 volcano is a vent or a fissure in crust from which lava (molten rock),

ash, gases, rock fragments erupt from a magma chamber below the
surface.

 Factors that lead to volcanism:

 Plate Tectonics:two lithospheric plates converge and one
overrides other,
 Ocean floor spreading:plates move apart on both sides of ridge and
magma wells up from mantle.
 Weak Earth Surface:Because of high pressure in earth’s interior-
magma and gases -escape with great velocity
 Faults:earthquakes-expose fault zones
 Magma crystallization: Decreasing temperatures -cause old magma to
crystallize - sink to bottom - can force fresh liquid magma up
 decrease in external pressure:may minimize volcano’s ability- to hold
back-by increasing pressures inside magma chamber
 Plate movement:over a “hot spot” Ex. Islands of Hawaii

 Volcanism-process
 huge temperature difference between inner and outer layers of the
earth -due to differential amount of radioactivity.
 gives rise to convectional currents in mantle.
 convection currents in mantle -create convergent and divergent
boundaries (weak zones).
 At divergent boundary- molten, semi-molten and gaseous material
appears on earth
 earthquakes -expose fault zones - magma escape (fissure type
volcano).
 At convergent boundary,-subduction of denser plate -creates magma at
high pressure-escape to surface -in form of violent eruptions.

 Lava types

 Andesitic-highly viscous-light-coloured,-high percentage of silica.-

flow slowly-resultant volcanic cone-stratified i.e stratovolcano
 mostly along-convergent boundaries

 Basaltic or Shield lava

 hottest lavas,-dark coloured basalt-rich in iron and magnesium but
poor in silica.-
 highly fluid.-vent quietly-not very explosive.-
 thin sheets over great distances-gently sloping
 common along divergent boundary

 Types of Volcanoes
 Based on Type of Eruption:
 Basic:dark coloured like basalt, rich in iron and magnesium but poor in
silica.
 Acidic:light-coloured, of low density, and have a high percentage of
silica

 Based on frequency of Eruption:

 Active volcanoes:erupt frequently -mostly located around Ring of Fire.
E.g.: Mount Stromboli -an active volcano-called Light house of
Mediterranean
 Dormant Volcano:not extinct but have not erupted in recent history.
E.g: Mount Kilimanjaro,-Tanzania
 Extinct or inactive volcanoes-not worked in distant geological
past.E.g.: Deccan Traps, India.Aconcagua of Andes

 Landforms
 Intrusive Landforms:
 Sills:intrusion of molten magma -made horizontally -along bedding
plains-of sedimentary rocks,
 Dykes:: Intrusions injected vertically as narrow walls-
within sedimentary layers
 Laccolith:igneous mound with -dome-shaped upper surface-base fed by
a pip-like conduit from below.
 Lopolith: igneous intrusions with a saucer shape.
 Phacolith:lenses-shaped mass of igneous rocks-at crest of an anticline
or bottom of a syncline-fed by a conduit from beneath.
 Batholith:huge mass of igneous rocks-which after removal
of overlying rocks -forms massive upland region.


 Extrusive Landforms:
 Cinder cones:formed of volcanic dust and ashes etc pyroclastic
material.-accumulate around the vent,-steep straight sides and a crater at
the top E.g.: Volcano Parícutin, Mexico
 Composite cones:formed due to deposition of alternate layers lava and
fragmental material-lava acts as cementing material. E.g.: Mount Fuji in
Japan
 Shield volcanoes:numerous successive basaltic lava flow-given region-
eventually pile up-large mountainE.g.: Mauna Loa, Hawaii
 Calderas:arge, basin shaped depression formed at volcanic
mouth.E.G.: Crater Lake, USA
 Fissure vent- narrow, linear volcanic vent through which lava erupts-
usually in basaltic volcano
 Conical vent-narrow cylindrical vent through which magma flows out
violently -common in andesitic volcanism
 crater -inverted cone-shaped vent through which magma flows out.
 Lava Dome-mound-shaped protrusion-resulting from slow
extrusion of viscous lava

 Recently Erupted:
o Sangay Volcano: Ecuador
o Taal Volcano: Philippines
o Mt. Sinabung, Merapi volcano, Semeru volcano (Indonesia)
 Volcanoes in India:
o no volcanoes in Himalayan region or Indian peninsula.
 Barren Island, Andaman Islands (India's only active
volcano)
o Narcondam, Andaman Islands
o Baratang, Andaman Islands
o Deccan Traps, Maharashtra
o Dhinodhar Hills, Gujarat
o Dhosi Hill, Haryana

 Volcanoes Distributed around the World?

 Circum-Pacific Belt:Pacific "Ring of Fire"-subduction zones-edges
of Pacific Ocean-total of 452 volcanoes-
 Aleutian Islands into Kamchatka, Japan,
 the Philippines, and Indonesia (Java and Sumatra in particular),
 Pacific islands of Solomon, New Hebrides, Tonga and North Island,
New Zealand.
 Andes to Central America (particularly Guatemala, Costa Rica and
Nicaragua),

 Along the Atlantic coast

 many dormant or extinct volcanoes, e.g. St. Helena, Cape Verde Islands
and the Canary Islands etc.
 volcanoes of Iceland and the Azores are active.

