MECHANICS OF

DEFORMABLE
BODIES
Stress – Strain Relationship
BRIEF BACKGROUND
Future engineers will be able to analyze and develop various machines and load-
bearing structures including the estimation of stresses and deformations by
studying material mechanics. This module will cover the idea of stress in a
structural member and how that stress may be calculated from the force in the
member. However, knowing how to calculate forces is necessary for a better
understanding of the idea of stress. The deformations induced by the loads
applied to a structure are an essential part of structural analysis and design. It's
critical to avoid deformations that are so big that they hinder the structure from
serving its intended purpose. This module will also go into the concept and how
to apply stress and strain.
OBJECTIVE OF THE TOPIC
At the end of this topic, students will,
Explain the Concept of Simple Stress and Strain
Identify the different types of stress
Determine the Allowable stress of the Material
Explain the Principles of Hooke's Law
TOPIC OUTLINE
For this topic, it will discuss the following:
Internal Forces
Mechanics
Simple Stress
Shear Stress
Bearing Stress
Inclined Stresses
Simple Strain
Stress - Strain Diagram
Hooke's Law
Axial deformation
FORCES : A REVIEW
Consider the structure shown, which
was designed to support a 30-kN load.
It consists of a boom AB with a 30 ×
50-mm rectangular cross section and a
rod BC with a 20-mm-diameter circular
cross section. These are connected by a
pin at B and are supported by pins and
brackets at A and C, respectively.
Determine the forces of the members.
ENGINEERING MECHANICS
There are 3 areas of Engineering Mechanics, these are Statics, Dynamics and
Strength of Materials.

Strength of Materials deals with the relations between externally applied loads
and their internal effects of the bodies. The bodies here are no longer rigid
instead it will experience deformation.
ANALYSIS OF INTERNAL FORCES
The primary focus of a rigid body's equilibrium study is on the calculation of
external (forces acting on a body) and internal (forces acting on a body)
responses (forces that act at internal connections). In the field of mechanics, This
study must be extended to discover internal forces—that is, forces acting on
cross sections of the body that are internal to it In addition, we must look at
how these internal pressures are dispersed throughout the body. Only after
these calculations are completed can the design engineer choose the right size
for a member and the material from which it should be manufactured.
If the external forces that hold a body in equilibrium are known, we can compute
the internal forces by straightforward equilibrium analysis.
ANALYSIS OF INTERNAL FORCES
Px AXIAL FORCE. This component measures
the pulling (or pushing) action perpendicular to
the section. It is often denoted by P.

Py, Pz SHEAR FORCES. These are the

components of the total resistance to sliding
portion to one side of the exploratory section
past the other. The resultant force is usually
designated by V and its components by Vy and
Vz to identify their directions.
ANALYSIS OF INTERNAL FORCES
Mx TORQUE. This component measures the
resistance to twisting the member and is
commonly given the symbol T.

My, Mz BENDING MOMENTS. These

components measure the resistance to bending
the member about y- or z- axis and are often
denoted merely by My or Mz.
SIMPLE STRESS
Stress is the force per unit area and denoted
by the Greek letter σ (sigma). The stress in a
member of cross-sectional area A subjected to
an applied load P is obtained by dividing the
magnitude P of the load by the area A.
𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎 =
𝐴𝐴

A positive sign indicates a tensile stress

(member in tension), and a negative sign
indicates a compressive stress (member in
compression).
SIMPLE STRESS
The unit for stress are the units of force divided by
the units of area. In SI, force is measured in
Newtons (N) and area is measured in square
meters (m2). Thus, the units for stress are Newtons
per square meter (N/m2). Frequently, one Newton
per square meter is referred to as one Pascal (Pa).

