal length and power of the lens
Ans: 15cm, 10cm, 10D
c) A ray of light is incident on glass from air at an angle of 42o. If the refractive index of
glass is 1.41, find the angle of refraction
Ans: 28.30
7. a) i) State the laws of reflection of light
ii) Describe an experiment to verify the laws of reflection of light
b) i) Define the term critical angle
ii) A ray of light moving from water to air at an angle of incidence of 48.60 has the angle
of refraction of 900. Calculate the refractive index of water
Ans: 1.33
c) Distinguish between primary and secondary colours
d) White light is incident on two colour filters in the diagram below

White light Region A Region B

Yellow filter Blue filter

i) State the colours that will be observed in regions A and B
ii) Explain the observation in (d) (i) above
8. a) Explain the term virtual image as applied to optics
b) With aid of a ray diagram, explain why a convex mirror is used as a driving mirror

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c) An object is placed 15cm in front of a concave mirror. An upright image of

magnification four is produced. By graphical method, determine the
i) Nature of the image
ii) Focal length of the mirror
iii) Distance of the image from the mirror
Ans: ii) 12cm iii) 60cm
d) Name two applications of a concave mirror
9. a) Explain the following terms as applied to a thin converging lens
i) Principal focus
ii) Focal length
iii) Power
b) An object is placed at right angles to the principal axis of a thin converging lens of focal
length 10cm. A real image of height 5cm is formed at 30cm from the lens. Find by
construction the position and height of the object.
Ans: 15cm, 2.5cm
c) With the aid of a ray diagram show how a converging lens can be used as a magnifying
glass
10. a) With the aid of a diagram, explain briefly how a pure spectrum may be produced
b) i) What are primary colours? Name them
ii) Explain briefly what happens when white light falls on a green body
c) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe how a lens camera works
11. a) Explain the phenomenon of dispersion as applied to white light
b) Draw a ray diagram to show the dispersion of white light by a glass prism
c) Distinguish between secondary and primary colours. Give one example of each
d) Name the colour that would be obtained when the following coloured lights are mixed
i) Green and red ii) Cyan and red
e) Explain why an object illuminated by white light appears
i) Coloured
ii) Black
12. a) Describe a simple method of measuring the refractive index of glass in form a block
b) i) Explain, with the aid of a diagram, the term critical angle
ii) Light of the same wave length is incident at an angle i on glass prism. The light is
refracted and follows the path shown in the figure below

i
18o 42o

Find the refractive index of glass and the angle of incidence, i

Ans: n = 1.49, i = 27.40
13. a) Define
i) The principal focus of a converging lens
ii) A virtual image
b) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe a simple to determine the focal length of a

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converging lens
c) An object of height 4cm is placed perpendicularly on the principal axis at a distance of
45cm from a converging lens of focal length 15cm. By graphical construction, determine
i) The position of the image
ii) The magnification
Ans: i) 22.5cm, 0.5
d) Give one use of converging lenses
14. a) i) Describe a simple experiment to show that light travels in a straight line
ii) An object 3cm high is placed at right angle to the principal axis of a concave mirror of
focal length 7.5cm. If the object is 30cm from the pole of the mirror, construct a ray
diagram to obtain the position and size of the image formed
iii) State two applications of a concave mirror
Ans: ii) 10cm, 1cm
b) i) State laws of refraction of light
ii) Light of the same wavelength is incident from air on glass of refractive index 1.5. If the
angle of incidence is 600, find the angle of refraction
Ans: ii) 35.30
15. a) Describe an experiment to demonstrate the laws of reflection of light
b) With the aid of a diagram illustrate how shadows are formed when an opaque object is
placed between an extended source of light and the screen
c) An object 10cm high is placed at a distance of 15cm from a convex mirror of focal length
30cm
i) Draw a ray diagram to locate the position of the image
ii) Calculate the magnification
Ans: i) 10cm ii) 0.67
d) Give reasons for use of convex mirrors in vehicles

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