UNIT I

Operating System Concepts:

What is Operating System?
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and
computer hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file
management, memory management, process management, handling input and output, and
controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
Generally, a Computer System consists of the following componen
components:
 Computer Users are the users who use the overall computer system.
 Application Softwares are the softwares which users use directly to perform
different activities. These softwares are simple and easy to use like Browsers, Word,
Excel, different Editors
Editors,, Games etc. These are usually written in high-level
high
languages, such as Python, Java and C++.
 System Softwares are the softwares which are more complex in nature and they are
more near to computer hardware. These software are usually written in low-level
low
languages
anguages like assembly language and includes Operating Systems (Microsoft
Windows, macOS, and Linux), Compiler, and Assembler etc.
 Computer Hardware includes Monitor, Keyboard, CPU, Disks, Memory, etc.

Evolution of Operating System

Following are the different evolution of an Operating System.
 Batch processing
 Multitasking
 Multiprogramming
 Multiprocessing
 Interactivity
 Real Time System
  Distributed Environment
 Spooling
Batch operating system
The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer
directly. Each user prepares his job on an off
off-line
line device like punch cards and submits it to the
computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with sim
similar
ilar needs are batched together and run
as a group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts
the programs with similar requirements into batches.

The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

 Lack of interaction
on between the user and the job.
 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the
CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.
Time-sharing / Multi-tasking
tasking operating systems
Time-sharing
ing is a technique which enables many people, located at various
terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time
Time-sharing
sharing or multitasking is a
logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users
simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time- Time
Sharing Systems is that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize
processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing
Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the
switches occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response.
respon For example, in a
transaction processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of
computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the user
submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to
provide each user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily
as batch systems have been modifie
modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −
 Provides the advantage of quick response.
 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing
sharing operating systems are as follows −
 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.
Multiprogramming Operating System
Multiprogramming is an extension to batch processing where the CPU
is always kept busy. Each process needs two types of system time: CPU time and IO time.
In a multiprogramming environment, when a process does its I/O,
The CPU can start the execution of other processe
processes.
s. Therefore, multiprogramming improves the
efficiency of the system.

Advantages of Multiprogramming OS
 Throughout the system, it increased as the CPU always had one program to execute.
 Response time can also be reduced.
Disadvantages of Multiprogramming OS
 Multiprogramming systems provide an environment in which various systems resources
are used efficiently, but they do not provide any user interaction with the computer
system.
Multiprocessing Operating System
In Multiprocessing, Parallel computing is achieved. There are more than
one processors present in the system which can execute more than one process at the same time.
This will increase the throughput of the system.

In Multiprocessing, Parallel computing is achieved. More than one processor present in the
system can execute more than one process simultaneously, which will increase the throughput of
the system.
Advantages of Multiprocessing operating system:
 Increased reliability: Due to the multiprocessing system, processing tasks can be
distributed among several processors. This increases reliability as if one processor fails,
the task can be given to another processor for completion.
 Increased throughout: As several processors increase, more work can be done in less.
Disadvantages of Multiprocessing operating System
 Multiprocessing operating system is more complex and sophisticated as it takes care of
multiple CPUs simultaneously.
Distributed operating System
Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple
real-time
time applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the
processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various
communication lines (such as high
high-speed buses or telephone lines).
These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems.
Processors
ors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These processors are referred as
sites, nodes, computers, and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −
 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources
available at another.
 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue
operating.
 Better service to the customers.
 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing.
Network operating System
A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the
server the capability to manage data, users, groups, sec
security,
urity, applications, and other networking
functions. The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer
access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private
network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.

The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 Centralized servers are highly stable.
  Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.
The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −
 High cost of buying and running a server.
 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.
Real Time operating System
A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in
which the time interval required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the
environment. The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated
information is termed as the response time. So in this method, the response time is very less as
compared to online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time
requirements on the operation of a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be
used as a control device in a dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have well-
defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific
experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air
traffic control systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
 Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In
hard real-time systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in
ROM. In these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.
 Soft real-time systems
Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets
priority over other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems
have limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality,
Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.
Types of Operating System
Operating System structure
An operating system is a structure that allows the user
application programs to interact with the system hardware. Since the operating system is such a
complex structure, it should be created with utmost care so it can be used and modified easily.
An easy way to do this is to create the operating system in parts. Each of these parts should be
well defined with clear inputs, outputs and functions.
Following are various popular implementations of Operating System structures.
 Simple Structure
  Monolith Structure
 Micro-Kernel Structure
 Exo-Kernel Structure
 Layered Structure
 Modular Structure
 Virtual Machines
Simple Structure
There are many operating systems that have a rather simple structure.
These started as small systems and rapidly expanded much further than their scope. A
common example of this is MS-DOS. It was designed simply for a niche amount for people.
There was no indication that it would become so popular.

It is better that operating systems have a modular structure, unlike MS-DOS. That would lead to
greater control over the computer system and its various applications. The modular structure
would also allow the programmers to hide information as required and implement internal
routines as they see fit without changing the outer specifications.
Advantages
Following are advantages of a simple operating system structure.
 Easy Development - In simple operation system, being very few interfaces,
development is easy especially when only limited functionalities are to be delivered.
 Better Performance - Such a sytem, as have few layers and directly interects with
hardware, can provide a better performance as compared to other types of operating
systems.
Disadvantages
Following are disadvantages of a simple operating system structure.
 Frequent System Failures - Being poorly designed, such a system is not robust. If
one program fails, entires operating system crashses. Thus system failures are quiet
frequent in simple operating systems.
 Poor Maintainability - As all layers of operating systems are tightly coupled,
change in one layer can impact other layers heavily and making code unmanageable
over a period of time.
Monolith Structure
In monolith structured operating system, a central piece of code called
kernel is responsible for all major operations of an operating system. Such operations includes
file management, memory management, device management and so on. The kernal is the main
component of an operating system and it provides all the services of an operating system to the
application programs and system programs.
The kernel has access to the all the resources and it acts as an interface
with application programs and the underlying hardware. A monolithic kernel structure promotes
timesharing, multiprogramming model and was used in old banking systems.

Advantages
Following are advantages of a monolith operating system structure.
 Easy Development - As kernel is the only layer to develop with all major
functionalities, it is easier to design and develop.
 Performance - As Kernel is responsible for memory management, other
operations and have direct access to the hardware, it performs better.
Disadvantages
Following are disadvantages of a monolith operating system structure.
 Crash Prone - As Kernel is responsible for all functions, if one function fails
entire operating system fails.
 Difficult to enhance - It is very difficult to add a new service without impacting
other services of a monolith operating system.
Micro-Kernel Structure
As in case monolith structure, there was single kernel, in micro-
kernel, we have multiple kernels each one specilized in particular service. Each microkernel is
developed independent to the other one and makes system more stable. If one kernel fails the
operating sytem will keep working with other kernel's functionalities.
Advantages
Following are advantages of a microkernel operating system structure.
 Reliable and Stable - As multiple kernels are working simultaneously, chances
of failure of operating sytem is very less. If one functionlity is down, operating
system can still provide other functionalities using stable kernels.
 Maintainability - Being small sized kernels, code size is maintainable. One can
enhance a microkernel code base without impacting other microkernel code base.
Disadvantages
Following are disadvantages of a microkernel operating system structure.
 Complex to Design - Such a microkernel based architecture is difficult to design.
 Performance Degradation - Multi kernel, Multi-modular communication may
hamper the performance as compared to monolith architecture.
Exo-Kernel Structure
Exo-Kernal Structured operating system was designed and developed
at MIT. The aim of this design was to keep Kernel size minimal while allowing the application
programs to manage hardware resources directly. The purpose of removing abstraction of
operating system for hardware resources was to enable application programmer to write high
performance code while exo-kernel handles other operations.
Advantages
Following are advantages of a exo-kernel operating system structure.
 High Performance - As application program can allocate memory, a better designed
code can make optimal use and perform better.
 Application Control - As resource management is not secured by operating system,
application program has more control over system resources and can write custom
operations on system resources.
 Disadvantages
Following are disadvantages of a exo-kernel operating system structure.
 Unreliable and Unsafe - As security is in application program level, a poorly
written code can ruin the system.
 Complex Design - Exo-Kernel designing is complicated.
Layered Structure
One way to achieve modularity in the operating system is the layered
approach. In this, the bottom layer is the hardware and the topmost layer is the user interface.
An image demonstrating the layered approach is as follows −

As seen from the image, each upper layer is built on the bottom layer. All the
layers hide some structures, operations etc from their upper layers.
One problem with the layered structure is that each layer needs to be carefully
defined. This is necessary because the upper layers can only use the functionalities of the layers
below them.
Advantages
Following are advantages of a layered operating system structure.
 High Customizable - Being layered, each layer implmentation can be customized
easily. A new functionality can be added without impacting other modules as well.
 Verifiable - Being modular, each layer can be verified and debugged easily.
Disadvantages
Following are disadvantages of a layered operating system structure.
 Less Performant - A layered structured operating system is less performant as
compared to basic structured operating system.
 Complex designing - Each layer is to planned carefully as each layer communicates
with lower layer only and a good design process is required to create a layered
operating system.
Modular Structure
Modular structure operating system works on the similar princhiple as a
monolith but with better design. A central kernal is responsible for all major operations of
operating system.
This kernal has set of core functionality and other services are loaded
as modules dynamically to the kernal at boot time or at runtime. Sun Solaris OS is one of the
example of Modular structured operating system.
Advantages
Following are advantages of a modular operating system structure.
 High Customizable - Being modular, each module implmentation can be
customized easily. A new functionality can be added without impacting other
modules as well.
 Verifiable - Being modular, each layer can be verified and debugged easily.
Disadvantages
Following are disadvantages of a modular operating system structure.
 Less Performant - A modular structured operating system is less performant as
compared to basic structured operating system.
 Complex designing - Each module is to planned carefully as each module
communicates with kernal. A communication API is to be devised to facilitate the
communication.
Virtual Machine Structure
In this kind of structure, hardware like CPU, memory, hard disks are abstracted into virtual
machines. User can use them with actually configure them using execution contexts. Virtual
machine takes a good amount of disk space and is to be provisioned. Muliple virtual machines can
be created on a single physical machine.
Advantages
Following are advantages of a virtual machine based operating system structure.
 High Customizable - Being virtual, functionality are easily accessible, can be
customized on need basis.
 Secure - Being virtual, and no direct hardware access, such systems are highly
secured.
Disadvantages
Following are disadvantages of a virtual machine based operating system structure.
 Less Performant - A virtual structured operating system is less performant as
compared to modular structured operating system.
 Complex designing - Each virtual component of the machine is to planned carefully
as each component is to abstract underlying hardware.
Geneations of Operating System
Operating systems have been evolving over the years. We can categorise this
evaluation based on different generations which is briefed below:
0th Generation (1940 - early 1950s)

The term 0th generation is used to refer to the period of development of computing when

Charles Babbage invented the Analytical Engine and later John Atanasoff created a computer in
1940. The hardware component technology of this period was electronic vacuum tubes. There was
no Operating System available for this generation computer and computer programs were written
in machine language. This computers in this generation were inefficient and dependent on the
varying competencies of the individual programmer as operators.

First Generation (1951-1956)

The first generation marked the beginning of commercial computing
including the introduction of Eckert and Mauchly’s UNIVAC I in early 1951, and a bit later, the
IBM 701.
System operation was performed with the help of expert operators and
without the benefit of an operating system for a time though programs began to be written in
higher level, procedure-oriented languages, and thus the operator’s routine expanded. Later mono-
programmed operating system was developed, which eliminated some of the human intervention
in running job and provided programmers with a number of desirable functions. These systems
still continued to operate under the control of a human operator who used to follow a number of
steps to execute a program. Programming language like FORTRAN was developed by John W.
Backus in 1956.
Second Generation (1956-1964)
The second generation of computer hardware was most notably
characterised by transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the hardware component technology. The
first operating system GMOS was developed by the IBM computer. GMOS was based on single
stream batch processing system, because it collects all similar jobs in groups or batches and then
submits the jobs to the operating system using a punch card to complete all jobs in a machine.
Operating system is cleaned after completing one job and then continues to read and initiates the
next job in punch card.

Researchers began to experiment with multiprogramming and

multiprocessing in their computing services called the time-sharing system. A noteworthy
example is the Compatible Time Sharing System (CTSS), developed at MIT during the early
1960s.

Third Generation (1964-1979)

The third generation officially began in April 1964 with IBM’s
announcement of its System/360 family of computers. Hardware technology began to use
integrated circuits (ICs) which yielded significant advantages in both speed and economy.
 Operating system development continued with the introduction
and widespread adoption of multiprogramming. The idea of taking fuller advantage of the
computer’s data channel I/O capabilities continued to develop.
Another progress which leads to developing of personal
computers in fourth generation is a new development of minicomputers with DEC PDP-1. The
third generation was an exciting time, indeed, for the development of both computer hardware and
the accompanying operating system.
Fourth Generation (1979 – Present)
The fourth generation is characterised by the appearance of the
personal computer and the workstation. The component technology of the third generation, was
replaced by very large scale integration (VLSI). Many Operating Systems which we are using
today like Windows, Linux, MacOS etc developed in the fourth generation.
Function and Services of Operating System
Function of Operating System
Memory Management
The operating system manages the Primary Memory or Main Memory.
Main memory is made up of a large array of bytes or words where each byte or word is
assigned a certain address. Main memory is fast storage and it can be accessed directly by the
CPU.
For a program to be executed, it should be first loaded in the main
memory. An operating system manages the allocation and deallocation of memory to various
processes and ensures that the other process does not consume the memory allocated to one
process.
An Operating System performs the following activities for Memory Management:
 It keeps track of primary memory, i.e., which bytes of memory are used by which user
program. The memory addresses that have already been allocated and the memory
addresses of the memory that has not yet been used.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides the order in which processes are granted memory
access, and for how long.
 It Allocates the memory to a process when the process requests it and deallocates the
memory when the process has terminated or is performing an I/O operation.
Processor Management
In a multi-programming environment, the OS decides the order in
which processes have access to the processor, and how much processing time each process has.
This function of OS is called Process Scheduling. An Operating System performs the following
activities for Processor Management.
An operating system manages the processor’s work by allocating
various jobs to it and ensuring that each process receives enough time from the processor to
function properly.
Keeps track of the status of processes. The program which
performs this task is known as a traffic controller. Allocates the CPU that is a processor to a
process. De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management
An OS manages device communication via its respective drivers. It
performs the following activities for device management.
 Keeps track of all devices connected to the system. Designates a program responsible for
every device known as the Input/Output controller.
 Decide which process gets access to a certain device and for how long.
 Allocates devices effectively and efficiently. Deallocates devices when they are no longer
required.
 There are various input and output devices. An OS controls the working of these input-
output devices.
 It receives the requests from these devices, performs a specific task, and communicates back
to the requesting process.
File Management
A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation
and usage. These directories may contain other directories and other files. An Operating System
carries out the following file management activities. It keeps track of where information is
stored, user access settings, the status of every file, and more.
These facilities are collectively known as the file system. An OS keeps
track of information regarding the creation, deletion, transfer, copy, and storage of files in an
organized way.
It also maintains the integrity of the data stored in these files, including
the file directory structure, by protecting against unauthorized access.
User Interface or Command Interpreter
The user interacts with the computer system through the operating
system. Hence OS acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware. This user
interface is offered through a set of commands or a graphical user interface (GUI).
Through this interface, the user makes interacts with the applications
and the machine hardware.

Booting the Computer

The process of starting or restarting the computer is known as
booting. If the computer is switched off completely and if turned on then it is called cold
booting. Warm booting is a process of using the operating system to restart the computer.

Security
The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and
similar other techniques. it also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data. The
operating system provides various techniques which assure the integrity and confidentiality of
user data.

The following security measures are used to protect user data:

 Protection against unauthorized access through login.
 Protection against intrusion by keeping the firewall active.
 Protecting the system memory against malicious access.
 Displaying messages related to system vulnerabilities.
Control Over System Performance
Operating systems play a pivotal role in controlling and optimizing
system performance. They act as intermediaries between hardware and software, ensuring that
computing resources are efficiently utilized. One fundamental aspect is resource allocation,
where the OS allocates CPU time, memory, and I/O devices to different processes, striving to
provide fair and optimal resource utilization. Process scheduling, a critical function, helps
decide which processes or threads should run when preventing any single task from
monopolizing the CPU and enabling effective multitasking.

Job Accounting
The operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks
and users, this information can be used to track resource usage for a particular user or group of
users. In a multitasking OS where multiple programs run simultaneously, the OS determines
which applications should run in which order and how time should be allocated to each
application.

Error-Detecting Aids
The operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and
avoid malfunctioning computer systems. From time to time, the operating system checks the
system for any external threat or malicious software activity. It also checks the hardware for
any type of damage. This process displays several alerts to the user so that the appropriate
action can be taken against any damage caused to the system.

Coordination Between Other Software and Users

Operating systems also coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers, assemblers, and
other software to the various users of the computer systems. In simpler terms, think of the
operating system as the traffic cop of your computer. It directs and manages how different
software programs can share your computer’s resources without causing chaos. It ensures that
when you want to use a program, it runs smoothly without crashing or causing problems for
others. So, it’s like the friendly officer ensuring a smooth flow of traffic on a busy road, making
sure everyone gets where they need to go without any accidents or jams.