In US Customary units, force is measured in

pounds (lb). With area measured in square inches
(in2), the units for stress are pounds per square
inch (lb/in2), frequently abbreviated as psi.
SIMPLE STRESS
Dividing load by area does not give the stress
at all points in the cross-sectional area; it
merely determines the average stress. A more
precise definition of stress is obtained by
dividing the differential load dP by the
differential area over which it acts:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜎𝜎 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
SIMPLE STRESS
The condition under which the stress is
constant or uniform is known as simple stress.
A uniform stress distribution can exist only if
the resultant of the applied loads passes
through the centroid of the cross-section.
PROBLEM 1
A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100mm must carry a tensile load
of 400 kN. Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to
120 MPa.
PROBLEM 2
From the Early Problem, Determine the stress of member BC
PROBLEM 3
A composite bar consists of an aluminum section rigidly fastened between a
bronze section and a steel section as shown below. Axial loads are applied at the
positions indicated. Determine the stress in each section.
PROBLEM 4
The block of weight W hangs from the pin at A. The bars AB and AC are pinned
to the support at B and C. The areas are 800 mm2 for AB and 400 mm2 for AC.
Neglecting the weights of the bars, determine the maximum safe value of W if
the stress in AB is limited to 110 MPa and that in AC to 120 MPa.
SHEAR STRESS
Shearing stress is distinct from tensile and compressive stress in that it is created
by forces operating parallel to or along the area resisting the forces, whereas
tensile and compressive stresses are caused by forces acting perpendicular to the
areas on which they operate. Tensile and compressive stresses are often referred
to as normal stresses, whereas shearing stresses are referred to as tangential
stresses. When applied loads cause one piece of a body to move beyond its
neighboring section, shearing stress is created.
SHEAR STRESS
Shearing stress is denoted by Greek letter Tau (𝜏𝜏)
𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉
From 𝜎𝜎 = to 𝜏𝜏 =
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
PROBLEM 5
What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm
thick? The shear strength is 350 MN/m2.
PROBLEM 6
Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used in the clevis shown in figure if P
= 400 kN.The shearing strength of the bolt is 300 MPa.
PROBLEM 7
A rectangular piece of wood, 50 mm by 100
mm in cross section, is used as a
compression block shown in the figure.
Determine the axial force P that can be safely
applied to the block if the compressive stress
in wood is limited to 20 MPa and the
shearing stress parallel to the grain is limited
to 5 MPa. The grain makes an angle of 20°
with the horizontal, as shown.
BEARING STRESS
Bearing stress differs from compressive stress in that the latter is the internal
stress caused by a compressive force, whereas the former is a contact pressure
between separate bodies. Some examples of bearing stress are the soil pressure
beneath piers and the forces on bearing plates.
BEARING STRESS
The result of an excessive bearing stress is to cause yielding of the plate or of
the rivet, or both. The intensity with which the rivet bears against the rivet hole
is not constant, but it actually varies from zero at the edges of the hole to a
maximum directly in back of the rivet. The difficulty inherent in a variable stress
distribution is avoided by the common practice of assuming the bearing stress σb
to be uniformly distributed over a reduced area equal to the projected area of
the rivet hole. Then the bearing load is expressed by
PROBLEM 8
A 20-mm diameter rivet joins the plates that are each 110 mm wide. The
allowable stresses are 120 MPa for bearing in the plate material and 60 MPa for
shearing of the rivet. Determine the minimum thickness of each plate and the
largest average tensile stress in the plates.
PROBLEM 9
The lap joint shown in Figure is fastened by four ¾-in.-diameter rivets. Calculate
the maximum safe load P that can be applied if the shearing stress in the rivets is
limited to 14 ksi and the bearing stress in the plates is limited to 18 ksi. Assume
the applied load is uniformly distributed among the four rivets.
STRESS ON INCLINED PLANES
When a bar of cross-sectional area A is
subjected to an axial load P, the normal stress
P/A acts on the cross section of the bar. Let us
now consider the stresses that act on plane a-a
that is inclined at the angle y to the cross
section, as shown in Fig (a). Note that the area
of the inclined plane is A=cos y: To investigate
the forces that act on this plane, we consider
the free-body diagram of the segment of the bar
shown in (b). Because the segment is a two-
force body, the resultant internal force acting on
the inclined plane must be the axial force P,
which can be resolved into the normal
component P cos y and the shear component P
sin y. Therefore, the corresponding stresses,
shown in (c), are
STRESS ON INCLINED PLANES
From these equations we see that the maximum normal stress is P/A, and it acts
on the cross section of the bar (that is, on the plane θ = 0). The shear stress is
zero when θ = 0, as would be expected. The maximum shear stress is P/2A,
which acts on the planes inclined at θ = 45o to the cross section.
STRESS ON INCLINED PLANES
In summary, an axial load causes not only normal
stress but also shear stress. The magnitudes of both
stresses depend on the orientation of the plane on
which they act. By replacing θ with θ + 90o in
equation, we obtain the stresses acting on plane a’-a’,
which is perpendicular to a-a, as illustrated in figure
STRESS ON INCLINED PLANES
where we used the identities cos (θ + 90o) = - sin θ and sin 2 (θ + 90o) = - sin 2θ
Because the stresses in act on mutually perpendicular, or ‘‘complementary’’
planes, they are called complementary stresses.