 Great Rift region

 , some volcanoes -found along East African Rift Valley, e.g. Mt.
Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya.

 Mid-Continental Belt:aka Mediterranean volcanism

 extends along Alpine Mountain system of Europe, north America
 through Asia Minor, Caucasia, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan
 to Himalayan Mountain system, including Tibet, pamir, Tien-Shan,
altai,
 and mountains of China, Myammar and eastern Siberia.
 includes volcanoes of Alps mountains, Mediterranean Sea (Stromboli,
Vesuvius, Etna, etc.), volcanoes of Aegean Sea, Mt. Ararat (Turkey),
Elburz, Hindukush and Himalayas.

 Mid Atlantic Ridge:

 Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates North and South American Plate
from Eurasian and African Plate.

 Intra-Plate Volcanoes:
 5% of known volcanoes-not closely related to plate margins
 eg-Snack plateau, Paraná plateau, Drakensbarg plateau

 Hotspot Volcanoes-not closely related to plate margins

 related to rising of a deep-mantle plume,-caused by slow convection
of highly viscous material in Earth’s mantle.

 Hotspot Volcanism
 type of volcanism that occurs at interior parts of lithospheric plates
rather than at zones of convergence and divergence (plate margins).
 Iceland Hotspot and Afar Hotspot-situated at divergent boundary- are
exceptions.
 explains anomalous volcanism —hat occurs far from plate boundaries-
Hawaii and Yellowstone, or in excessive amounts along mid-ocean
ridges, as in Iceland.
 about 40 to 50 hot spots estimated to be around the world.
 Major hot spots include :
o Iceland hotspot, under island of Iceland in North Atlantic.
o Réunion hot spot, under island of Réunion in Indian Ocean.
o Afar hotspot, located under northeastern Ethiopia.

 Cause
 occurs due to abnormally hot centres in mantle known as mantle
plumes.
 Most mantle plumes -far from tectonic plate boundaries (e.g. Hawaiian
Hotspot)
 others - large-volume volcanism near plate boundaries (e.g. Iceland
Hotspot).

 Mantle Plumes[img-same name]-PYQ

 convection of abnormally hot rock (magma) within Earth’s mantle.
 Unlike larger convection cells in mantle- which change position over
geological timescales-position of mantle plumes- relatively fixed.
 form at core-mantle boundary -where an abnormally hot plume of
rock accumulates.
 shaped like a mushroom- with a long conduit (tail) connecting bulbous
head to its base.
 head expands in size as plume rises.
 plume rises through Earth’s mantle- becoming a diapir (dome-like
intrusion ) in the upper mantle (lower parts of lithosphere).

 Mantle plumes and flood basalt volcanism (img-large igneous

provinces)
 On continents- mantle plumes responsible for accumulations of flood
basalts.
 Mantle plumes-rise slowly towards upper mantle.
 When plume head encounters base of lithosphere, -flattens out -
undergoes decompression melting -form large volumes of basalt
magma.
 basaltic magma- erupt onto surface- through a series of fissures- giving
rise to large igneous provinces-occupy several thousand square
kilometres.
 eg-Iceland, Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, and Ontong Java
Plateau,
 cover huge areas with lava and volcanic ash, causing long-lasting
climate change
 Réunion hotspot (produced Deccan Traps 66 million years ago)
coincides with Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event aka (K-T)
extinction
 largest flood basalt event ( Siberian Traps)-coincident with largest
mass extinction-Permian–Triassic extinction event.

 Mantle plumes and volcanic hotspots

 mantle plume provides - continuous supply of hot magma to fixed
location in mantle -referred to as a hotspot.
 abnormally high heat of hotspot- facilitates melting of rock- at base
of lithosphere.
 magma- pushes through cracks in crust -form hotspot volcanoes (e.g.
Mount Mauna Kea).

 Mantle plumes and divergence (plate tectonics

 Mantle plume-convection currents on a small scale (in comparison to
major convection currents in mantle).
 plume rises through centre -diverges in all directions -
below lithospheric plates.
 divergence of plume -extensional stress on lithospheric plate -
causes plate to stretch and rupture -diverge to form a rift in between.
 Afar hotspot in Africa -ruptured due to mantle plume below.
 At Afar triple junction-Arabian, African, and Somali plates -moving
away from centre. [img]

 Mantle plumes and uplifted landforms (epeirogenic movements)

 As plume reaches lithosphere-spreads out laterally - create doming
zones E.g. Ethiopian Highlands.
 Ethiopian Highlands began before Tertiary Period (66 mya)-mantle
plume below -uplifted broad dome of ancient rocks of Arabian-
Nubian Shield.

 Mantle plumes and thinning of the continental crust

 Yellowstone hotspot - hotspot developed beneath a continent.
 mantle plume-thinning part of America’s crust -likely to-
supervolcano.