Performs Basic Computer Tasks

The management of various peripheral devices such as the mouse,
keyboard, and printer is carried out by the operating system. Today most operating systems are
plug-and-play. These operating systems automatically recognize and configure the devices with
no user interference.
Network Management
 Network Communication: Think of them as traffic cops for your internet traffic. Operating
systems help computers talk to each other and the internet. They manage how data is
packaged and sent over the network, making sure it arrives safely and in the right order.
 Settings and Monitoring: Think of them as the settings and security guard for your internet
connection. They also let you set up your network connections, like Wi-Fi or Ethernet, and
keep an eye on how your network is doing. They make sure your computer is using the
network efficiently and securely, like adjusting the speed of your internet or protecting your
computer from online threats.
An Operating System provides services to both the users and to the programs.
 It provides programs an environment to execute.
 It provides users the services to execute the programs in a convenient manner.
FOLLOWING ARE A FEW COMMON SERVICES PROVIDED BY AN OPERATING
SYSTEM −
 Program execution
 I/O operations
 File System manipulation
 Communication
 Error Detection
 Resource Allocation
 Protection
Program execution
Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user programs to
system programs like printer spooler, name servers, file server, etc. Each of these activities is
encapsulated as a process.
A process includes the complete execution context (code to execute, data to
manipulate, registers, OS resources in use). Following are the major activities of an operating
system with respect to program management −
 Loads a program into memory.
 Executes the program.
 Handles program's execution.
 Provides a mechanism for process synchronization.
 Provides a mechanism for process communication.
 Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling.
I/O Operation
An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their corresponding driver
software. Drivers hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the users.
An Operating System manages the communication between user and device drivers.
 I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O device.
 Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when required.
File system manipulation
A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can
store files on the disk (secondary storage), for long-term storage purpose. Examples of storage
media include magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of these
media has its own properties like speed, capacity, data transfer rate and data access methods.
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation
and usage. These directories may contain files and other directions. Following are the major
activities of an operating system with respect to file management −
 Program needs to read a file or write a file.
 The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on file.
 Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete files.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete directories.
 Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file system.
Communication
In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors that do
not share memory, peripheral devices, or a clock, the operating system manages communications
between all the processes. Multiple processes communicate with one another through
communication lines in the network.
The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems of
contention and security.
Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to communication −
 Two processes often require data to be transferred between them
 Both the processes can be on one computer or on different computers, but are
connected through a computer network.
 Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by Shared Memory or
by Message Passing.
Error handling
Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU, in
I/O devices or in the memory hardware. Following are the major activities of an operating system
with respect to error handling −
 The OS constantly checks for possible errors.
 The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.
Resource Management
In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such as
main memory, CPU cycles and files storage are to be allocated to each user or job. Following are
the major activities of an operating system with respect to resource management −
 The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.
 CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.
Protection
Considering a computer system having multiple users and concurrent
execution of multiple processes, the various processes must be protected from each other's
activities.
Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of
programs, processes, or users to the resources defined by a computer system. Following are the
major activities of an operating system with respect to protection −
 The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.
 The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid access attempts.
 The OS provides authentication features for each user by means of passwords.

System Calls
A system call is a way for a user program to interface with the operating
system. The program requests several services, and the OS responds by invoking a series of
system calls to satisfy the request. A system call can be written in assembly language or a high-
level language like C or Pascal. System calls are predefined functions that the operating system
may directly invoke if a high-level language is used.
A system call is a method for a computer program to request a service
from the kernel of the operating system on which it is running. A system call is a method of
interacting with the operating system via programs. A system call is a request from computer
software to an operating system's kernel.
The Application Program Interface (API) connects the operating
system's functions to user programs. It acts as a link between the operating system and a
process, allowing user-level programs to request operating system services. The kernel system
can only be accessed using system calls. System calls are required for any programs that use
resources.
Why do you need system calls in Operating System?
There are various situations where you must require system calls in the operating system.
Following of the situations are as follows:
 It is must require when a file system wants to create or delete a file.
 Network connections require the system calls to sending and receiving data packets.
 If you want to read or write a file, you need to system calls.
 If you want to access hardware devices, including a printer, scanner, you need a
system call.
 System calls are used to create and manage new processes.
How System Calls Work
The Applications run in an area of memory known as user space. A
system call connects to the operating system's kernel, which executes in kernel space. When an
application creates a system call, it must first obtain permission from the kernel. It achieves this
using an interrupt request, which pauses the current process and transfers control to the kernel.
If the request is permitted, the kernel performs the requested action, like
creating or deleting a file. As input, the application receives the kernel's output. The application
resumes the procedure after the input is received. When the operation is finished, the kernel
returns the results to the application and then moves data from kernel space to user space in
memory.
A simple system call may take few nanoseconds to provide the result,
like retrieving the system date and time. A more complicated system call, such as connecting to
a network device, may take a few seconds. Most operating systems launch a distinct kernel
thread for each system call to avoid bottlenecks. Modern operating systems are multi-threaded,
which means they can handle various system calls at the same time.

Types of System Calls

Process Control
Process control is the system call that is used to direct the processes. Some process control
examples include creating, load, abort, end, execute, process, terminate the process, etc.
File Management
File management is a system call that is used to handle the files. Some file management
examples include creating files, delete files, open, close, read, write, etc.
Device Management
Device management is a system call that is used to deal with devices. Some examples of device
management include read, device, write, get device attributes, release device, etc.
Information Maintenance
Information maintenance is a system call that is used to maintain information. There are some
examples of information maintenance, including getting system data, set time or date, get time
or date, set system data, etc.
 Communication
Communication is a system call that is used for communication. There are some examples of
communication, including create, delete communication connections, send, receive messages,
etc.
System Boot
Booting
ng in Operating System
Booting is the process of starting a computer. It can be initiated by
hardware such as a button press or by a software command. After it is switched on, a CPU has
no software in its main memory,
ry, so some processes must load software into memory before
execution. This may be done by hardware or firmware in the CPU or by a separate processor in
the computer system.
Restarting a computer also is called rebooting, which can be "hard",
"
e.g., after electrical power to the CPU is switched from off to on, or "soft
soft", where the power is
not cut. On some systems, a soft boot may optionally clear RAM to zero. Hard and soft booting
can be initiated by hardware such as a button press or a software command. Booting is
complete when the operative runtime system, typically the operating system and some s
applications, is attained.
The process of returning a computer from a state of sleep does not
involve booting; however, restoring it from a state of hibernation does. Minimally, some
embedded systems do nott require a noticeable boot sequence to begin functioning and, when
turned on, may run operational programs that are stored in ROM. All computer systems are
state machines and a reboot may be the only method to return to a designated zero-state
zero from an
unintended, locked state.
In addition to loading an operating system or stand--alone utility, the boot
process can also load a storage dump program for diagnosing problems in an operating system.
Sequencing of Booting

1. Boot Loader: Computers powered by the central processing unit can only execute code found
in the system's memory. Modern operating systems and application program code and data are
stored on nonvolatile memories. When a computer is first powered on, it must initially rely only
on the code and data stored in nonvolatile portions of the system's memory. The operating
system is not really loaded at boot time, and the computer's hardware cannot perform many
complex systems actions.

The program that starts the chain reaction that ends with the entire operating system being loaded
is the boot loader or bootstrap loader. The boot loader's only job is to load other software for the
operating system to start.
2. Boot Devices: The boot device is the device from which the operating system is loaded. A
modern PC BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) supports booting from various devices. These
include the local hard disk drive, optical drive, floppy drive, a network interface card, and a USB
device. The BIOS will allow the user to configure a boot order. If the boot order is set to:

 CD Drive
 Hard Disk Drive
 Network

The BIOS will try to boot from the CD drive first, and if that fails,
then it will try to boot from the hard disk drive, and if that fails, then it will try to boot from the
network, and if that fails, then it won't boot at all.

3. Boot Sequence: There is a standard boot sequence that all personal computers use. First, the
CPU runs an instruction in memory for the BIOS. That instruction contains a jump instruction
that transfers to the BIOS start-up program. This program runs a power-on self-test (POST) to
check that devices the computer will rely on are functioning properly. Then, the BIOS goes
through the configured boot sequence until it finds a bootable device. Once BIOS has found a
bootable device, BIOS loads the bootsector and transfers execution to the boot sector. If the boot
device is a hard drive, it will be a master boot record (MBR).

The MBR code checks the partition table for an active partition. If one
is found, the MBR code loads that partition's boot sector and executes it. The boot sector is often
operating system specific, and however, in most operating systems, its main function is to load
and execute the operating system kernel, which continues start-up. Suppose there is no active
partition, or the active partition's boot sector is invalid. In that case, the MBR may load a
secondary boot loader which will select a partition and load its boot sector, which usually loads
the corresponding operating system kernel.

1. Cold Booting: When the computer starts for the first time or is in a shut-down state and
switch on the power button to start the system, this type of process to start the computer is
called cold booting. During cold booting, the system will read all the instructions from the
ROM (BIOS) and the Operating System will be automatically get loaded into the system.
This booting takes more time than Hot or Warm Booting.
2. Warm Booting: Warm or Hot Booting process is when computer systems come to no
response or hang state, and then the system is allowed to restart during on condition. It is
also referred to as rebooting. There are many reasons for this state, and the only solution is
to reboot the computer. Rebooting may be required when we install new software or
hardware. The system requires a reboot to set software or hardware configuration changes,
or sometimes systems may behave abnormally or may not respond properly. In such a case,
 the system has to be a force restart. Most commonly Ctrl+Alt+Del button is used to reboot
the system. Else, in some systems, the external reset button may be available to reboot the
system.

Booting Process in Operating System

When our computer is switched on, it can be started by hardware such
as a button press, or by software command, a computer's central processing unit (CPU) has no
software in its main memory, there is some process which must load software into main
memory before it can be executed. Below are the six steps to describe the boot process in the
operating system, such as:

Step 1: Once the computer system is turned on, BIOS (Basic Input /Output System) performs a
series of activities or functionality tests on programs stored in ROM, called on POST (Power-on
Self Test) that checks to see whether peripherals in the system are in perfect order or not.
Step 2: After the BIOS is done with pre pre-boot
boot activities or functionality test, it read bootable
boot
sequence from CMOS (Common Metal Oxide Semiconductor) and looks for master boot record
in the first physical sector of the bootable disk as per boot device sequence specified in CMOS.
For example, if the boot device sequence is:
 Floppy Disk
 Hard Disk
 CDROM
Step 3: After this, the master boot record will search first in a floppy disk drive.
drive If not found,
then the hard disk drive will search for the master boot record. But if the master boot record is
not even present on the hard disk, then the CDROM drive will search. If the system cannot read
the master boot record from any of these sources, ROM displays "No No Boot device found"
found and
halted the system. On finding the master boot record from a pparticular
articular bootable disk drive, the
operating system loader, also called Bootstrap loader, is loaded from the boot sector of that
bootable drive· into memory. A bootstrap loader is a special program that is present in the boot
sector of a bootable drive.
Step 4: The bootstrap loader first loads the IO.SYS file. After this, MSDOS.SYS file is loaded,
which is the core file of the DOS operating system.
Step 5: After this, MSDOS.SYS file searches to find Command Interpreter in CONFIG.SYS file,
and when it finds, it loads into memory. If no Command Interpreter is specified in
the CONFIG.SYS file, the COMMAND.COM file is loaded as the default Command Interpreter
of the DOS operating system.
Step 6: The last file is to be loaded and executed is the AUTOEXEC.BAT file that contains a
sequence of DOS commands. After this, the prompt is displayed. We can see the drive letter of
bootable drive displayed on the computer system, which indicates that the operating system has
been successfully on the system from that drive.
System Programs
The performance of the entire computer's application software is controlled by the system
program, which is one of several sorts of system programs that users of operating systems can
use.

Functions of the System Program

There are several functions of the system program in the operating system. These are as
follows:

o File management:
The files and directory are generally manipulated by these programs, which also create,
delete, copy, rename, print, and exit.

 In the computer system, adding new files and putting them in certain places can be
helpful.
 It aids in swiftly and simply locating these files within the computer system.
 It effectively simplifies and streamlines the process of exchanging files among
users.
 Files should be kept in distinct directories, which are folders.
 Users can manage files according to their intended usage or conduct rapid searches
of files using these directories.
 The ability to change a file's data or a directory's file names is helpful to users.

o Status information:
Status information is the knowledge of the input, output, storage, and CPU usage
processes and how the process will compute how much memory is needed to complete a
task.

o A programming language supports:

 Compiler, Assembler, and Interrupt are examples of programming language tools used
in the operating system of a computer for certain functions.

o Programming Loading and Execution:

It performs system calls with the aid of system programs to do two tasks: enter the
program and execute the output of the program when the program has loaded.

o Communication:
The user offers these services because the operating system requires that a large number
of devices be able to communicate with one another via wireless or other devices.

o Background services:
In the operating system, there are several services that may be used for communication,
and a background service can be used to change the backdrop of your window and
search for and identify computer viruses.

SYSTEM PROGRAM TYPES:

There are several categories of system programs mentioned below:
o Utility program:
 It oversees, keeps up with, and regulates a variety of computer resources. Utility
software is quite technical and is intended for individuals with strong technological
backgrounds.
 Software like backup software, disk tools, and antivirus programs are a few
examples of utilities.
o Device drivers:
 It is used to manage the specific device that is connected to a computer system.
Drivers for connected devices essentially serve as a translator between the operating
system and the connected devices.
 For instance, drivers for storage devices, scanners, and
o Directory reporting tools:
 These tools are necessary for an operating system to have some software that makes
it easier to navigate the computer system.
 Examples include Windows Explorer, ls, and dir.
Protection and Security of Operating System
Protection and security requires that computer resources such
as CPU, softwares, memory etc. are protected. This extends to the operating system as well as
the data in the system. This can be done by ensuring integrity, confidentiality and availability in
 the operating system. The system must be protect against unauthorized access, viruses, worms
etc.
Threats to Protection and Security
A threat is a program that is malicious in nature and leads to harmful effects for the system.
Some of the common threats that occur in a system are −
Virus
Viruses are generally small snippets of code embedded in a system. They are very dangerous and
can corrupt files, destroy data, crash systems etc. They can also spread further by replicating
themselves as required.
Trojan Horse
A trojan horse can secretly access the login details of a system. Then a malicious user can use
these to enter the system as a harmless being and wreak havoc.
Trap Door
A trap door is a security breach that may be present in a system without the knowledge of the
users. It can be exploited to harm the data or files in a system by malicious people.
Worm
A worm can destroy a system by using its resources to extreme levels. It can generate multiple
copies which claim all the resources and don't allow any other processes to access them. A worm
can shut down a whole network in this way.
Denial of Service
These type of attacks do not allow the legitimate users to access a system. It overwhelms the
system with requests so it is overwhelmed and cannot work properly for other user.
Protection and Security Methods
The different methods that may provide protect and security for different computer systems are −
Authentication
This deals with identifying each user in the system and making sure they are who they claim to
be. The operating system makes sure that all the users are authenticated before they access the
system. The different ways to make sure that the users are authentic are:
 Username/ Password
Each user has a distinct username and password combination and they need to enter it correctly
before they can access the system.
 User Key/ User Card
The users need to punch a card into the card slot or use they individual key on a keypad to access
the system.
 User Attribute Identification
 Different user attribute identifications that can be used are fingerprint, eye retina etc. These are
unique for each user and are compared with the existing samples in the database. The user can
only access the system if there is a match.
One Time Password
These passwords provide a lot of security for authentication purposes. A one time password can
be generated exclusively for a login every time a user wants to enter the system. It cannot be
used more than once. The various ways a one time password can be implemented are −
 Random Numbers
The system can ask for numbers that correspond to alphabets that are pre arranged. This
combination can be changed each time a login is required.
 Secret Key
A hardware device can create a secret key related to the user id for login. This key can change
each time.
 UNIT - 2

INTRODUCTION TO DOS
A disk operating system (DOS) is an operating system for x86 based personal computers mostly
developed by Microsoft. MS-DOS,
DOS, its rebranding as IBM PC DOS, and some operating systems
attempting to be compatible with MS-DOS.
DOS. Sometimes it is referred to as "DOS", which is also the
generic acronym for disk operating system.

MS-DOS
DOS was the main operating system for IBM PC compatible per
personal
sonal computers during the 1980s.
It was gradually superseded by operating systems offering a graphical user interface (GUI) in various
graphical Microsoft Windows operating system generations.

DOS is also used to describe several similar command

command-line disk operating systems. Early computers,
such as the Commodore 64, Atari 800, and Apple II, all featured a disk operating system, including
Commodore Business Machines DOS, Atari DOS, and Apple DOS, respectively. DOS/360 was an OS
for IBM mainframes, which first
st appeared in 1966, but it is unrelated to the 8086
8086-based
based DOS of the
1980s.

Several competing products were released for the x86 platform during its lifetime, and MS-DOS
MS went
through eight versions until development ceased in 2000. Initially, M
MS-DOS
DOS was targeted at Intel 8086
processors running on computer hardware using floppy disks to store and access the operating system,
application software, and user data.
Progressive version releases delivered support for other mass storage media in ever greater sizes and
formats and added feature support for newer processors and rapidly evolving computer architectures.
Microsoft's development was the key product from a programming language company to a diverse
software development firm, providing essential revenue and marketing resources. It was also the
underlying basic operating system on which early versions of Windows ran as a GUI.