In other words, The shear stresses that act on complementary planes have the
same magnitude but opposite sense.
PROBLEM 10
Two wooden members of 3 x 6 in uniform rectangular cross section are joined
by the simple glued scarf surface as shown. Knowing that P = 2400 lb, determine
the normal and shearing stresses of the glued splice
PROBLEM 11
The figure shows a glued joint, known as a finger joint, in a 6-in. by 3/4-in. piece of
lumber. Find the normal and shear stresses acting on the surface of the joint.
SIMPLE STRAIN
Also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of the change in length caused
by the applied force, to the original length.

where δ is the deformation and L is the original length, thus ε is dimensionless.

SIMPLE STRAIN
In general terms, strain is a geometric quantity that measures the deformation of
a body. There are two types of strain: normal strain, which characterizes
dimensional changes, and shear strain, which describes distortion (changes in
angles). Stress and strain are two fundamental concepts of mechanics of
materials. Their relationship to each other defines the mechanical properties of a
material, the knowledge of which is of the utmost importance in design.
SIMPLE STRAIN
The Strain so computed, however, measures only the average value of strain. The
correct expression for strain at any position is
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜖𝜖 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Where 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is the differential elongation of the differential length dL. However,
under certain conditions the strain may be assumed constant and its value
computed from the equation of strain. These conditions are as follows
1. The specimen must be of constant cross section
2. The material must be homogenous
3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform stress
SIMPLE STRAIN
Since strain represents a change in length divided by original length, strain is a
dimensionless quantity. Although it is common to use units (m/m) in SI and (in/in)
in US Units.
STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression testing
machine. As the axial load is gradually increased in increments, the total
elongation over the gage length is measured at each increment of the load and
this is continued until failure of the specimen takes place. Knowing the original
cross-sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal stress σ and the
strain ε can be obtained. The graph of these quantities with the stress σ along the
y-axis and the strain ε along the x-axis is called the stress-strain diagram. The
stress-strain diagram differs in form for various materials. The diagram shown
below is that for a medium carbon structural steel.
STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
Proportional Limit and Hooke’s Law - the stress-strain diagram is a straight line
from the origin O to a point called the proportional limit. This plot is a
manifestation of Hooke’s law. Stress is proportional to strain; that is,

where E is a material property known as the modulus of elasticity or Young’s

modulus. The units of E are the same as the units of stress—that is, Pa or psi.
For steel, E = 29 x 106 psi, or 200 GPa, approximately.
STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
Elastic Limit - A material is said to be elastic if, after being loaded, the material
returns to its original shape when the load is removed. The elastic limit is, as its
name implies, the stress beyond which the material is no longer elastic. The
permanent deformation that remains after the removal of the load is called the
permanent set. The elastic limit is slightly larger than the proportional limit.
However, because of the difficulty in determining the elastic limit accurately, it is
usually assumed to coincide with the proportional limit.
STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
Yield Point - The point where the stress-strain diagram becomes almost
horizontal is called the yield point, and the corresponding stress is known as the
yield stress or yield strength. Beyond the yield point there is an appreciable
elongation, or yielding, of the material without a corresponding increase in load.
Indeed, the load may actually decrease while the yielding occurs.
STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
Ultimate Stress - The ultimate stress or ultimate strength, as it is often called, is
the highest stress on the stress-strain curve.
STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
Rupture Stress - The rupture stress or rupture strength is the stress at which
failure occurs. For structural steel, the nominal rupture strength is considerably
lower than the ultimate strength because the nominal rupture strength is
computed by dividing the load at rupture by the original cross sectional area. The
true rupture strength is calculated using the reduced area of the cross section
where the fracture occurred. The difference in the two values results from a
phenomenon known as necking.
ALLOWABLE STRESS
Allowable stress is also known as working stresses. It is the maximum safe stress
a material can carry. Usually in design, the working stress 𝜎𝜎𝑤𝑤 must be limited to
values not exceeding the proportional limit so as not to invalidate the stress –
strain diagram in relation to Hooke’s Law on which all subsequent theory is
based.