 Distribution of hotspots [img-volcanic hotsop distribution]

 Hotspot volcano chain
 volcano above hotspot -not erupt forever-
 Attached to tectonic plate below- volcano moves - eventually cut off
from hotspot
 Without any source of heat-volcano becomes extinct -cools- cooling
causes rock of volcano and tectonic plate- to become denser- Over
time- dense rock sinks and erodes.
 new and active volcano develops over hotspot- creating continuous
cycle of volcanism-forming volcanic arc -that parallels plate motion.
 example- Hawaiian Islands chain in Pacific Ocean - islands and
seamounts exhibit age progression- youngest near present-day Hawaii
- oldest near Aleutian Trench.
 Other hotspots-Réunion, Chagos-Laccadive Ridge, Louisville
Ridge, Yellowstone.

 Reunion Hotspot[img]
 currently lies under Island of Reunion in Indian Ocean.
 active for over 66 million years.
 laid down Deccan Traps + opened a rift which separated India
from Seychelles Plateau.
 Indian plate drifted north,-hotspot continued-creating string of volcanic
islands and undersea plateaus.
 Chagos-Laccadive Ridge (Lakshadweep -a part ) and southern part
of Mascarene Plateau -volcanic traces of Reunion hotspot.
 Laccadive Islands, Maldives, and Chagos Archipelago- atolls
resting on former volcanoes
 45 million years ago -mid-ocean rift crossed over hotspot-hotspot
passed under African Plate.

 Supervolcanoes
 supervolcano - a large volcano-volume of magma deposits-greater than
1,000 cubic kilometres.
 occur when - large volume of magma- accumulates under lithospheric
plate- but unable to break through .
 Over time-pressure keeps building-can no longer contain
 can occur at hotspots (for example, Yellowstone Caldera) or
subduction zones (for example, Toba Caldera Lake, Sumatra Island,
Indonesia).
 can cause small-scale or regional extinction event.
 ash-can engulf entire counties
 eg-New Zealand’s Lake Taupo (Taupo supervolcano
 Toba eruption (Indonesia)

 Effects of Volcanism
 Positive effects
 creates new landforms -islands, plateaus,volcanic mountains
etc. example: Deccan plateau, Mt. Vesuvius.
 volcanic ash and dust -very fertile for farms and orchards.
 Volcanic rocks- yield very fertile soil upon weathering and
decomposition.
 forestry operations on steep volcano slopes-provide valuable timber
resources.
 Mineral resources-metallic ores -brought to surface-eg-Kimberlite
rock of South Africa- diamonds - pipe of an ancient volcano.
 Lava rock-source of crushed rock for concrete
 vicinity of active volcanoes-springs and geysers-Puga valley in Ladakh
region and Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh)
 heat in areas of volcanic activity -used to generate geothermal
electricity.
 attract heavy tourist traffic.-national parks set up-eg-Yellowstone NP
 Volcanic ash- reflects incoming solar radiation- leading to localised
cooling effect -example, Mt. Krakatau brought mini ice age.

 Negative effects
 Ashes can -destroy stratospheric ozone molecules
 Volcanoes contribute -18%-20% of Chlorine-destroys ozone.
 Showers of cinders and bombs - damage to life.-E.g. Mount Vesuvius
in 79 AD.
 Health concerns-respiratory illness, burns
 deterioration of water quality,
 In coastal areas-tsunamis generated by submarine earth faults-E.g. 1883
Krakatoa eruption.
 ash - can lower temperatures at a regional or global scale-could trigger
famines E.g. 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora.
 Lahars ( violent type of mudflow ) -bury entire cities E.g. 1985
eruption of Nevado del Ruiz volcano.
 Powerful winds -drive gas plume higher into atmosphere -disrupting
air travel
 supervolcanic -eruption -can cause small-scale extinction event.
E.g. Toba eruption (Indonesia)
 volcanic gases-sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen fluoride.
 Locally-sulphur dioxide gas -lead to acid rain and air pollution
 large eruptions -inject tremendous volume of sulphur aerosols
into stratosphere- promote depletion of Earth's ozone layer

 Geysers and Hot Springs

 Water percolated into porous rock -subjected to intense heat-
by underlying hard rock in contact with hot magma - or lower part
of crust.
 Under intense heat- water in porous rock- undergoes intense
expansion- converted to steam -resulting in high pressure.
 When steam-finds path to surface -through narrow vents and weak
zones- appear at surface as geysers and hot water springs.

 Geyser  Hot water spring

 Steam or water at high  Steam or water at

pressure-along its path- high pressure -
accumulated in small smoothly flows
reservoirs, fissures and to top-
fractures. through vent -and
 Once pressure condense
exceeds threshold limit- at surface giving
steam bursts out rise to a spring.
to surface -
disrupting water
at mouth

 Some springs -very

 Silicate deposits at colourful -because
mouth -give of cyanobacteria
them distinct colours. of different
colours.

 Generally- located near

active volcanic areas.  Found all
Iceland -famous across world
for geysers.

 [confined in 3 major
areas -  Found all across
Iceland,NZ,Yellowstone the world
park USA]

 Usually, a carter like structure is created at the mouth.