How DOS works?

When a computer is powered on, it goes through various steps called the boot process. For a
computer running a disk operating system in the following six steps, such as:

1. The read-only memory (ROM) bootstrap loader reads the Master Boot Record and passes control
over to it.
2. The boot record loads the disk operating system into memory, and it takes control of the
machine.
3. The computer transfers data stored on a magnetic disk to its main memory, the random-access
memory.
4. It also transfers data to external devices attached to the computer, such as a computer screen or
printer.
5. The computer provides various applications programming interfaces for programs like character
input/output, memory management, program loading, termination, and handling input from the
user through a keyboard.
6. The OS also provides file management that organizes, reads, and writes files on storage. The
files are organized in a hierarchical structure of directories, subdirectories, and files.

A disk operating system doesn't have a graphical user interface (GUI). Its interface is character-
based, so users must type commands in the command line to indicate what actions they want.

Features of DOS
Here are some of the distinguishing features of a disk operating system, such as:

1. MS-DOS does not offer GUI (Graphical User Interface) and doesn't accept mouse inputs. It is a
character-based interface system where all commands are entered in the text at the command-line
prompt.
2. A disk operating system manages files, folders and allows program loading and execution. It can
control hardware devices such as disk, memory and allocate resources.
3. MS-DOS offers a file system to organize, read and write files to the disk storage.
4. It is a single-user operating system and performs various tasks to ensure the proper operation of
systems.
5. It uses a 16-bit file allocation table (FAT16), and a 16-bit interface is used to define the location of
the memory of each file uniquely. These identifiers are stored in a tabular format with the name
File Allocation table.
6. MS-DOS does not support a multiuser operating system, and it is less secure and does not have a
concept of user roles. It is very lightweight due to its basic interface and limited features.

Limitations of MS-DOS
Here are the following limitations of the disk operating system, such as:

1. Built-in security:DOS does not have built-in security, such as file ownership and permissions.

2. No multiuser or multitasking:It also does not support multiuser or multitasking. It can only
run one program at a time, but it provides direct access to the basic I/O system and underlying
hardware.
3. Challenging interface:A user must type in commands and remember commands to run
programs and other OS tasks. For example, typing the command cd \directory_name changes the
current working directory to the named directory, and typing the command dir lists the files in the
current directory. This approach makes it difficult for beginners to use.

Types of MS-DOS Commands

An instruction given to a computer to perform a specific task is known as a command. The MS-
DOS has many commands to perform each task, and these commands are stored in the DOS
directory of the disk. The MS-DOS commands are of two types, internal command, and external
command.

1. Internal Command:Internal commands are built-in commands of MS-DOS, stored in the

command interpreter file (COMMAND.COM). These commands reside in memory if the system
is at prompt (C:\>) level. Some of the internal commands are DATE, TIME, DIR, VER, etc.
2. External Command:External commands are separate program (.com) files that reside in the
DOS directory.

HISTORY OF DOS
 DOS, or Disk Operating System, is a family of operating systems originally developed for
personal computers in the early 1980s. It was foundational in the evolution of personal computing.
Here’s a brief history of its development and key milestones:

1. Origins of DOS (Late 1970s - Early 1980s)

1. The term “DOS” initially referred to operating systems with disk management features, including
CP/M (Control Program for Microcomputers), developed by Digital Research, Inc. in the 1970s.
CP/M became widely used on early personal computers and influenced later systems.
2. In 1980, IBM planned to enter the personal computer market with its IBM PC. They intended to
use CP/M but couldn’t reach an agreement with Digital Research.

2. Development of MS-DOS (1981)

1. Microsoft stepped in, purchasing 86-DOS (originally QDOS, or Quick and Dirty Operating
System) from Seattle Computer Products in 1980. Microsoft adapted it to become MS-DOS
(Microsoft Disk Operating System).
2. MS-DOS 1.0 was released in 1981 as the operating system for IBM's PCs, marking Microsoft’s
entry into the operating system market.

3. Expansion and Variants (1980s)

1. MS-DOS became popular, and Microsoft licensed it to various PC manufacturers, creating the PC-
compatible market.
2. PC-DOS: IBM branded its version of DOS as PC-DOS, but both PC-DOS and MS-DOS were
largely identical in their early versions.
3. Other companies attempted to compete, like DR DOS by Digital Research, but MS-DOS remained
dominant.

4. Advancements in MS-DOS (1980s - 1990s)

1. MS-DOS 2.0 (1983) introduced support for hard disks and subdirectories, making it more versatile
for business applications.
2. MS-DOS 3.x to 5.0 (1984-1991) added various improvements, including support for larger
storage, better memory management, and the first BASIC interpreter.
3. MS-DOS 6.x (1993) introduced features like disk compression (DoubleSpace), a graphical shell
(MS-DOS Shell), and other utilities.
 5. Decline and Transition to Windows (1990s)
1. By the early 1990s, graphical user interfaces (GUIs) were becoming the norm. Microsoft launched
Windows 3.1 (1992), which used MS-DOS as its base but gradually reduced users' dependence on
the command-line interface.
2. Windows 95 (1995) marked a major transition, integrating MS-DOS into Windows, so users no
longer needed to boot into DOS separately.
3. As Windows advanced, MS-DOS functionality was gradually phased out, although DOS
compatibility remained for legacy applications.

6. DOS Today
1. DOS is still used in some specialized systems and embedded systems for its simplicity and low
resource requirements.
2. FreeDOS, an open-source version, remains available for enthusiasts, retro computing, and legacy
support.

BOOTING PROCESS OF DOS

Booting
Bootingmay be defined as process of loading the operating system into memory. The booting
process starts from the moment when we power on computer and continues till moment, computer
is ready for use.
DOS
booting process starts when we start computer and continues till DOS prompt is displayed. The
booting process of DOS mainly deals with loading three main system files of DOS into memory.
These files are
IO.SYS,
MSDOS.SYS
and
COMMAND.COM

In the booting process of DOS, the following steps are performed when we start a computer –

1. Once the computer system is turned on, BIOS (Basic Input /Output System) performs a series of
activities or functionality test on programs stored in ROM, called on Power-on Self-Test (POST)
that checks to see whether peripherals in system are in perfect order or not.
2. After the BIOS is done with pre-boot activities or functionality test, it read bootable sequence from
CMOS (Complementary metal oxide semiconductor) and looks for master boot record in first
physical sector of the bootable disk as per boot device sequence specified in CMOS. For example, if
the boot device sequence is –
a) Floppy Disk
b) Hard Disk
c) CDROM
3. After this, master boot record will be searched first in a floppy disk drive. If not found, then hard
disk drive will be searched for master boot record. But if the master boot record is not even present
on hard disk, then CDROM drive will be searched. If the system is not able to read master boot
record from any of these sources, ROM displays the message “No Boot device found” and system is
halted. On finding master boot record from a particular bootable disk drive, operating system
loader, also called Bootstrap loader is loaded from boot sector of that bootable drive· into memory.
A bootstrap loader is a special program that is present in boot sector of bootable drive.
4. Bootstrap loader first loads the IO.SYS file. After this, MSDOS.SYS file is loaded which is core
file of DOS operating system.
5. After this, MSDOS.SYS file searches to find Command Interpreter in CONFIG.SYS file and when
it finds, it loads into memory. If no Command Interpreter specified in the CONFIG.SYS file, the
COMMAND.COM file is loaded as default Command Interpreter of DOS operating system.
6. The last file is to be loaded and executed is the AUTOEXEC.BAT file that contains a sequence of
DOS commands. After this, the prompt is displayed, and we can see drive letter of bootable drive
displayed on the computer system, which indicates that operating system has been successfully on
the system from that drive.

Types of Booting
1. Cold Booting/Switch Booting – When the user starts computer by pressing power switch
on system unit, the operating system is loaded from disk to main memory this type of booting is
called Cold Booting. This booting takes more time than Hot or Warm Booting.
2. Hot or Warm Booting– Hot booting is done when computer system comes to no response
state/hang state. Computer does not respond to commands supplied by user. There are many reasons
for this state, only solution is to reboot computer by using the Reset button on cabinet or by pressing
a combination of ALT + CTRL + DEL keys from keyboard.

FILE & DIRECTORY STRUCTURE AND NAMING

RULES
Setting up a clear, consistent structure and naming rules for files and directories can greatly improve
organization, accessibility, and ease of navigation within a system. Here are best practices for file and
directory structure and naming:

1. Directory Structure
1. Hierarchical Structure:Organize directories in a hierarchical format with broad categories at the
top level, gradually narrowing down into subcategories. For example:

Project/

├── Docs/

├── Code/

│ ├── Data Processing/

│ └── Analysis/

├── Data/

└── Reports/

2. Descriptive Naming for Directories:Name directories by category, project name, or

function, avoiding generic names like “New Folder” or “Untitled.”
3. Avoid Deep Nesting:Try to avoid too many nested folders, as it can make files harder to
find. Aim to limit to 2-3 sublevels.
4. Date-Based Folders:For files that are date-specific (e.g., logs, reports), consider creating
folders based on the year/month or other relevant date structure, such as `2023/08/`.
2. File Naming Conventions
1. Be Descriptive and Specific:File names should give a clear indication of the content or
purpose. For example, instead of `Document1.docx`, use `ClientReport_Aug2023.docx`.
2. Use Lowercase:Consistently use lowercase letters to prevent case-sensitivity issues,
especially when working across different operating systems.
3. Avoid Special Characters: Use only letters, numbers, underscores (_), and hyphens (-).
Avoid spaces and special characters like `!`, `&`, or `%`, as these can cause issues with
scripts or file handling.
4. Use ISO Date Format:If a file name needs to include a date, use the ISO format: `YYYY-
MM-DD` (e.g., `2023-08-30_SalesData.csv`).
 5. Versioning:Use version numbers for iterative files, e.g., `Proposal_v01.docx`,
`Proposal_v02.docx`, or append a date, e.g., `Proposal_2023-08-30.docx`.
6. Consistent Order:Follow a consistent order of components (e.g.,
`Project_Task_Details_Date`), such as `Marketing_Plan_Draft_2023-08-15.docx`.
3. File Extensions
1. Use standard and recognizable extensions for files, such as `.docx` for Word documents,
`.pdf` for PDFs, `.csv` for spreadsheets, and `.jpg` for images.
2. Avoid ambiguous file extensions, and consider adding details in the file name to clarify
contents if the file type could cause confusion.
a. File and Folder Naming Examples
1. Files:

- `sales_report_2023-08-30.xlsx`

- `marketing_plan_v02.docx`

- `data_processing_script_v01.py`

2. Folders:

- `2023-Q1/Reports/`

- `Code/Data_Processing/`

- `ClientDocs/Invoices/2023/`

4. Naming Rules Summary

1. Use descriptive names that capture the contents.
2. Stick to lowercase letters and use hyphens or underscores to separate words.
3. Use the ISO date format when dates are needed in the file name.
4. Version files when creating multiple drafts or iterations.

DOS SYSTEM FILES

In DOS (Disk Operating System), system files are essential for booting, managing hardware, and
running the operating environment. Below are key system files and their purposes:

1. Core DOS System Files

These files are required for DOS to boot and operate. They typically reside in the root directory of
the bootable drive (often `C:\`).
1. IO.SYS: This is a core file that contains the basic input/output system (BIOS) drivers for DOS,
handling low-level device interactions such as reading from the keyboard or writing to the screen. It
also loads DOS into memory during the boot process.
2. MSDOS.SYS: Originally a binary file in early versions of DOS, `MSDOS.SYS` contains DOS
kernel code and is responsible for handling system calls, file operations, and memory management.
In later versions of DOS (like MS-DOS 6.22), `MSDOS.SYS` became a text configuration file in
Windows 95, storing settings that controlled startup behaviour.
3. COMMAND.COM: This is the default command-line interpreter for DOS. It provides the prompt,
runs batch files, and interprets and executes commands. If `COMMAND.COM` is missing, users
cannot access the command prompt.

2. Other Important System Files

1. CONFIG.SYS: A configuration file loaded during the boot process that allows users to set system
parameters and load device drivers. Typical entries include memory management (`HIMEM.SYS`),
device loading, and file buffers.
2. AUTOEXEC.BAT: A batch file that automatically executes upon startup, running user-specified
programs, setting environment variables (like `PATH` and `PROMPT`), and initializing the DOS
environment. For example, it can load `mouse.com` for mouse support.

3. Auxiliary System Files

1. HIMEM.SYS: A DOS driver for accessing extended memory (above 1 MB in 80286+ computers).
It’s often loaded via `CONFIG.SYS` to improve memory management.
2. EMM386.EXE: A memory manager that allows access to expanded memory (EMS) on computers
with 386 processors and above. It can also manage upper memory blocks (UMBs), which help load
programs high, freeing up conventional memory.
3. DRIVER.SYS, ANSI.SYS: These are optional drivers that can be loaded through `CONFIG.SYS`.
`DRIVER.SYS` manages hardware like disk drives, while `ANSI.SYS` provides ANSI escape code
support for enhanced text formatting in the command line.

4. File System Attributes

DOS system files typically have special attributes:

1. Hidden: These files are not shown in a regular directory listing.

2. System: Marks the files as essential for system operation, preventing accidental deletion.
3. Read-Only: Prevents modifications or deletions by the user.
 5. Boot Process Summary in DOS

The DOS boot process usually involves the following steps:

1. The BIOS loads the boot sector from the bootable drive, which then loads `IO.SYS`.
2. `IO.SYS` loads `MSDOS.SYS`, initializing the DOS kernel.
3. `CONFIG.SYS` is processed to load any specified drivers or settings.
4. `COMMAND.COM` is loaded to provide the command prompt.
5. `AUTOEXEC.BAT` runs to set up the environment.

INTERNAL COMMANDS OF DOS

In DOS (Disk Operating System), internal commands are built into the command interpreter
(`COMMAND.COM`) and do not require separate files to execute. Here are the definitions, syntax, and
examples for common DOS internal commands:

1. DIR

Definition: Displays a list of files and directories in the current directory.

Syntax: `DIR [drive:][path] [options]`

Example: DIR C:\Documents

DIR /P ;(pauses after each screen)

2. CLS

Definition: Clears the command prompt screen.

Syntax: `CLS`

Example: CLS

3. VER

Definition: Displays the version of DOS or Windows.

Syntax: `VER`

Example: VER

4. VOL
 Definition: Displays the disk volume label and serial number if they exist.

Syntax: `VOL [drive:]`

Example: VOL C:

5. DATE

Definition: Displays or sets the system date.

Syntax: `DATE [MMDDYYYY]`

Example: DATE ;(prompts user to enter a date)

DATE 08:30:2023

6. TIME

Definition: Displays or sets the system time.

Syntax: `TIME [HH:MM:SS]`

Example: TIME ;(prompts user to enter a time)

TIME 14:30:00

7. COPY

Definition: Copies files from one location to another.

Syntax: `COPY [source] [destination]`

Example:COPY C:\Docs\file.txt D:\Backup\file.txt

COPY *.txt C:\TextFiles ;(copies all .txt files to C:\TextFiles)

8. TYPE

Definition: Displays the contents of a text file.

Syntax: `TYPE [filename]`

Example: TYPE notes.txt

9. REN (Rename)

Definition: Renames a file or directory.

Syntax: `REN [old_name] [new_name]`

Example: REN oldfile.txt newfile.txt

10.DEL (Delete)

Definition: Deletes one or more files.

Syntax: `DEL [filename]`

Example: DEL report.doc

DEL *.tmp ;(deletes all .tmp files)

11.CD (Change Directory)

Definition: Changes the current directory.

Syntax: `CD [directory]`

Example:CD C:\Users\John

CD .. ;(moves up one directory level)

12.MD (Make Directory)

Definition: Creates a new directory.

Syntax: `MD [directory_name]`

Example: MD Projects

13.RD (Remove Directory)

Definition: Deletes a directory (only works if the directory is empty).

Syntax: `RD [directory_name]`

Example: RD Projects

14.PATH

Definition: Sets or displays the search path for executable files. The `PATH` command
specifies the directories DOS searches to find executable files.

Syntax: `PATH [drive:] [directory];...`

 Example: PATH C:\Program Files;C:\Windows\System32

PATH ;(displays the current search path)

Explanation: By setting a `PATH`, DOS will look in those directories to find any command or
program, saving users from needing to type the full path every time.

EXTERNAL COMMANDS IN DOS

In DOS, external commands are utilities stored as separate executable files (often with `.EXE` or
`.COM` extensions) that extend DOS functionality. These commands are not built into
`COMMAND.COM`, so they require the corresponding files to be present in the DOS directory or a
specified path. Here’s an overview of common external commands:

1. CHKDSK (Check Disk)

Definition: Checks the disk for errors and provides a status report on file system integrity.

Syntax: `CHKDSK [drive:] [options]`

Example:CHKDSK C: /F ;(fixes any errors found on drive C)

2. XCOPY

Definition: Copies files and directories, including subdirectories.