Factor of safety (N) will be used in computing allowable stress.

𝜎𝜎𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝜎𝜎𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈
𝜎𝜎𝑤𝑤 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝜎𝜎𝑤𝑤 =
𝑁𝑁𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑁𝑁𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈
HOOKES LAW
From the Stress – Strain Diagram, check the
straight-line proportion. The slope of that
line is the ratio of stress to strain. It is called
the modulus of Elasticity.
HOOKES LAW
Modulus of Elasticity - Most engineering structures are designed to undergo
relatively small deformations, involving only the straight-line portion of the
corresponding stress-strain diagram. For that initial portion of the diagram. the
stress σ is directly proportional to the strain ε:
σ=εE
This is known as Hooke’s law, after Robert Hooke (1635–1703), an English
scientist and one of the early founders of applied mechanics. The coefficient E of
the material is the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus,
AXIAL DEFORMATION
The Figure shows a bar of length L and constant
cross-sectional area A that is loaded by an axial
tensile force P. We assume that the stress caused
by P is below the proportional limit, so that
Hooke’s law σ = ε E is applicable. Because the bar
deforms uniformly, the axial strain is ε = δ/L which
upon substitution into Hooke’s law yields σ = E (δ
/L). Therefore, the elongation of the bar is
PROBLEM 12
The steel propeller shaft ABCD carries the axial loads shown. Determine the
change in the length of the shaft caused by these loads. Use E = 29 x 106 psi for
steel.
PROBLEM 13
The cross section of the 10-m-long flat steel bar AB has a constant thickness of
20 mm, but its width varies as shown in the figure. Calculate the elongation of
the bar due to the 100-kN axial load. Use E = 200 GPa for steel.
PROBLEM 14
The rigid bar BC in figure is supported by the steel
rod AC of cross-sectional area 0.25 in2. Find the
vertical displacement of point C caused by the
2000-lb load. Use E = 29 x 106 psi for steel.
SUMMARY
• There are 3 areas of Engineering Mechanics, these are Statics, Dynamics and
Strength of Materials.
• Stress is the force per unit area and denoted by the Greek letter σ (sigma).
• There different types of stresses, among these are Axial, shear and Bearing
Stress
• Strain is the ratio of the change in length caused by the applied force, to the
original length.
DISCUSSION
1. The links of the chain are made of steel that has a
working stress of 300 Mpa in tension. If the chain is
to support the force P = 45 kN, determine the
smallest safe diameter d of the links.
2. Segment AB of the bar is a tube with an outer
diameter of 1.5 in. and a wall thickness of 0.125 in.
Segment BC is a solid rod of diameter 0.75 in.
Determine the normal stress in each segment.
3. Three wood boards, each 4 in. wide, are joined by
the 3/4-in.-diameter bolt. If the working stresses for
wood are 800 psi in tension and 1500 psi in bearing,
find the largest allowable value of the force P.
DISCUSSION
4. A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300
mm2 and a length of 150 m is suspended
vertically from one end. The rod supports a
tensile load of 20 kN at its free end. Given that
the mass density of steel is 7850 kg/m3 and E =
200 GPa, find the total elongation of the rod.
5. The compound bar ABCD has a uniform cross-
sectional area of 0.25 in2 When the axial force P
is applied, the length of the bar is reduced by
0.018 in. Determine the magnitude of the force P.
The moduli of elasticity are 29 x 106 psi for steel
and 10 x 106 psi for aluminum.
REFERENCES
• Strength of Materials 4th Ed. by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andre
• Beer, F. P. (2020). Mechanics of materials (8th ed.)
• Pytel, A. & Kiusalaas, J. (2012). Mechanics of materials (2nd ed.).