Syntax: `XCOPY [source] [destination] [options]`

Example:XCOPY C:\Docs D:\Backup /S /E ;(copies all directories and files, including

empty ones)

3. PRINT

Definition: Sends a text file to a printer for printing in the background.

Syntax: `PRINT [filename]`

Example:PRINT report.txt

4. DISKCOPY

Definition: Copies the entire contents of one floppy disk to another.

 Syntax: `DISKCOPY [source_drive:] [destination_drive:]`

Example:DISKCOPY A: B:

5. DISKCOMP

Definition: Compares the contents of two floppy disks.

Syntax: `DISKCOMP [drive1:] [drive2:]`

Example:DISKCOMP A: B:

6. DOSKEY

Definition: Provides command history and macro functionality in the command line.

Syntax: `DOSKEY [options]`

Example:DOSKEY /REINSTALL ;(reinstalls DOSKEY)

7. TREE

Definition: Displays the directory structure of a drive or path in a tree format.

Syntax: `TREE [drive:][path] [options]`

Example:TREE C:\Documents /F ;(shows files as well as directories)

8. MOVE

Definition: Moves files from one directory to another or renames directories.

Syntax: `MOVE [source] [destination]`

Example:MOVE file.txt D:\Folder

9. LABEL

Definition: Creates, changes, or deletes a disk’s volume label.

Syntax: `LABEL [drive:] [label]`

Example:LABEL C: DATA_DISK

10.APPEND

Definition: Sets paths where DOS will search for files if they are not in the current directory.
 Syntax: `APPEND [drive:][path];...`

Example:APPEND C:\Docs

11.FORMAT

Definition: Formats a disk for use, erasing all contents.

Syntax: `FORMAT [drive:] [options]`

Example:FORMAT D: /Q ;(quick format)

12.SORT

Definition: Sorts input and outputs the sorted data.

Syntax: `SORT [options]`

Example:SORT < unsorted.txt > sorted.txt

13.FDISK

Definition: Configures and partitions hard disks.

Syntax: `FDISK [options]`

Example:FDISK ;(opens the FDISK utility for partitioning)

14.BACKUP

Definition: Creates backups of files or directories to a specified location.

Syntax: `BACKUP [source] [destination]`

Example:BACKUP C:\Docs D:\Backup /S

15.EDIT

Definition: Opens a simple text editor to create or modify files.

Syntax: `EDIT [filename]`

Example:EDIT notes.txt

16.MODE

Definition: Configures system devices, such as display settings and serial communication.
 Syntax: `MODE [options]`

Example:MODE COM1: 9600,N,8,1 ;(sets COM1 port parameters)

17.ATTRIB

Definition: Changes file or directory attributes like readonly, hidden, or system.

Syntax: `ATTRIB [+attribute | attribute] [filename]`

Example:ATTRIB +R report.doc ;(makes report.doc readonly)

18.HELP

Definition: Displays help information about DOS commands.

Syntax: `HELP [command]`

Example:HELP XCOPY ;(displays help for XCOPY)

19.SYS

Definition: Copies DOS system files to a drive, making it bootable.

Syntax: `SYS [drive:]`

Example:SYS A: ;(makes the A: drive bootable)

 UNIT 3

WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM:

The Windows Operating System is a family of graphical operating systems developed by Microsoft. It
provides a user-friendly interface and environment to perform various computing tasks. First released in 1985,
it has since evolved into one of the most widely used operating systems globally.

Key Features of Windows:

1. Graphical User Interface (GUI): Windows uses a graphical interface with icons, windows, and menus,
making it easy for users to interact with the system.
2. Compatibility: Supports a wide range of hardware and software applications.
3. User Management: Allows multiple user accounts with varying permissions and settings.
4. File Management: Includes tools like File Explorer for organizing files and folders.
5. Multitasking: Enables users to run multiple applications simultaneously.
6. Regular Updates: Microsoft provides updates for new features, security, and performance
improvements.

Common Versions of Windows:

 Windows 95/98/ME: Early consumer-focused versions with GUI advancements.

 Windows XP: Popular for its stability and usability.
 Windows Vista: Introduced new visual effects and features like the Aero interface.
 Windows 7: Known for its speed and reliability.
 Windows 8/8.1: Introduced the Start Screen and touch capabilities.
 Windows 10: Combined the traditional desktop with modern features and was designed as a
"universal" OS.
 Windows 11: Latest version (as of now) with a refreshed design and productivity features.

Uses of Windows:

 Personal Computing: For everyday tasks like browsing, media consumption, and gaming.
 Business Applications: Runs professional software, office suites, and productivity tools.
 Development and Coding: Supports programming and development with tools like Visual Studio.
 Server and Enterprise: Variants like Windows Server are used for managing networked systems.
History of Windows

Microsoft Windows, a graphical operating system developed by Microsoft, has been a cornerstone in
personal computing for decades.

Below is a brief timeline of its evolution:

1. 1985 - Windows 1.0:

o Introduced a graphical user interface (GUI) over MS-DOS.
o Featured programs like Calculator, Paint, and a rudimentary version of Word and Excel.
2. 1987 - Windows 2.0:
o Added overlapping windows, keyboard shortcuts, and improved graphics.
o First to support Microsoft Word and Excel.
3. 1990 - Windows 3.0:
o Included Program Manager, File Manager, and better multitasking.
o Widely adopted due to enhanced performance.
4. 1995 - Windows 95:
o Introduced the Start menu, taskbar, and Windows Explorer.
o Added support for 32-bit applications, Plug and Play hardware, and built-in
internet support.
5. 1998 - Windows 98:
o Improved USB support, Internet Explorer 4, and Windows Update.
o Enhanced multimedia and web integration.
6. 2000 - Windows 2000:
o Designed for business use with better security and networking.
o Introduced NTFS 3.0 and Active Directory.
7. 2001 - Windows XP:
o Known for its stability and user-friendly interface.
o Introduced Remote Desktop, better multimedia handling, and themes.
8. 2007 - Windows Vista:
o Featured the Aero interface, enhanced security with User Account Control
(UAC), and Windows Defender.
o Widely criticized for performance issues.
9. 2009 - Windows 7:
 o Improved performance, taskbar enhancements, and touch-screen support.
o Became one of the most successful Windows versions.
10. 2012 - Windows 8/8.1:
o Introduced the Metro interface with tiles for touch devices.
o Added Windows Store, faster boot times, and better security.
11. 2015 - Windows 10:
o Unified OS across devices with features like Cortana, Edge browser, and Virtual
Desktops.
o Continuous updates through "Windows as a Service."
12. 2021 - Windows 11:
o Modern design with rounded corners, revamped Start menu, and taskbar.
o Focused on gaming, multitasking, and performance improvements.

Notable Features Across Versions

 Multitasking: Introduced with Windows 3.0 and continuously improved.

 Internet Support: Integrated with Windows 95 through Internet Explorer.
 User Security: Enhanced with UAC in Vista and Windows Defender in later versions.
 Gaming: DirectX support since Windows 95, further improved for PC gaming in Windows 10/11.
 Touch & Modern Design: Started with Windows 8, refined in Windows 11.

Each version of Windows has built upon its predecessors to improve usability, security, and compatibility
while adapting to changing technology trends. Let me know if you'd like details on a specific version or
feature!

BASICS OF WINDOWS

1. Introduction to Windows

Windows is designed to manage hardware and software, providing a user-friendly platform for performing
various tasks. The current versions include features for productivity, multimedia, gaming, and connectivity.

2. Key Features of Windows

 Graphical User Interface (GUI): Allows users to interact with the computer using icons,
windows, menus, and buttons.
 Start Menu: The central hub for accessing applications, settings, and files.
 Taskbar: Shows open applications, provides shortcuts, and includes the system clock.
  File Explorer: A tool to navigate and manage files and folders.
 Search Functionality: Enables users to quickly find files, applications, or system settings.
 Settings Panel: Offers control over system preferences like display, sound, and network.

3. Basic Operations

 Starting the Computer: Turn on the computer, and Windows boots up to the login screen.
 Logging In: Enter your username and password (if set).
 Shutting Down/Restarting: Go to the Start menu > Power button for options.
 Opening Applications: Use the Start menu or taskbar, or double-click icons on the desktop.
 Switching Between Applications: Use the taskbar or press Alt + Tab.

4. File and Folder Management

 Create New Files/Folders: Right-click > New > Choose File Type or Folder.
 Copy/Move Files: Use drag-and-drop, or right-click > Copy/Cut > Paste.
 Rename: Right-click on a file/folder > Rename.
 Delete: Right-click > Delete (sends to the Recycle Bin, where you can restore it).

5. Common Keyboard Shortcuts

 Ctrl + C / Ctrl + V: Copy and paste.

 Ctrl + X: Cut.
 Ctrl + Z / Ctrl + Y: Undo/Redo.
 Alt + Tab: Switch between open applications.
 Windows Key + D: Show the desktop.
 Windows Key + E: Open File Explorer.

6. Customization

 Change Background: Settings > Personalization > Background.

 Adjust Screen Brightness: Settings > System > Display.
 Add/Remove Applications: Settings > Apps > Installed Apps.

7. Troubleshooting Basics

 Task Manager: Press Ctrl + Shift + Esc to view running programs and processes.
 Restarting Applications: If an app is unresponsive, end it in Task Manager and reopen it.
  Updates: Keep Windows up to date via Settings > Update & Security.

WINDOWS CONCEPTS

1. Desktop and GUI

 Desktop: The main screen where you see icons, the taskbar, and the start menu.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI): Windows uses visual elements like icons, buttons, and menus to
allow interaction without text commands.

2. File System

 Drives: Storage units like C: (primary drive), D:, etc.

 Files and Folders: Windows organizes data into files stored in folders for easy management.
 NTFS (New Technology File System): The default file system supporting large files, encryption, and
security.

3. Start Menu and Taskbar

 Start Menu: Access installed programs, settings, and search.

 Taskbar: Displays open applications, pinned shortcuts, and the notification area.

4. Control Panel and Settings

 Control Panel: Manage hardware, software, network settings, and system preferences (phasing out in
favor of Settings in recent versions).
 Settings App: A modern interface for managing system configurations.

5. Windows Explorer/File Explorer

 File Explorer is the tool for navigating and managing files and folders.

6. User Accounts and Security

 User Accounts: Profiles to keep personal data and settings separate.

 Administrator Account: A user account with full access to the system.
 Security Features: Includes Windows Defender, firewall, and user access control.

7. Networking
  Network and Sharing Center: Used for managing internet connections, LAN, and Wi-Fi.
 Workgroup and Domains: Workgroup is for peer-to-peer networks, and domains are for client-server
environments.

8. Command Line and PowerShell

 Command Prompt (cmd): Execute text-based commands.

 PowerShell: Advanced scripting for automating tasks.

9. Applications and Windows Store

 Install and run applications, including traditional desktop apps and modern apps from the Microsoft
Store.

10. System Utilities

 Task Manager: Monitor processes, performance, and resource usage.

 Disk Management: Manage partitions, format drives, and assign drive letters.
 Event Viewer: Check logs for troubleshooting errors.

11. Virtualization

 Hyper-V: Built-in virtualization tool for running virtual machines.

12. Updates and Support

 Windows Update: Keeps the system up to date with security patches and feature
updates.
 Support: Help via the Microsoft website, forums, or local IT.

13. Versions of Windows

 Ranges from Windows 1.0 to modern versions like Windows 11.

 Each version adds new features, performance improvements, and updated interfaces.

WINDOWS STRUCTURE

DESKTOP
 The Desktop is the primary workspace in the Windows operating system.

 Features:
o Icons: Shortcuts to files, folders, or applications.
o Wallpaper: The background image or color displayed behind icons.
o Context Menu: Right-clicking provides options such as "View," "Sort by," and
"Personalize."
o Widgets (Windows 10/11): Quick access to news, weather, and other customizable
content.

TASKBAR

The Taskbar is a horizontal (or sometimes vertical) bar at the bottom (default) of the screen.

 Features:
o Start Button: Access to the Start Menu.
o Pinned Applications: Frequently used apps can be pinned for quick access.
o Open Applications: Displays running applications with active window previews.
o System Tray: Icons for system controls like volume, network, battery, and
notifications.
o Search Bar (Windows 10/11): Quick search tool for files, apps, or web results.
o Virtual Desktops: Toggle between multiple desktop environments (Windows
10/11).

START MENU

The Start Menu is the central hub for accessing applications, settings, and files.

 Features:
o Search Bar: Quickly locate apps, files, or settings.
o Pinned Applications/Live Tiles: Provides shortcuts to apps (tiles are more common
in Windows 10).
o All Apps List: Displays all installed applications in alphabetical order.
o User Profile Options: Allows signing out, locking, or switching users.
o Power Options: Sleep, restart, and shut down the system.

WORKING WITH FILES & FOLDERS

Working with files and folders in the Windows operating system involves a variety of tasks such as
creating, organizing, searching, and managing data. Here’s an overview of common actions you can
perform:

1. Accessing Files and Folders

 File Explorer: Use the File Explorer application to browse files and folders. Open it by pressing
Windows + E.

 Search: Use the search bar in the taskbar or File Explorer to locate files by name or keyword.

2. Creating Files and Folders

 New Folder: Right-click in a directory > Select New>Folder. Rename as needed.

 New File: Open an application (e.g., Word, Notepad) and save the file in your desired location
using Ctrl + S.

3. Managing Files and Folders

 Rename: Right-click the item > Select Rename or press F2.

 Move/Copy: Drag files/folders to a new location or use Ctrl + X (cut), Ctrl + C (copy), and
Ctrl + V (paste).
 Delete: Right-click > Select Delete, or press Delete. Files go to the Recycle Bin unless
permanently deleted with Shift + Delete.

4. Organizing

 Sorting: In File Explorer, click column headers (e.g., Name, Date Modified) to sort.
 Grouping: Right-click > Select Group by (e.g., Type, Date).
 Folders: Use folders and subfolders to logically categorize files.

5. File Properties

 Right-click a file/folder > Select Properties to view or edit:

o File Size
o Creation/Modification Date
o Read-Only or Hidden Attributes

6. Searching
  Use the search bar in File Explorer for specific keywords.
 Use Advanced Search Options:
o File type: type:.pdf
o Size: size:>10MB
o Date modified: datemodified:>01/01/2024

7. Shortcuts

 Create Shortcut: Right-click a file/folder > Select Create shortcut to place a shortcut on the
Desktop or another location.
 Common keyboard shortcuts:
o Ctrl + A: Select all items.
o Alt + Enter: Open properties.
o Ctrl + Z: Undo the last action.

8. Sharing Files

 Within the Network: Right-click > Select Give access to>Specific people.
 Cloud Sharing: Use services like OneDrive or Google Drive to share files online.

9. File Compression

 Zip Files: Right-click > Select Send to>Compressed (zipped) folder.

 Use tools like WinRAR or 7-Zip for advanced compression needs.

10. Recovering Deleted Files

 Check the Recycle Bin.

 Use Windows' File History feature or third-party recovery software for permanent
deletions.

WORKING WITH RECYCLE BIN RESTORING DELETED FILES

The Recycle Bin in the Windows operating system is a feature that temporarily stores deleted files and
allows you to restore them if needed. Here’s a guide on how to work with the Recycle Bin and restore
deleted files:
Accessing the Recycle Bin

1. Locate the Recycle Bin Icon:

o On the desktop, find the Recycle Bin icon. If it’s not visible, right-click on the
desktop, select Personalize>Themes>Desktop Icon Settings, and enable the
Recycle Bin.
2. Open the Recycle Bin:
o Double-click the Recycle Bin icon to view its contents.

Restoring Deleted Files

1. Identify the File(s):

o Browse through the files in the Recycle Bin. Use the search bar at the top-right if
you remember the name of the file.
2. Select the File(s):
o Click on the file to select it. Hold Ctrl and click to select multiple files.
3. Restore the File(s):
o Right-click the selected file(s) and choose Restore. The file will return to its
original location.

Restoring Files Without Opening the Recycle Bin

1. Shortcut Method:
o If you accidentally deleted a file, press Ctrl + Z immediately to undo the action.
2. Context Menu:
o Right-click on the desktop or folder and select Undo Delete.

Emptying the Recycle Bin

 To permanently delete files:

1. Right-click on the Recycle Bin icon.
2. Choose Empty Recycle Bin. Be cautious, as this action is irreversible.

Recovering Files After Emptying the Recycle Bin

If you’ve emptied the Recycle Bin but need a file back, recovery tools might help:
 1. Windows Backup:
o If you’ve enabled File History or created a backup, restore the file from there.
2. Third-Party Recovery Software:
o Tools like Recuva, EaseUS Data Recovery Wizard, or Disk Drill can help
recover permanently deleted files.

Preventing Accidental Deletion

1. Confirmation Prompt:
o Right-click the Recycle Bin icon >Properties> Check Display delete
confirmation dialog.
2. Increase Recycle Bin Size:
o In the Recycle Bin properties, you can allocate more storage to keep deleted files
longer.

WINDOWS EXPLOLER

Windows Explorer (now called File Explorer in recent versions of Windows) is a file management
application that allows users to browse, access, manage, and organize files and folders on a computer
running the Windows operating system. It provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for interacting
with the file system, making it easier to navigate through directories and files.

Key features of Windows Explorer/File Explorer include:

1. Navigation Pane: Located on the left side, it allows users to quickly access libraries (Documents,
Pictures, etc.), drives, network locations, and frequently used folders.
2. Address Bar: Shows the path of the current folder you're in and allows quick navigation by typing
or clicking on parts of the path.
3. File and Folder Management: You can create, delete, copy, paste, and move files and folders. It
also allows renaming and searching files.
4. File Previews: In certain views, File Explorer can display previews of files, like images,
documents, and videos.
5. Search Function: Located at the top-right, it allows searching for files and folders within the
current directory or the entire computer.
6. Ribbon Interface: In versions like Windows 8 and Windows 10, File Explorer uses a ribbon
interface similar to Microsoft Office programs, providing quick access to common tasks (copy,
paste, properties, etc.).
 7. Context Menus: Right-clicking on files or folders brings up a context menu with additional
options like opening, copying, deleting, or opening properties.
8. Library System: Allows users to group files from different locations under a single folder view
(Documents, Music, Videos, etc.).
9. Network Sharing: It can access files and folders on other devices connected to the same network.
10. File Properties: You can right-click on a file or folder and select "Properties" to view detailed
information, such as size, creation date, and permissions.

In Windows 11 and later, Microsoft has continued to refine File Explorer's interface, adding features like
tabs (for multi-folder browsing) and a more modern, simplified design.

WINDOWS ACCESSORIES

Windows operating systems come with a variety of built-in accessory programs designed to enhance
user productivity and help with system maintenance. These tools are often lightweight and provide
basic functionality for everyday tasks.

Below are some common Windows Accessories:

1. Notepad – A simple text editor that allows you to create and edit plain text files without
formatting.
2. WordPad – A more advanced text editor compared to Notepad, offering basic word processing
capabilities, such as font formatting and image insertion.
3. Paint – A basic graphics editor for creating and editing images. It supports simple drawing and
editing tasks, including cropping and resizing.
4. Snipping Tool/Snippet & Sketch – Tools for capturing screenshots of your screen or specific
windows, with basic annotation capabilities.
5. Calculator – A simple calculator application with basic, scientific, and programmer modes.
6. Character Map – Allows users to view and insert special characters that are not on the standard
keyboard.
7. Disk Cleanup – Helps to free up space on the hard drive by deleting unnecessary files like system
files, temporary files, and browser cache.
8. Windows Media Player – A media player for playing audio and video files. (Note: It has been
replaced by Groove Music and Movies & TV in newer versions of Windows.)
9. File Explorer – The file management tool used to browse and organize files and folders on your
computer.
 10. Sticky Notes – A digital note-taking app that allows users to quickly create and manage virtual
sticky notes on the desktop.
11. Sound Recorder/Voice Recorder – A simple tool to record audio using your computer’s
microphone.
12. Task Scheduler – Allows users to schedule tasks and programs to run at specified times or after
certain events.
13. Windows Fax and Scan – A utility for scanning documents or sending/receiving faxes, typically
used with fax-capable devices.
14. Remote Desktop Connection – A tool that enables users to connect to and control another
computer remotely over a network.
15. Magnifier – A screen magnifier that helps users with visual impairments by enlarging parts of the
screen.
16. Narrator – A screen reader that reads aloud the content on the screen, designed for users with
visual impairments.

These accessories are accessible through the Start Menu, Windows Settings, or the Search Bar in most
versions of Windows. They provide a convenient way to handle everyday tasks without needing third-
party software.

CONTROL PANEL

The Control Panel in the Windows operating system is a system utility that allows users to configure and
manage various settings and features of the computer. It provides access to a wide range of settings, such
as hardware, software, user accounts, security, network connections, and more.

Key Sections of the Control Panel:

1. System and Security:

o System: View basic information about your computer, such as the processor,
RAM, and Windows version.
o Security and Maintenance: Manage security settings, including antivirus
protection and system updates.
o Windows Defender Firewall: Configure firewall settings.
o Backup and Restore: Set up system backups.
2. Network and Internet:
o Network and Sharing Center: Manage network connections and settings.
 o Internet Options: Set default web browser settings, privacy, and security for
browsing.
o HomeGroup: Set up a network for sharing files between computers.
3. Hardware and Sound:
o Devices and Printers: Manage connected devices like printers, keyboards, and
mouse.
o Sound: Configure sound settings, including input and output devices.
o Power Options: Manage power plans and battery settings.
o AutoPlay: Configure settings for what happens when media is inserted (e.g.,
DVDs, USB drives).
4. Programs:
o Programs and Features: Uninstall or change installed programs.
o Default Programs: Set default programs for email, web browsing, and other
activities.
o Windows Features: Turn Windows features on or off.
5. User Accounts:
o User Accounts: Manage user accounts, passwords, and account types.
o Credential Manager: Store and manage login credentials for websites and
applications.
6. Appearance and Personalization:
o Personalization: Change desktop background, screen saver, and window color.
o Display: Adjust screen resolution, orientation, and scaling.
o Taskbar and Navigation: Customize taskbar settings and how Windows behaves
with multiple monitors.
7. Clock and Region:
o Date and Time: Set the computer’s clock, time zone, and synchronize with an
online time server.
o Region: Configure regional settings like language and formats for date, time, and
currency.
8. Ease of Access:
o Ease of Access Center: Configure settings for users with disabilities, such as
magnifier, narrator, and high contrast themes.
o Speech Recognition: Set up and configure speech-to-text features.
9. Privacy:
 o Privacy Settings: Control what information apps can access (location, contacts,
camera, etc.).
10. Windows Updates:
o Windows Update: Manage system updates, including checking for new updates
and configuring automatic update behavior.

Accessing the Control Panel:

 Windows 10/11: You can access the Control Panel by typing “Control Panel” in the Start
menu search bar and selecting the app.
 Alternatively: Press Windows + R, type control, and press Enter to open it directly.

PRINT MANAGER & INSTALLING PRINTER

1. Accessing the Print Manager

The Print Manager allows you to manage print jobs, troubleshoot issues, and configure printer
settings.

Steps to Access Print Manager:

1. Windows 10/11:
o Press Win + S and search for Control Panel.
o Go to Devices and Printers.
o Alternatively, open Settings>Bluetooth & devices>Printers & scanners.
2. Locate your printer in the list. Right-click it to view the queue or manage settings.
3. To see all print jobs:
o Open the Run dialog (Win + R).
o Type control printers and press Enter.
o Double-click a printer to open its queue.

2. Installing a Printer

You can install a printer using various methods, such as USB, Wi-Fi, or a network.

Installing via USB:

1. Connect the printer to your computer using a USB cable.

 2. Windows will automatically detect and attempt to install the necessary drivers.
3. If prompted, follow the on-screen instructions to complete the setup.

Installing a Network or Wi-Fi Printer:

1. Via Settings:
o Go to Settings>Bluetooth & devices>Printers & scanners.
o Click Add a printer or scanner.
o Windows will search for available printers.
o Select your printer from the list and follow the setup prompts.
2. Manual Installation:
o If the printer isn’t detected, click The printer that I want isn’t listed.
o Choose one of the following options based on your network setup:
 Add a printer using a TCP/IP address or hostname.
 Add a shared printer by name.
o Enter the printer’s IP address or network name, then follow the instructions.

Installing with Drivers (from Manufacturer):

1. Visit the printer manufacturer’s website (e.g., HP, Epson, Canon) to download the latest
drivers.
2. Run the downloaded file and follow the installation steps.
3. During installation, choose whether the printer will be connected via USB or network.

3. Managing Printers:

1. Set as Default Printer:

o Go to Control Panel>Devices and Printers.
o Right-click the desired printer and select Set as default printer.
2. View or Cancel Print Jobs:
o Open the Print Manager.
o Double-click your printer to view the queue.
o Right-click a job to pause, restart, or cancel it.
3. Printer Properties:
o Access settings like paper size, print quality, and sharing options.
o Right-click the printer and choose Printer properties.
Troubleshooting:

1. Printer Not Found:

o Ensure the printer is powered on and connected to the computer/network.
o Restart the printer and computer.
o Update drivers from the manufacturer’s website.
2. Print Jobs Stuck in Queue:
o Open the Print Manager, cancel the stuck job, and restart the spooler service:
 Press Win + R, type services.msc, and locate Print Spooler.
 Right-click Print Spooler, choose Restart.
3. Connectivity Issues:
o For Wi-Fi printers, check the network connection.
o Re-enter the printer’s Wi-Fi credentials if necessary.

MY COMPUTER

"My Computer" (renamed This PC in modern Windows versions like Windows 8 and later) is a
feature in the Windows operating system that provides a centralized location to access your
computer's resources. It is a part of the graphical user interface designed for easy navigation and
management of files, folders, and hardware connected to the system.

Key Features of "My Computer"/"This PC":

1. Access Drives:
o Displays all local storage drives (like C:, D:) and removable devices (e.g., USB drives,
DVDs).
o Includes network drives if connected to a network.
2. File Management:
o Allows you to browse and manage files and folders stored on your computer.
o Includes options to copy, move, delete, or organize your files.
3. Device Management:
o Provides shortcuts to connected devices like printers, external hard drives, and
phones.
 4. System Information:
o Shows properties of the computer, such as available storage space, RAM,
processor type, and system type.
5. Search:
o Built-in search functionality for quickly finding files or folders.
6. Quick Access to Common Folders:
o Direct links to folders like Documents, Pictures, Downloads, and Desktop.

How to Open "My Computer" or "This PC":

1. From the Desktop:

o Double-click on the "My Computer" or "This PC" icon, if present.
2. Using File Explorer:
o Press Windows Key + E to open File Explorer. The default view usually displays
"This PC".
3. From the Start Menu:
o Search for "This PC" or "My Computer" in the Start Menu search bar.
4. Run Command:
o Press Windows Key + R, type explorer, and press Enter.

MEDIA PLAYER

A media player in the Windows operating system is a software application used for playing audio,
video, and other multimedia files. Windows typically comes with built-in media players, but users can
also install third-party options for additional features or compatibility.

Built-in Media Players in Windows:

1. Windows Media Player (WMP):

o Pre-installed in older versions of Windows (up to Windows 10).
o Plays audio, video, and image files.
o Supports common formats like MP3, WMA, WMV, AVI, etc.
o Features playlists, CD ripping, and media library organization.
2. Groove Music:
o Focused on audio playback.
o Comes with Windows 10 and 11.
o Integrates with OneDrive for cloud-based music playback.
 3. Movies & TV (or Films & TV):
o A video player bundled with Windows 10 and 11.
o Plays local video files and supports streaming from the Microsoft Store.
4. Media Player (new in Windows 11):
o Replaces Groove Music and partially Windows Media Player.
o Unified experience for both audio and video playback.
o Modern design and features like library organization and playlist creation.

Third-Party Media Players:

Many users prefer third-party media players for their advanced features or broader format
support:

1. VLC Media Player:

o Free, open-source, and highly versatile.
o Plays almost any media format without additional codecs.
o Includes advanced features like streaming and subtitle support.
2. KMPlayer:
o Supports high-quality playback, including 4K and 3D.
o Offers extensive subtitle options.
3. PotPlayer:
o Lightweight and feature-rich.
o Highly customizable with various skins and settings.
4. Media Player Classic (MPC):
o Lightweight and resembles the classic Windows Media Player design.
o Versions like MPC-HC and MPC-BE are widely used.

Key Features of Media Players:

 Support for various file formats (MP3, MP4, MKV, AVI, WMV, FLAC, etc.).
 Subtitle support.
 Streaming capabilities.
 Customization options (skins, themes, equalizer settings).
 Library management and playlist creation.

SOUND RECORDER
 The Sound Recorder in Windows operating systems is a built-in utility used to record audio.
Over the years, it has evolved across different Windows versions, offering varied features:

Key Features of Sound Recorder:

1. Audio Recording:
It allows users to record audio using a microphone or other audio input devices.
2. Basic Editing:
Some versions of Sound Recorder let you trim audio, but it is primarily a lightweight
tool.
3. Formats Supported:
o Earlier versions saved files in formats like WAV.
o Newer versions (like in Windows 10/11) save files in M4A format.
4. Simple UI:
It's designed for quick and straightforward audio recording tasks without the need for
advanced technical knowledge.

Accessing Sound Recorder:

 Windows XP/7:
1. Go to the Start menu.
2. Search for "Sound Recorder."
3. Click the app to open it.
 Windows 10/11 (Voice Recorder App):
1. Search for "Voice Recorder" in the Start menu.
2. Click the app to launch.
The Voice Recorder is the modern replacement for the Sound Recorder in newer
Windows versions.

Steps to Record Audio:

1. Open Sound Recorder/Voice Recorder.

2. Click the Record button (red circle).
3. Speak or play the audio you want to capture.
4. Press the Stop button when done.
5. Save the file to a desired location.
VOLUME CONTROL

Volume control in the Windows operating system allows users to adjust the audio output levels for the
entire system or specific applications. Here's how it works and the options available:

Accessing Volume Control

1. Taskbar Volume Icon

o Click the speaker icon in the system tray (bottom-right corner of the screen).
o Drag the slider up or down to adjust the system's master volume.
2. Keyboard Shortcuts
o Most laptops and keyboards have dedicated volume keys (e.g., Volume Up,
Volume Down, Mute).
o Function keys (e.g., Fn + F2/F3) may control volume on some devices.
3. Settings Menu
o Open Settings>System>Sound.
o Adjust the master volume and select input/output devices.

Volume Mixer

The Volume Mixer allows for individual volume control for different applications:

1. Open the Volume Mixer:

o Right-click the speaker icon in the taskbar and select Open Volume Mixer.
2. Adjust App Volumes:
o Adjust sliders for specific applications without affecting the master volume.

Advanced Sound Settings

1. App-Specific Output:
o Navigate to Settings>System>Sound>Advanced sound options (App volume
and device preferences).
o Assign different audio output/input devices to specific applications.
2. Spatial Sound:
o Enable spatial sound for enhanced audio experiences (e.g., Windows Sonic for
Headphones, Dolby Atmos).

Troubleshooting Common Issues

 1. No Sound:
o Check if the output device is properly connected and selected.
o Verify that the volume isn’t muted or too low.
2. Volume Keys Not Working:
o Install or update the audio driver.
o Ensure no third-party software conflicts.
3. Per-App Volume Not Saving:
o Verify app permissions or update Windows to the latest version.

Volume control in Windows is user-friendly and customizable, catering to both basic and
advanced audio preferences.

ADVANCED FEATURE OF WINDOWS

Windows operating systems come with advanced features designed to enhance productivity, security,
and user experience. Here are some notable advanced features:

1. Virtual Desktops (Task View)

 Feature: Allows you to create and manage multiple desktops.

 Benefits: Useful for multitasking and organizing workspaces by separating personal,
work, or project-related applications.

2. Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL)

 Feature: Enables running Linux distributions natively on Windows.

 Benefits: Provides developers with a Linux-like environment without needing dual-
booting or virtual machines.

3. BitLocker Drive Encryption

 Feature: Encrypts entire drives to protect sensitive data.

 Benefits: Enhanced security for personal and business data, especially on portable
devices.

4. Hyper-V (Windows Pro and Enterprise)

 Feature: Built-in virtualization platform.

  Benefits: Run multiple operating systems or virtual machines on one system for testing
or development.

5. Windows Hello

 Feature: Biometric authentication using facial recognition, fingerprint scanning, or PIN.

 Benefits: Faster, secure, and password-free sign-ins.

6. Advanced File Management (OneDrive Integration)

 Feature: Seamless cloud storage integration with OneDrive.

 Benefits: Access files across devices, real-time collaboration, and automatic backup.

7. Power Automate Desktop

 Feature: Automates repetitive tasks using a drag-and-drop interface.

 Benefits: Boosts productivity by automating workflows without extensive coding
knowledge.

8. DirectStorage

 Feature: Designed to improve game loading times and performance.

 Benefits: Leverages high-speed NVMe SSDs to reduce latency in gaming.

9. Snap Layouts and Snap Groups (Windows 11)

 Feature: Enhanced window management tools for arranging applications.

 Benefits: Improved multitasking with customizable layouts and easy group management.

10. Advanced Security Features

 Features:
o Windows Defender Application Guard: Isolates untrusted websites or
applications.
o Secure Boot: Protects the boot process against malware.
o Windows Sandbox: Provides a secure, disposable environment for testing apps.
 Benefits: Safeguards against cyber threats and ensures system integrity.

11. Dynamic Refresh Rate (Windows 11)

  Feature: Adjusts screen refresh rate based on activity.
 Benefits: Optimizes power consumption and improves display quality.

12. Focus Sessions

 Feature: Combines a timer with Spotify and Microsoft To-Do.

 Benefits: Enhances productivity by minimizing distractions and promoting time
management.

13. Advanced Accessibility Options

 Features: Narrator, Eye Control, Voice Typing, and Live Captions.

 Benefits: Improves usability for individuals with disabilities.

14. Remote Desktop

 Feature: Connects to a computer remotely over a network.

 Benefits: Access files, applications, and systems from anywhere.

15. Windows Defender Advanced Threat Protection (ATP)

 Feature: Monitors and responds to potential threats in real-time.

 Benefits: Enterprise-grade security with threat detection and prevention.

These features highlight the versatility of Windows as both a personal and professional operating
system.

MANAGING HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Managing hardware and software in a Windows operating system involves overseeing the installation,
configuration, maintenance, and troubleshooting of system components.

1. Managing Hardware

a. Device Installation

 Plug and Play: Most modern hardware is automatically detected and configured by
Windows when connected.
  Device Drivers: Ensure the appropriate drivers are installed for hardware components to
function correctly. Drivers can be updated via:
o Device Manager: Windows + X → Device Manager.
o Manufacturer's website or Windows Update.

b. Device Manager

 Access: Right-click the Start menu and select Device Manager.

 Functions:
o View installed hardware components.
o Update, roll back, or uninstall drivers.
o Enable or disable devices.
o Troubleshoot hardware with error codes.

c. Peripheral Management

 Printers, scanners, and other peripherals can be managed via:

o Settings → Devices → Printers & scanners.
o Ensure peripherals are compatible and drivers are installed.

d. System Monitoring

 Use tools like Task Manager and Performance Monitor to monitor hardware
performance.
 Access Task Manager: Ctrl + Shift + Esc.
 For detailed monitoring: Run → perfmon.

2. Managing Software

a. Installing and Uninstalling Software

 Install:
o Use the Microsoft Store for trusted apps.
o For third-party software, download from official websites.
 Uninstall:
o Settings → Apps → Apps & features.
o Or use Control Panel → Programs → Uninstall a Program.

b. Updating Software
  Regular updates keep software secure and functional:
o Windows Update: Automatically or manually update system software.
o Update third-party software via their in-built updater or the developer's website.

c. Managing Default Applications

 Set default apps for specific file types:

o Settings → Apps → Default apps.

d. Application Management

 Use Task Manager to monitor and end unresponsive programs:

o Ctrl + Shift + Esc → Processes tab.

 Configure startup apps to improve system performance:

o Task Manager → Startup tab.

3. File and Disk Management

 Disk Management: Create, resize, or delete disk partitions.

o Run → diskmgmt.msc.

 File Explorer: Organize and manage files.

 Use tools like Disk Cleanup and Defragment and Optimize Drives to maintain disk
health.

4. System Maintenance Tools

 System Restore: Roll back to a previous state if issues arise.

o Control Panel → System → System Protection .

 Windows Security: Manage antivirus and firewall settings.

o Settings → Update & Security → Windows Security.
 PowerShell/Command Prompt: Advanced management tasks.
o Example: sfc /scannow to repair system files.

5. User Account and Permissions Management

 Use Settings → Accounts to manage user accounts.

 Assign appropriate privileges:
o Standard user for everyday use.
 o Administrator for installing software or changing system settings.

6. Troubleshooting

 Use built-in troubleshooters:

o Settings → Update & Security → Troubleshoot.
 Access advanced recovery options via:
o Settings → Update & Security → Recovery.

Managing hardware and software effectively ensures optimal system performance and longevity.

ADD OR REMOVE HARDWARE DEVICE TO/FROM COMPUTER

Adding or removing hardware devices from a computer in a Windows operating system typically
involves using Device Manager, as well as physically connecting or disconnecting the hardware.

Adding a Hardware Device

1. Physically Connect the Hardware:

o For internal components (e.g., RAM, GPU, or hard drives), shut down your
computer and safely connect the hardware according to the manufacturer's
instructions.
o For external devices (e.g., USB drives, printers, or webcams), plug the device into
the appropriate port.
2. Power On Your Computer:
o After connecting the hardware, start your computer. Windows usually detects new
devices automatically.
3. Automatic Driver Installation:
o Windows will attempt to install the required drivers for the hardware. You’ll see a
notification in the bottom-right corner if this happens.
4. Manually Install Drivers (if needed):
o If the device isn't working, download the driver software from the manufacturer’s
website.
o Open the downloaded driver file and follow the on-screen instructions to install it.
5. Verify in Device Manager:
o Right-click on the Start menu and select Device Manager.
 o Look for the new hardware in the appropriate category (e.g., Disk Drives for hard
drives, Display Adapters for GPUs).
o If you see a yellow triangle, the device may need troubleshooting.

Removing a Hardware Device

1. Safely Disconnect External Devices:

o For USB drives or external storage, click the Safely Remove Hardware icon in
the system tray, then select the device before unplugging it.
2. Uninstall the Device from Device Manager (Optional):
o Right-click on Start menu and select Device Manager.
o Locate the device you want to remove.
o Right-click the device and choose Uninstall Device.
o Follow any prompts to complete the uninstallation.
3. Physically Disconnect the Hardware:
o For external devices, unplug the cable or adapter.
o For internal components, power down the computer, open the case, and carefully
disconnect the device.
4. Update System Settings:
o After removing internal hardware, ensure your system boots properly and is
stable.

ADD OR REMOVE PROGRAMS

The "Add or Remove Programs" feature in Windows allows you to manage the installed
software on your computer, including uninstalling programs or repairing them. Here's how to
access and use it:

Accessing Add or Remove Programs

1. Windows 10 and 11:

o Press Windows + I to open Settings.
o Navigate to Apps>Apps & features.
o Here, you'll see a list of installed applications.
2. Windows 7:
o Click on the Start menu.
o Open the Control Panel.
 o Go to Programs>Programs and Features.

Managing Programs

1. Uninstall a Program:
o Find the program in the list.
o Click on it and select Uninstall.
o Follow the on-screen prompts to remove the program.
2. Modify or Repair a Program (if available):
o Select the program in the list.
o If the option is available, choose Modify or Repair.
o Follow the instructions to make changes or fix issues.
3. Sort and Search:
o Use the search bar to quickly locate a program.
o Sort by name, size, or installation date to organize the list.

BACKUP

Backing up data in a Windows operating system is essential to ensure the safety of your files and system
configuration in case of data loss, hardware failure, or malware attacks.

Windows offers several built-in tools and methods for performing backups:

1. File History

File History is a feature for backing up personal files to an external drive or network location.

Steps to Set Up File History:

1. Connect a Backup Drive (e.g., external hard drive or network location).

2. Go to Settings > Update & Security > Backup.
3. Click on Add a drive, and select the connected backup drive.
4. Enable Automatically back up my files.
5. Click More options to customize:
o Frequency of backups.
o Files/folders to back up or exclude.

2. Windows Backup and Restore (System Image)

This tool creates a system image, which is a complete snapshot of your entire system, including
the OS, applications, and files.

Steps to Create a System Image Backup:

1. Go to Control Panel > System and Security > Backup and Restore (Windows 7).
2. Click Create a system image on the left panel.
3. Select a destination (external drive, DVD, or network).
4. Follow the wizard to start the backup.

Restoration:

 Use the same tool or a Windows Recovery Disk to restore from the image.

3. OneDrive (Cloud Backup)

OneDrive offers an easy way to back up important files to the cloud.

Steps to Use OneDrive:

1. Open OneDrive and sign in with your Microsoft account.

2. Move or copy your files to the OneDrive folder on your computer.
3. Files will automatically sync with the cloud, making them accessible from other devices.

4. Third-Party Backup Tools

For more advanced options, you can use third-party tools like:

 Acronis True Image

 Macrium Reflect
 EaseUSTodo Backup

5. Manual Backup

Simply copy your important files to an external storage device or another computer.

6. System Restore Point

Although not a file backup method, creating a system restore point can help recover system
settings and configurations.
 Steps:

1. Go to Control Panel > System > System Protection.

2. Click Create under System Restore.
3. Follow the prompts to save the current system state.

CLIPBOARD VIEWER

In Windows, the Clipboard Viewer was a tool available in older versions of the operating system, like
Windows 3.x and early Windows 95. It allowed users to view the contents of the Windows clipboard,
which could store text, images, files, and other data that had been copied or cut.

However, in modern versions of Windows (Windows 10 and later), the clipboard viewer tool is not
available as a standalone app. Instead, Windows offers clipboard functionality with a more integrated
approach. Here's how you can manage and view clipboard data in newer versions of Windows:

Clipboard History (Windows 10 and later)

Windows 10 and Windows 11 feature a clipboard history function that allows you to access multiple
items you've copied to the clipboard, which can be quite useful for copying and pasting multiple items.

1. Enable Clipboard History:

o Press Win + V to open the clipboard history.
o If clipboard history isn't enabled, you'll be prompted to enable it. Click Turn On.
2. Viewing Clipboard History:
o After enabling clipboard history, press Win + V anytime to view your clipboard
history.
o You can click on any item in the list to paste it.
o Items in the clipboard history can include text, links, images, and more.
3. Sync Across Devices:
o You can sync clipboard history between devices signed into the same Microsoft
account, which is helpful for copying items on one device and pasting them on
another.
4. Clear Clipboard:
o In the clipboard history window, click on the three dots (...) next to an item to
delete it, or click Clear All to erase everything in your clipboard history.

Using Third-Party Clipboard Viewers

 If you're looking for more advanced clipboard management features, you might consider third-
party clipboard viewers or managers. Some popular tools include:

 Ditto: A free and open-source clipboard manager that stores clipboard history, allowing
you to easily view and paste items.
 ClipClip: Another clipboard manager that offers a more visual interface and robust
features like search and file storage.

These tools give you more control and visibility over the data stored in your clipboard.

DISK DEFRAGMENTER

In the Windows operating system, Disk Defragmenter (also known as Optimize Drives) is a utility that
helps improve the performance of your hard disk drive (HDD) by reorganizing fragmented data. When
files are stored on a hard disk, they may not be written sequentially. Over time, as files are modified,
saved, and deleted, parts of files can become scattered across the disk. This fragmentation can slow
down the system, as the disk's read/write head must move to different locations to access a file.

Key Functions of the Disk Defragmenter:

1. Rearranging fragmented files: It rearranges pieces of fragmented files to be stored

contiguously, allowing for faster access.
2. Consolidating free space: It consolidates the free space on the disk, which can prevent
future fragmentation.
3. Improving system performance: Defragmentation can help speed up the system,
especially on older hard drives or when you're working with large files.

Steps to Defragment a Drive in Windows:

1. Open the tool:

o Press Windows + S, type "defragment", and select Defragment and Optimize
Drives.
2. Select the drive:
o In the window, you’ll see a list of available drives (usually C: is the primary
drive). Select the drive you want to defragment.
3. Analyze the drive:
o Click on Analyze to check if the drive needs defragmentation (it will show the
percentage of fragmentation).
 4. Defragment the drive:
o Click on Optimize to start the defragmentation process. The time it takes will
depend on the size of the drive and the level of fragmentation.

SSDs and Defragmentation:

If your system uses a Solid State Drive (SSD), Windows automatically disables traditional
defragmentation for these drives, as they do not experience the same fragmentation issues as HDDs.
Instead, Windows will run a process called "Optimization", which performs tasks like the TRIM
command, helping to maintain the performance of the SSD.

Disk Defragmenter is generally not needed for SSDs but is essential for HDDs to maintain optimal
performance.

DRIVE SPACE

In a Windows operating system, drive space refers to the total storage capacity available on the drives
(like hard drives or solid-state drives) attached to the system, and how much of that storage is being
used versus how much is available.

Key Points about Drive Space:

1. Total Drive Space: The full capacity of the drive (e.g., 500GB, 1TB, etc.).
2. Used Space: The amount of space already occupied by files, applications, system data,
and other content.
3. Free Space: The remaining capacity on the drive that can still be used for storing files.
4. Drive Types:
o C: drive: Typically the primary drive where the operating system is installed.
o Secondary Drives: Additional drives (e.g., D:, E:) that may hold files or
applications.

Checking Drive Space:

You can view the drive space in Windows by:

1. File Explorer:
o Open File Explorer (Windows key + E).
o In the left panel, click This PC to see the available drives.
 o Each drive will display a bar showing used and available space, along with
numerical values.
2. Disk Management:
o Right-click Start and select Disk Management.
o This will show all drives connected to your system, their partitions, and space
usage.
3. Settings (Windows 10/11):
o Go to Settings>System>Storage.
o It gives an overview of used space by category (e.g., apps, system files,
documents).

Managing Drive Space:

 Disk Cleanup: You can use the built-in tool to remove temporary files, system files, and
other unnecessary data.
 Uninstall Programs: Remove unused applications to free up space.
 Move Files: You can move data like videos, documents, and photos to other drives or
external storage.

If you're running low on space, consider upgrading your storage or managing files more
efficiently.

SCANDISK

"Scandisk" is a utility tool in Windows operating systems used to check and repair file system errors on
a storage device (such as a hard drive or flash drive). It scans for and fixes various issues, like bad
sectors, lost clusters, and directory errors, to ensure the system operates smoothly.

In earlier versions of Windows (like Windows 95 and 98), the tool was called "ScanDisk," and it was
run from a command-line interface. In more recent versions of Windows, such as Windows XP and
later, the tool was integrated into the "Check Disk" (CHKDSK) feature, which performs the same tasks.

You can run ScanDisk/CHKDSK by following these steps:

1. Open File Explorer.

2. Right-click the drive you want to check (usually "C:").
3. Select Properties.
4. Go to the Tools tab.
 5. Under Error Checking, click Check (in Windows 10/11).
6. Choose whether to automatically fix file system errors, scan for bad sectors, or both.

Alternatively, you can run it from the command prompt using:

chkdsk /f

This will scan the drive and attempt to fix any detected issues. If you want to scan a different drive,
replace the "C:" with the letter of that drive (e.g., chkdsk D: /f).

SYSTEM INFORMATION WINDOWS UPDATE

In Windows operating systems, Windows Update is a service that manages the distribution of updates
to the OS and its software components. This service is vital for keeping the system up to date, secure,
and performing optimally.

Here are the key aspects of Windows Update:

1. Checking for Updates

 Manually: Go to Settings > Update & Security > Windows Update, then click Check
for updates.
 Automatic Updates: By default, Windows automatically checks for updates and installs
them as soon as they are available.

2. Types of Updates

 Feature Updates: These are large updates that introduce new features and improvements
to the OS. They are typically released twice a year.
 Quality Updates: These include security patches, bug fixes, and minor improvements.
They are released more frequently, often monthly (Patch Tuesday).
 Driver Updates: These updates provide newer versions of hardware drivers to ensure the
hardware components are working correctly with the latest version of Windows.
 Security Updates: These are updates designed to address security vulnerabilities and
ensure your system is protected from threats.

3. Update Settings
  Active Hours: You can set active hours to specify when the device is in use, and
Windows Update will avoid restarting your device during those times.
 Delivery Optimization: This feature allows you to get updates from other PCs on your
local network or even from the internet, reducing download times.

4. Troubleshooting Windows Update

 Windows Update Troubleshooter: If updates aren't working as expected, you can run
the Windows Update Troubleshooter to automatically detect and fix problems.
o Go to Settings > Update & Security > Troubleshoot > Additional
troubleshooters> Windows Update.
 Resetting Windows Update Components: If the troubleshooter doesn't resolve the
issue, you may need to manually reset the update components by stopping services like
Windows Update and Background Intelligent Transfer Service (BITS) and renaming
the folders that store update files.

5. Update History

 You can view a history of installed updates by going to Settings > Update & Security >
Windows Update > View update history.

6. Pause Updates

 You can temporarily pause updates for a limited time (up to 35 days). This is available
under Settings > Update & Security > Windows Update > Pause updates.

7. Windows Update for Business (Enterprise)

 In business environments, administrators can control updates more granularly using tools
like Windows Server Update Services (WSUS) or Microsoft Endpoint Configuration
Manager.

Regular updates are crucial for maintaining the security and performance of your Windows
system.
 UNIT 4
LINUX INTRODUCTION

Linux is a powerful, open-source operating system (OS) widely used for servers, desktops, and embedded
systems. It is based on the Unix model and was initially created by Linus Torvalds in 1991. The Linux OS is
free and distributed under the GNU General Public License, which allows anyone to view, modify, and
distribute the source code.

Key Concepts of Linux:

1. Kernel: The core part of the Linux OS, responsible for interacting with hardware and managing system
resources (e.g., CPU, memory, input/output devices). It is monolithic, meaning it includes many features in
one piece of software.
2. Distributions (Distros): Linux comes in various "distributions" or versions, each with different packages
and user interfaces. Popular distributions include Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian, CentOS, and Arch Linux.
3. Shell: A command-line interface (CLI) that allows users to interact with the system by typing commands.
The most common shell is Bash (Bourne Again Shell).
4. Filesystem: Linux organizes data using a hierarchical filesystem structure, where the root directory ( /) is at
the top, and all other directories (e.g., /home, /etc, /usr) branch from it.
5. Package Management: Linux distros use package managers (e.g., apt for Debian-based distros, yum for
Red Hat-based distros) to install, update, and remove software.
6. Permissions: Linux is a multi-user operating system, meaning different users can have different access
levels. Permissions (read, write, execute) are set for files and directories, and every file or directory has an
owner and associated group.
7. Processes: Linux manages tasks and programs as processes. The OS allows multitasking, and you can
view/process them using commands like ps or top.

Advantages of Linux:

 Open Source: It's free to use, modify, and distribute.

 Stability: Known for its reliability, especially in server environments.
 Security: Linux is considered more secure due to its design, frequent updates, and active community
support.
 Flexibility: Users can customize the OS for specific tasks or environments.
 Community Support: Large and active community offering documentation, forums, and free support.

Common Linux Commands:

 ls: Lists files in a directory.

  cd: Changes the current directory.
 cp: Copies files.
 mv: Moves or renames files.
 rm: Removes files.
 mkdir: Creates a directory.
 chmod: Changes file permissions.
 ps: Displays running processes.
 top: Shows active processes and system resource usage.
 sudo: Executes commands with administrative (root) privileges.

Linux is widely used in various fields like web hosting, cloud computing, software development, data centers,
and personal use. It offers flexibility, scalability, and cost-effectiveness, making it a popular choice for both
businesses and individuals.

ADVANTAGES&FEATURES OF UNIX

Unix is a powerful, multi-user, multitasking operating system used widely in servers, workstations, and
high-performance computing environments. Here are some key advantages and features:

Advantages of Unix:

1. Multiuser Capability: Unix supports multiple users simultaneously. It ensures that the system resources
are shared efficiently, allowing different users to work on the system without interfering with each other.
2. Multitasking: Unix is designed for multitasking, meaning it can execute multiple processes at the same
time, which is essential for servers and high-performance systems.
3. Portability: Unix is highly portable, which means it can run on almost any hardware platform with
minimal modification. This is because Unix source code is written in C, making it easier to move from
one system to another.
4. Security and Permissions: Unix provides robust security mechanisms. Users and processes are assigned
permissions, ensuring that access to files, devices, and commands is tightly controlled. It uses a role-
based access control system.
5. Stability and Reliability: Unix systems are known for their stability and are capable of running for
extended periods without crashing. It's used in environments where uptime is critical.
6. Networking: Unix has built-in networking capabilities, making it suitable for large-scale networking
operations. It supports protocols like TCP/IP, enabling communication over local networks and the
internet.
 7. Open Source (Unix-like systems): While traditional Unix is proprietary, many Unix-like systems (e.g.,
Linux, BSD) are open-source, meaning the source code is available for free and can be modified by
anyone.
8. File System Hierarchy: Unix uses a hierarchical file system that organizes files in directories, making it
easier to manage data. It has a well-structured directory system with logical naming conventions.
9. Command Line Interface (CLI): Unix offers a powerful command-line interface for experienced users
and system administrators. The CLI provides high-level control over the system and can be automated
with scripts.
10. Strong Community Support: Unix, and its derivatives (Linux, BSD), have large, active communities
that provide support, documentation, and updates.

Features of Unix:

1. Kernel: The kernel is the core part of Unix, responsible for managing system resources and allowing
communication between hardware and software.
2. Shell: The shell is an interface between the user and the kernel. It can be command-line based (CLI) or
graphical (GUI). Popular Unix shells include bash, ksh, and zsh.
3. Processes: Unix allows the execution of multiple processes simultaneously, and each process can run in
its own memory space.
4. Virtual Memory: Unix uses virtual memory management to give each process the illusion of having its
own memory, enabling efficient resource management.
5. Pipes and Filters: Unix allows the output of one command to be used as the input for another, creating
powerful chains of command (pipes). Filters process data (e.g., grep, awk, sed) in a stream.
6. Text-based Configuration: Unix typically uses text files for configuration, which makes it easier to
manage and customize.
7. Utilities: Unix comes with a wide range of small, single-purpose utilities that can be combined in scripts
or used interactively to perform complex tasks.
8. File System Support: Unix supports various file systems like ext4, UFS, and ZFS. It also supports
mounting multiple file systems at once.
9. Inter-process Communication (IPC): Unix supports several mechanisms for processes to communicate,
including pipes, message queues, and shared memory.
10. User Management: Unix has built-in tools for managing users, groups, and their permissions, providing
system administrators with full control over user access to system resources.

These advantages and features contribute to the widespread use of Unix and Unix-like systems in enterprise
environments, academia, and various industries.
BASIC ARCHITECTURE OF UNIX/LINUX SYSTEM

The basic architecture of a UNIX/Linux system can be broken down into several key components that work
together to provide the functionality of the operating system.

These components include:

1. Kernel

 The kernel is the core of the UNIX/Linux operating system. It is responsible for managing system
resources such as CPU, memory, device input/output, and process management.
 The kernel is loaded into memory at system boot and interacts directly with the hardware. It serves as
an intermediary between the hardware and software applications.
 The kernel provides services such as system calls, memory management, file system management,
process scheduling, and security.

2. Shell

 The shell is a command-line interface (CLI) that allows users to interact with the operating system by
entering commands. It is the user interface that interprets the commands typed by the user and
translates them into actions that the kernel can perform.
 Examples of shells include Bash, Zsh, and Tcsh.
 The shell also provides scripting capabilities to automate tasks.

3. File System

 The file system organizes and stores data on disk drives and other storage devices. UNIX/Linux uses a
hierarchical directory structure, where files and directories are organized in a tree-like manner.
 Key features of the file system include:
o Inodes: Data structures that store metadata about files, such as file size, owner, permissions, and
location on disk.
o Virtual File System (VFS): A layer that provides a common interface for accessing different
types of file systems (e.g., ext4, NFS).

4. System Libraries

 System libraries provide a set of pre-written functions that programs can call to perform various tasks,
such as file operations, memory management, and process control.
  These libraries allow programs to interact with the kernel without needing to write low-level code.
Common libraries include the C library (glibc).

5. System Utilities

 System utilities are programs that perform various system tasks, such as file manipulation,
networking, user management, and process monitoring.
 Examples include commands like ls, cp, ps, top, and grep.

6. Hardware

 The hardware consists of the physical components of the system, including the CPU, memory,
storage devices, and input/output devices.
 The kernel interacts with hardware through device drivers, which are specialized programs that enable
the kernel to communicate with hardware devices.

7. User Space

 User space is the part of memory where user applications and processes run, as opposed to kernel
space, which is reserved for the kernel itself.
 Applications like web browsers, text editors, and database servers run in user space and interact with
the kernel and system libraries through system calls.

8. Process Management

 The process management component is responsible for creating, scheduling, and terminating
processes. Each running program is associated with a process that has a unique process ID (PID).
 The kernel uses scheduling algorithms to allocate CPU time to processes based on priorities and
resource requirements.

9. Device Drivers

 Device drivers are software components that allow the operating system to communicate with
hardware devices, such as printers, disks, and network interfaces. Drivers abstract the details of
hardware from user-level applications and system utilities.

Architecture Overview:
  The kernel is the central component, providing the core functionality and interacting directly with the
hardware.
 The shell acts as the user interface to the kernel.
 System libraries and utilities provide a higher level of abstraction for interacting with the system.
 User applications run in user space, interacting with the kernel and libraries to perform tasks.

This modular and layered structure provides flexibility, efficiency, and security in the UNIX/Linux operating
system.

LINUX FILE SYSTEM

The Linux file system is a hierarchical structure that organizes and stores files and directories on a computer's
storage device. It follows a tree-like structure with the root directory ( /) at the top, which branches out to
other directories, each serving a specific purpose.

Here’s a breakdown of key components of the Linux file system:

1. Root Directory /

 The starting point of the file system.

 Every file and directory is part of the root hierarchy.
 It contains all other directories.

2. Common Directories in Linux File System

 /bin: Contains essential binary files (executables) required for system operation (e.g., ls, cp, mv).
 /boot: Contains files needed for booting the system, such as the boot loader and kernel images.
 /dev: Contains device files representing hardware devices (e.g., /dev/sda for a hard drive).
 /etc: Contains configuration files for the system and installed programs (e.g., /etc/passwd for
user info).
 /home: Home directories for regular users, where personal files and settings are stored (e.g.,
/home/user1).

 /lib: Contains shared libraries needed by the binaries in /bin and /sbin.
 /media: Mount point for removable media such as USB drives, CD/DVD drives.
 /mnt: Temporary mount point for mounting filesystems, typically used by system administrators.
 /opt: Optional application software packages, typically third-party software.
  /proc: A virtual filesystem that provides process and kernel information (e.g., /proc/cpuinfo).
 /root: Home directory of the root user (administrator).
 /sbin: Contains system binaries essential for system maintenance (e.g., fsck, shutdown).
 /srv: Data for services provided by the system (e.g., web server data).
 /sys: A virtual filesystem that provides information about the system's hardware and devices.
 /tmp: Temporary files that are cleared on reboot.
 /usr: Contains user binaries, libraries, documentation, and source code. It is subdivided into
/usr/bin, /usr/lib, and /usr/share.
 /var: Variable data files, such as logs, databases, and email.

3. File Types

 Regular Files: Contain user data, text, programs, etc.

 Directories: Contain files or other directories.
 Symbolic Links: Point to other files or directories (like shortcuts in Windows).
 Special Files: Used to represent devices or communication channels (e.g., /dev/sda for
storage devices).

4. File Permissions

Each file and directory has permissions that control access. The permissions include:

 Owner: The user who owns the file.

 Group: A group of users who can access the file.
 Others: All other users.

Permissions are set for reading (r), writing (w), and executing (x) files.

Example:

drwxr-xr-x 2 user1 user1 4096 Nov 29 12:00 /home/user1/

 The first character indicates the type (d for directory).

 The next 9 characters represent permissions for owner, group, and others.
 In this case, the owner has read, write, and execute permissions, while others have read
and execute permissions.

5. Mounting and Unmounting

  Linux supports mounting multiple filesystems, including external drives and network
storage, under the /mnt or /media directories.
 The mount command is used to attach a filesystem, and umount is used to detach it.

6. File System Types

Linux supports various file system types, including:

 Ext4 (default for most Linux distributions).

 XFS.
 Btrfs.
 FAT32, NTFS (commonly used for compatibility with other operating systems).
 ZFS.

7. File System Hierarchy Standard (FHS)

 The FHS defines the directory structure and directory contents in Linux systems,
ensuring consistency across distributions.

8. Links and Hard Links

 Hard Link: Points to the same inode (data structure that stores file metadata) as the
original file.
 Symbolic (Soft) Link: A pointer to the file name itself, which can be broken if the target
file is moved or deleted.

Linux's file system is designed for high flexibility and efficiency, supporting both system-level and user-level
operations in a structured way.

LINUX STANDERD DIRECTORIES

In Linux, the filesystem hierarchy is organized with specific directories that follow a standard layout. These
directories are defined by the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS). Here are some of the most common
standard directories in Linux:

1. / (Root Directory): The top-level directory that contains all other directories and files in the system.
2. /bin: Contains essential binary executables (programs) required for basic system operation, such as ls,
cp, mv, and cat.
3. /boot: Contains bootloader files and kernel images, such as vmlinuz (the Linux kernel) and grub
configuration files.
4. /dev: Contains device files, which are used to access hardware devices like hard drives, terminals, and
USB devices. For example, /dev/sda refers to the first hard disk.
5. /etc: Contains system-wide configuration files and scripts. Examples include /etc/passwd (user
account information) and /etc/network/interfaces (network configuration).
6. /home: The directory where user-specific files and directories are stored. Each user typically has a
subdirectory under /home, such as /home/john.
7. /lib: Contains shared library files that are required by programs in /bin and /sbin.
8. /media: Contains mount points for removable media, like USB drives, CDs, and DVDs.
9. /mnt: Traditionally used for temporarily mounted filesystems. Mounting a filesystem manually can be
done here.
10. /opt: Contains optional or third-party software packages that are not part of the core system. Typically,
software installed here is self-contained.
11. /proc: A virtual filesystem that contains information about the kernel and running processes. For
example, /proc/cpuinfo provides details about the CPU.
12. /root: The home directory for the root (administrator) user. It is different from /home/root.
13. /run: Contains runtime data that is required by the system, including information about running services
and processes.
14. /sbin: Contains system binaries that are essential for system maintenance and recovery, typically used
by the root user (e.g., fsck, reboot).
15. /srv: Contains data for services provided by the system, such as websites, FTP files, or databases.
16. /sys: A virtual filesystem that provides information about the kernel, devices, and other system
parameters.
17. /tmp: A directory for temporary files that are used by programs during execution. Files in this directory
are usually deleted after a system reboot.
18. /usr: Contains user-related programs and data, including:

 /usr/bin: Non-essential user binaries.

 /usr/lib: Libraries for binaries in /usr/bin and /usr/sbin.
 /usr/share: Architecture-independent data, such as documentation, man pages, and
icons.

19. /var: Contains variable data files, such as log files (/var/log), mail (/var/mail), and spool
directories.
 These directories form the structure that Linux systems rely on, and understanding their purpose helps in
navigating and managing a Linux system efficiently.

PARTITIONING THE HARD DRIVE FOR LINUX

Partitioning the hard drive for Linux involves creating multiple sections, or partitions, to organize and manage
data effectively.

Here's a general guide on how to partition a hard drive for Linux:

1. Identify the Drive

 Use the lsblk or fdisk -l command to identify your drive and its size.

lsblk

2. Decide on Partition Scheme

The typical partitions for Linux include:

 / (Root): The root partition where the system files and programs are stored. At least 15-20 GB is
recommended.
 /home: The partition where user data (like documents, pictures, etc.) is stored. Size depends on your
usage, but typically at least 50 GB or more.
 /swap: Used for swapping data from RAM to disk when the system runs out of memory. Usually 2x the
amount of RAM (though this can vary).
 /boot (Optional): Contains bootloader files. This partition is optional if your system uses UEFI, but some
setups may still prefer it (usually 1-2 GB).
 /var (Optional): Used for variable data like logs and cache files. This is useful if you expect a lot of logs
or cache generation.

3. Create Partitions

You can use various tools for partitioning. For a simple setup:

 Using fdisk:

sudofdisk /dev/sda # Replace /dev/sda with your target drive

Then:
 o Type m for help.
o Type n to create a new partition.
o Type p to select a primary partition, or e for extended.
o Follow the prompts to define the partition size.
o Type t to set the partition type (for swap, type 82).
o Type w to write the changes to the disk.
 Using gparted (GUI tool):
o Install gparted if it's not already installed (sudo apt install gparted).
o Launch gparted, select your disk, and use the interface to create and format
partitions.

4. Format Partitions

After creating partitions, format them with appropriate file systems:

 Root (/): Use ext4:

sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/sda1 # Replace /dev/sda1 with your root partition

 Home (/home): Use ext4:

sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/sda2

 Swap: Create swap space:

sudomkswap /dev/sda3
sudoswapon /dev/sda3

5. Mount Partitions

 Mount the root partition:

sudo mount /dev/sda1 /mnt

 Create a mount point for /home and mount it:

sudomkdir /mnt/home
sudo mount /dev/sda2 /mnt/home

 Enable swap:
 sudoswapon /dev/sda3

6. Update /etc/fstab

To ensure partitions are mounted automatically on boot, add entries to /etc/fstab:

 Find the UUID for each partition:

sudoblkid

 Edit /etc/fstab:

sudonano /etc/fstab

 Add lines for each partition. For example:

UUID=<UUID for root> / ext4 defaults 0 1

UUID=<UUID for home> /home ext4 defaults 0 2
UUID=<UUID for swap>none swapsw 0 0

7. Finalize Installation

If you're installing Linux, proceed with the installation process, where the installer will detect the
partitions you've created and format them accordingly.

INSTALLING THE LINUX SYSTEM

Installing a Linux system involves several key steps, whether you're setting it up on a physical machine or in a
virtual environment.

Here's a general guide to help you with the installation process:

1. Choose a Linux Distribution

 Popular distributions: Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian, CentOS, and Linux Mint are popular choices for
beginners and advanced users.
 Download the ISO: Go to the official website of the chosen distribution and download the ISO file
(e.g., Ubuntu Downloads).

2. Create a Bootable USB Drive

  You'll need a USB drive with at least 4GB of space.
 On Windows:
o Use tools like Rufus or Balena Etcher to create a bootable USB.
 On macOS:
o You can use Etcher or the built-in dd command in the terminal.
 On Linux:
o You can use tools like dd or Startup Disk Creator (for Ubuntu).

3. Boot from USB

 Insert the bootable USB drive into your computer.

 Restart your computer and access the boot menu (usually by pressing a key like F12,
ESC, or F2 right after powering on).
 Select the USB drive as the boot device.

4. Start Installation

 Once booted from the USB, you will be prompted to try or install Linux. Select Install to begin the
process.
 You may be asked to select your language and keyboard layout.

5. Partitioning the Disk

 You will have options for partitioning your hard drive. If you're installing Linux alongside another OS,
you might want to choose the option to install alongside existing OS. If you want a fresh installation,
you can delete existing partitions and create new ones.
 Typically, you will create at least two partitions:
o Root partition (/): This is where the system files will go. Usually, 20-50 GB is enough for most
users.
o Swap partition: This acts as virtual memory. The size is usually equal to the amount of RAM
(e.g., if you have 8 GB of RAM, set the swap partition to 8 GB).
o Optionally, you may create additional partitions like /home for user files.

6. Set Up User Information

 Choose a hostname (the name of your computer on the network).

 Set up your user account, password, and time zone.
 7. Install and Configure the Bootloader

 The installer will ask about the installation of the bootloader. The bootloader is responsible for
loading the operating system on boot. Usually, it’s installed on the same drive as the system (e.g.,
/dev/sda).

8. Install the System

 Once the partitions and configurations are set, the installer will copy the files to your hard drive.
This may take some time, depending on the speed of your system and the size of the installation.
 After installation is complete, you will be prompted to reboot.

9. Reboot and Remove USB

 After rebooting, the system should boot into the newly installed Linux OS.
 If you don’t see the bootloader, you may need to select the OS manually or adjust the
boot order in the BIOS/UEFI.

10. Post-Installation Setup

 Update your system: Once you're logged in, run a system update. For example, on Ubuntu or
Debian-based systems, use:

sql
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sudo apt update &&sudo apt upgrade

 Install additional software: Depending on your needs, you might want to install additional
software (like web browsers, development tools, media players, etc.).
 Install drivers: Some hardware, like graphics cards or Wi-Fi adapters, may require proprietary
drivers. Most Linux distributions will offer to install these during setup or afterward.

11. Optional: Install a Virtual Machine (for testing or using alongside other OS)

 If you're testing Linux or want to run it alongside another OS, you can use virtualization software
such as VirtualBox or VMware.

STARTUP AND SHUTDOWN PROCESS

The startup and shutdown processes in a Linux system involve several stages, from the moment the system is
powered on to when it is properly shut down.

Below is an outline of both processes:

Startup Process (Boot Sequence)

1. Power-on and POST (Power-On Self Test):

o When the system is powered on, the BIOS/UEFI (Basic Input Output System / Unified
Extensible Firmware Interface) performs a POST to check if the essential hardware
components (CPU, RAM, storage devices, etc.) are functioning correctly.
2. Bootloader (GRUB/UEFI):
o After POST, the BIOS/UEFI passes control to the bootloader, typically GRUB (Grand
Unified Bootloader) or another boot manager.
o The bootloader's job is to load the kernel into memory. It may present a menu to the user,
allowing them to select a kernel or operating system if multiple choices are available.
3. Kernel Initialization:
o Once the bootloader loads the kernel, the kernel takes over and initializes the system. This
involves setting up device drivers, mounting the root filesystem, and initializing hardware
components like the CPU, memory, and peripherals.
o The init process (or systemd on modern systems) is then started. This process is responsible
for managing the system's user-space programs.
4. System Initialization (Systemd or Init):
o On modern Linux systems, systemd is typically the first process started with PID 1,
handling service management.
o It starts various background services (like networking, display managers, etc.) defined in the
system configuration files (such as /etc/systemd/system/).
5. Multi-user Mode:
o After systemd has started necessary services, the system enters multi-user mode, allowing
users to log in to the system via the terminal or a graphical interface (depending on the
setup).
6. User Login:
o The system provides a login prompt where users can authenticate to access the system.
Depending on the system setup, a graphical login manager (like GDM, LightDM) may be
used.

Shutdown Process
 1. Initiating Shutdown:
o The shutdown process can be initiated using the following commands:
 shutdown: This command shuts down or reboots the system after a specified delay.
 poweroff: This command shuts down the system immediately.
 reboot: Reboots the system.
2. Systemd Shutdown:
o On systems using systemd, the shutdown process begins with sending a SIGTERM signal
to all running processes to request them to terminate gracefully.
o Services that are managed by systemd are stopped in the reverse order they were started.
User sessions and daemons are halted.
3. Unmounting Filesystems:
o After processes have been terminated, the system unmounts all mounted filesystems. This
ensures data is properly written back to the disk before powering off.
4. Poweroff:
o Once all services are stopped and filesystems are unmounted, the system signals the
hardware to turn off power or enter a low-power state.

Shutdown Commands

 Shutdown Command:

sudo shutdown now

This will shut down the system immediately.

 Reboot Command:

sudo reboot

 Poweroff Command:

sudopoweroff

HOW LINUX WORKS

Linux is an open-source, Unix-like operating system (OS) that manages hardware resources and provides a
platform for running applications.
1. Kernel

The kernel is the core of the Linux OS. It acts as a bridge between the hardware and software. The kernel
manages system resources such as CPU, memory, disk space, and input/output devices. It is responsible
for:

 Process management: Handling the execution of processes.

 Memory management: Allocating and managing the system’s RAM.
 Device drivers: Enabling hardware components (e.g., keyboard, mouse, printers) to interact with the
software.
 File system management: Organizing and controlling access to data storage.

2. Shell

The shell is a command-line interface (CLI) that allows users to interact with the operating system. Users
can input commands to execute programs, manipulate files, or control the system. Common shells include:

 Bash (Bourne Again Shell): The most widely used shell in Linux.
 Zsh, Fish, and others: Other shells offering different features.

3. File System

Linux organizes data in a hierarchical file structure starting with the root directory (/).

The file system is responsible for:

 Managing files and directories.

 Mounting external devices like hard drives, USBs, and network shares.
 Standard directories include /home, /etc, /usr, /bin, and /var.

4. Processes and Scheduling

Processes are programs in execution. Linux handles processes through:

 Process control: The kernel manages the creation, execution, and termination of
processes.
 Scheduling: The kernel decides which process gets CPU time and when.
5. User Space

In addition to the kernel, Linux has a user space that includes all the non-kernel components,
like:

 Libraries: Reusable code that programs can use (e.g., the C Standard Library).
 Applications: User-installed programs like web browsers, text editors, etc.
 Utilities: Command-line tools for managing system operations (e.g., ls, cp, rm).

6. Package Management

Linux distributions use package managers to handle software installation, upgrades, and removal.
Examples include:

 APT (Debian-based): Used in Ubuntu, Debian, etc.

 YUM (Red Hat-based): Used in CentOS, Fedora, etc.
 Pacman (Arch Linux): A package manager for Arch Linux.

7. Multi-User and Multi-Tasking

Linux supports multi-user and multitasking environments, meaning it can run multiple processes
and allow multiple users to interact with the system simultaneously. Key features include:

 Permissions: Each file and process has owner and group settings, controlling access.
 Virtual Consoles: Multiple command-line interfaces (tty) that users can switch between.
 Networking: Linux handles network operations with tools like ssh, ping, ifconfig.

8. Security

Linux has several security features:

 User and group permissions: Controls access to files and programs.

 Sudo: Allows administrative commands to be executed by authorized users.
 SELinux (Security-Enhanced Linux): Provides fine-grained access control.
 AppArmor: A security module to restrict programs' capabilities.

9. System Boot Process

When a Linux system starts up, the process typically involves:

  BIOS/UEFI: Initializes the hardware.
 Bootloader: Loads the kernel into memory. Common bootloaders are GRUB or LILO.
 Kernel: Initializes the system and mounts the root filesystem.
 Init System: Manages system services and processes, like systemd or SysVinit.

10. Distributions (Distros)

Linux comes in various flavors or distributions (distros), such as Ubuntu, Fedora, CentOS, Arch
Linux, etc. Each distribution provides different configurations and packages, but all are based on
the Linux kernel.

Overall, Linux is a powerful, flexible OS that can be customized for a variety of uses, from
personal desktops to servers and embedded systems.

LINUX GUI

A Linux GUI (Graphical User Interface) refers to the graphical interface that allows users to interact with
the Linux operating system using visual elements such as windows, icons, buttons, and menus, rather than
typing commands in a terminal (CLI - Command Line Interface).

Popular Linux GUI Environments:

1. GNOME (GNU Network Object Model Environment):

o A popular, user-friendly desktop environment for Linux.
o Often used in distributions like Ubuntu, Fedora, and Debian.
o Known for its simplicity and clean design.
2. KDE Plasma:
o A highly customizable and feature-rich desktop environment.
o Used in distributions like Kubuntu, openSUSE, and Manjaro.
o Offers a modern interface with more control over the UI elements.
3. XFCE:
o Lightweight and efficient, making it ideal for older hardware or systems with
limited resources.
o Used by distributions like Xubuntu and Linux Mint XFCE.
4. LXQt / LXDE:
o Another lightweight desktop environment designed for speed and low resource
usage.
 o LXDE is used in Lubuntu, while LXQt is a more modern iteration, as seen in
recent versions of Lubuntu.
5. Cinnamon:
o A modern and easy-to-use desktop environment based on GNOME but with a
more traditional desktop layout.
o Popular in Linux Mint.
6. MATE:
o A continuation of the classic GNOME 2 desktop environment.
o Known for its traditional desktop experience, often used by older users or those
who prefer a less flashy interface.

Display Servers and Window Managers:

 X11: Traditional display server used by most Linux systems for managing graphical displays.
 Wayland: A newer display server protocol aiming to replace X11 with improved security and
performance.
 Window Managers: These manage how windows are displayed and interact with each other.
Common ones include:
o Openbox: Lightweight and customizable.
o i3: Tiling window manager, preferred by power users.
o Fluxbox: Lightweight and highly configurable.

LINUX DESKTOP

1. GNOME

 Description: GNOME is one of the most popular Linux desktop environments. It is

known for its simplicity, clean interface, and ease of use. It comes with a unified design
philosophy that prioritizes productivity and ease of access.
 Features:
o Simple and minimalistic interface.
o Customizable with GNOME Shell Extensions.
o Integrated system settings and easy-to-use workflow.
o Default for many distributions like Ubuntu.

2. KDE Plasma
  Description: KDE Plasma is a powerful and visually stunning desktop environment. It's
known for its high customization options, making it perfect for users who enjoy tweaking
their setup.
 Features:
o Highly customizable with a plethora of settings.
o Lightweight, fast, and feature-rich.
o A large number of built-in utilities for productivity.
o Supports a wide range of apps and themes.

3. XFCE

 Description: XFCE is a lightweight, fast, and resource-efficient desktop environment. It

is ideal for older hardware or those who prefer speed over flashy effects.
 Features:
o Minimal resource usage, fast and lightweight.
o Highly customizable.
o Simplicity and stability.

4. Cinnamon

 Description: Cinnamon is known for being user-friendly, resembling the traditional

desktop layout seen in Windows. It strikes a balance between performance and
customization.
 Features:
o Simple and familiar interface.
o Includes a variety of built-in tools for managing your system.
o Easy to use and configure.

5. LXQt / LXDE

 Description: LXQt and LXDE are ultra-lightweight desktop environments. LXQt is the
newer version, replacing LXDE. They are ideal for very low-resource systems.
 Features:
o Extremely fast and lightweight.
o Simple and easy-to-use interface.

6. MATE
  Description: MATE is a continuation of the GNOME 2 desktop environment. It offers a
more traditional desktop experience, focusing on stability and familiarity.
 Features:
o Classic desktop environment with a focus on stability and simplicity.
o Lightweight, and easy on system resources.
o Customizable and straightforward.

7. Budgie

 Description: Budgie is designed to be elegant, modern, and easy to use. It provides a

traditional desktop experience with a modern look and feel.
 Features:
o Simple, clean, and modern interface.
o Customizable with various applets.

8. Pantheon

 Description: Pantheon is the desktop environment used by elementary OS. It is known

for its clean, beautiful interface and user experience focused on simplicity.
 Features:
o A very polished and intuitive design.
o Emphasis on simplicity and ease of use.
o Elegant, minimalist interface.


9. i3 (Window Manager)

 Description: i3 is not a full desktop environment but rather a tiling window manager. It
is suitable for advanced users who like to manage windows with keyboard shortcuts.
 Features:
o Tiling window manager (keyboard-focused).
o Lightweight and minimal.
o Very customizable, but requires more setup and learning.


10. Deepin
  Description: Deepin is a beautiful and feature-packed desktop environment, designed to
provide an elegant user experience. It is developed by the Deepin Linux community.
 Features:
o Stunning design and smooth animations.
o Deep integration with its applications.

Choosing the Right Desktop Environment

 Performance/Hardware: If you're working with older or resource-constrained hardware,

XFCE, LXQt, or LXDE would be your best options.
 User Experience: If you prefer a polished and modern user experience, GNOME, KDE
Plasma, or Cinnamon are excellent choices.
 Customization: If customization is key, KDE Plasma and i3 (for advanced users) are
among the best options.
 Simplicity: If you want a simple, straightforward desktop, MATE or Cinnamon would
be ideal.
 Aesthetic and Design: If you prioritize elegant design, Pantheon and Deepin are
notable.

LINUX COMMAND :

Cd

 cd [directory] – Change directory to the specified one.

o cd .. – Move up one directory.
o cd ~ – Move to the home directory.

Md

 mkdir [directory] – Create a new directory.

Rm

 rm [file] – Remove a file.

rm -r [directory] – Remove a directory and its contents recursively.

Mv
  mv [source] [destination] – Move or rename files or directories.

Cp

 cp [source] [destination] – Copy files or directories.

o cp -r – Copy directories recursively.

Ls

The ls command in Linux is used to list the contents of a directory. By default, it shows the files
and directories in the current directory. Here are some common options you can use with ls:

1. Basic Command:

bash
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ls

Lists the files and directories in the current directory.

2. Show All Files (Including Hidden):

bash
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ls -a

Displays all files, including hidden files (those starting with a dot .).

3. Detailed Listing (Long Format):

bash
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ls -l

Shows a detailed listing, including file permissions, owner, group, size, and the last
modified date.

4. Show All Files in Long Format:

bash
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ls -la
 Combines both -a and-l options, showing all files (including hidden) with detailed
information.

5. Sort Files by Time:

bash
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ls -t

Lists files sorted by modification time, with the most recently modified files first.

6. Human-Readable File Sizes:

bash
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ls -lh

Displays file sizes in a human-readable format (e.g., KB, MB).

7. List Files Recursively:

bash
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ls -R

Lists all files and directories recursively, showing contents of subdirectories.

8. Sort by File Size:

bash
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ls -S

Sorts files by size, with the largest files first.

9. Sort by File Extension:

bash
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ls -X

Sorts files by their extension.

 10. Colorized Output:

bash
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ls --color

Displays the output with color to help distinguish different file types (often enabled by
default).

These options can be combined. For example:

bash
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ls -lAh

Cat

 cat [file] – Display the contents of a file.

Find

 find [path] -name [filename] – Search for a file or directory by name.

Grep

Head

Tail

File and Directory Management

 pwd – Print working directory (shows the current directory you are in).
 ls – List directory contents.
o ls -l – List in long format (includes details like permissions, owner, size, etc.).
o ls -a – List all files, including hidden files (those starting with a dot).
 cd [directory] – Change directory to the specified one.
o cd .. – Move up one directory.
o cd ~ – Move to the home directory.
  mkdir [directory] – Create a new directory.
 rmdir [directory] – Remove an empty directory.
 rm [file] – Remove a file.
o rm -r [directory] – Remove a directory and its contents recursively.
 touch [file] – Create a new empty file.
 cp [source] [destination] – Copy files or directories.
o cp -r – Copy directories recursively.
 mv [source] [destination] – Move or rename files or directories.
 find [path] -name [filename] – Search for a file or directory by name.

File Viewing and Editing

 cat [file] – Display the contents of a file.

 more [file] – View the contents of a file one screen at a time.
 less [file] – View the contents of a file with the ability to scroll.
 nano [file] – Open a file in the nano text editor (terminal-based editor).
 vi [file] or vim [file] – Open a file in the vi (or vim) text editor.

File Permissions

 chmod [permissions] [file] – Change file permissions.

o Example: chmod 755 file (gives owner full permissions, group and others
read/execute).
 chown [user]:[group] [file] – Change file ownership.
o Example: chownuser:group file.
 chgrp [group] [file] – Change the group ownership of a file.

System Information

 top – Display real-time system information and running processes.

 ps – Show currently running processes.
o ps aux – Display all running processes.
 df – Display disk space usage.
o df -h – Display in human-readable format (e.g., GB, MB).
 free – Show memory usage.
o free -h – Show memory in human-readable format.
  uname -a – Display detailed information about the system (kernel version, architecture,
etc.).
 uptime – Show how long the system has been running.
 whoami – Display the current logged-in user.
 hostname – Show or set the system hostname.

Process Management

 kill [PID] – Kill a process by its process ID.

 killall [process_name] – Kill all processes with the specified name.
 bg – Send a process to the background.
 fg – Bring a process to the foreground.
 jobs – List background jobs.

Networking

 ping [hostname] – Ping a network host to check if it’s reachable.

 ifconfig – Display or configure network interfaces.
 ip a – Display network interfaces and their details.
 netstat – Show network connections, routing tables, etc.
 curl [URL] – Fetch data from a URL (can be used to check website connectivity).
 scp [source] [destination] – Securely copy files between hosts.
 ssh [user]@[hostname] – Securely log in to a remote machine.

Disk Management

 lsblk – List all block devices (disks, partitions).

 mount [device] [mount_point] – Mount a device to a directory.
 umount [device] – Unmount a device.
 fdisk -l – List all disk partitions.
 df -h – Check disk usage.

Package Management (Debian-based)

 apt update – Update the package index.

 apt upgrade – Upgrade installed packages.
 apt install [package] – Install a package.
  apt remove [package] – Remove a package.
 apt search [package] – Search for a package.

User Management

 who – Show who is logged into the system.

 useradd [username] – Create a new user.
 passwd [username] – Change the password of a user.
 deluser [username] – Delete a user.

Compression and Archiving

 tar -czf [archive.tar.gz] [directory] – Create a compressed tarball.

 tar -xzf [archive.tar.gz] – Extract a compressed tarball.
 zip [archive.zip] [file] – Compress files into a zip archive.
 unzip [archive.zip] – Extract files from a zip archive.

Other Useful Commands

 history – Show command history.

 clear – Clear the terminal screen.
 alias [name]='[command]' – Create a shortcut for a command.
 man [command] – Display the manual for a command.
o Example: man ls – Show the manual for the ls command.