Module-3

1.Define IC engines & classify IC Engines.

An internal combustion engine (IC Engine) is a heat engine in which the

combustion of a fuel occurs in the presence of air in a combustion chamber
that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit.

In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-

temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct
force to some component of the engine (Piston). The force is applied typically
to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component
over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful work.

Classification Of I.C. Engines

1. According to the type of fuel used (i) Petrol engine (ii) Diesel engine (iii) Gas
engine (iv) Bio-fuel engine.

2. According to the number of strokes per cycle (i) Four stroke engine (ii) Two
stroke engine

3. According to thermodynamic cycle (i) Otto cycle engine (constant volume

combustion) (ii) Diesel cycle (constant pressure combustion) engine (iii) Dual
(or) Mixed cycle (partly constant volume and partly pressure combustion)
engine

4. Method of cooling (i) Air cooled engine (ii) Water cooled engine

5. According to method of ignition (i) Spark ignition engine (S.I. engine)

(ii) Compression ignition engine (C.1. engine)

6. According to number of cylinders (i) Single cylinder engine (ii) Multi cylinder
engine

7. According to the engine cylinder (i) Horizontal engine (ii) Vertical engine

(iii) V-engine (iv) Radial engine

2. With a neat sketch List components of IC Engines.

1. Cylinder: It is the main body and heart of the engine in which fuel is burnt
and piston reciprocates to develop the power. It is in direct contact with the
products of combustion and it must be cooled to avoid damage.

2. Piston: It is a gas-tight movable cylindrical component fitted perfectly inside

the cylinder. The piston is used to compress the fuel during compression
stroke. It transmits the force exerted by the combustion of fuel to the
connecting rod and finally to the crankshaft. Piston is usually made up of cast
iron (or) aluminium alloy.

3. Cylinder head: One end of the cylinder is closed by means of a removable

plate known as cylinder head. Cylinder head usually contains the inlet valve for
admitting the mixture of air and fuel and exhaust valve for discharging the
products of combustion.

4. Piston rings: Piston rings are metallic rings and are fitted in the
circumferential grooves provided at the top end outer surface of the piston. It
gives gas tight sealing between the piston and cylinder while the piston
reciprocating inside the cylinder. Piston rings maintain compression pressure
inside the cylinder and prevent leakage of high-pressure gases into the crank
case.

5. Connecting rod: It is a kinematic link that connects the piston and the crank.
It converts reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of crank. Its small
end is connected to the piston with the help of piston pin and big end to the
crank-by-crank pin. It transmits the force from piston to crank.

6. Crank and Crankshaft: The crank is a rotating element with one of its ends
connected to the lower end of the connecting rod while the other is connected
to the shaft called crankshaft. It rotates about the axis of the crankshaft and
causes the connecting rod to oscillate. The crankshaft is supported in the main
bearings and has a flywheel mounted on it to reduce the fluctuation of speed.
The main function of crankshaft is to transmit the power developed by the
engine to useful work (to run vehicle, boat, ship etc.)

7. Crankcase: It is the lower part of the engine serving as an enclosure for the
crankshaft and also acts as an oil sump for lubricating oil.

8. Valves: Two types of valves i.e., inlet and exhaust valves located on the
cylinder head (or) on the side of the cylinder. (1) Inlet valve: It is provided on
the cylinder head for regulating the charge coming into the cylinder. (2)
Exhaust valve: It is provided on the cylinder head for removing exhaust gases
(products of combustion) from the cylinder.

9. Flywheel: It is a wheel mounted on the crankshaft which stores excess

energy during the power stroke and releases (or) returns that energy during
the other three idle strokes, thus maintaining the uniform rotation of the
crankshaft.

10. CAM: Cam is a rotating element used to control the opening and closing of
valves. Cams are designed in such a way that to open the valve at the correct
timing and to keep them open for the required duration and to close them at
the correct time.

11. Spark plug / Fuel injector: In case of petrol engines, the spark plug provides
the spark at the end of compression stroke to initiate the combustion process.
In case of diesel engines, spark plug is replaced by fuel injector which injects
diesel into the compressed air to initiate the combustion process

3. What are the different applications of IC engines? Explain briefly.

 Application of IC Engines in Power Generation: A generating station in

which diesel engine is used as the prime mover for the generation of
electrical energy is known as diesel power station. In a diesel power
station, diesel engine is used as the prime mover. The diesel burns
inside the engine and the products of this combustion act as the
working fluid to produce mechanical energy. The diesel engine drives
alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. As
the generation cost is considerable due to high price of diesel,
therefore, such power stations are only used to produce small power.
 Application of IC Engines in Agriculture: Agricultural mechanization uses
basically Diesel internal combustion engines, which require energy
stored in liquid form, as most agricultural operations are carried out in
motion, for tractors, harvesters, and self-propelled sprinklers, among
others. Currently, much of this fuel is mineral, which is from finite and
non-renewable source.
 Application of IC Engines in Marine: Modern marine power plants have
been designed to improve the overall ship’s efficiency. During the
previous years, diesel oil has been extensively used on-board ships. Due
to the high price of light diesel oil and the environmental problems
resulting from the use of heavy fuel oil, it has become necessary to
search for an alternative to traditional fuels. As a result, natural gas fuel
has been used on-board some types of ships, especially short-voyage
cruise ships.
 The use of hydrogen fuel on-board ships, particularly in modern power
plants may contribute to overcoming the above problems. Compared to
the diesel engine, the hydrogen fuelled engine is found to be lower in
thermal efficiency and fuel consumption, however, some adjustments
are needed
 Application of IC Engine in Aircraft Propulsion: Airplanes used internal
combustion engines to turn propellers to generate thrust. Today, most
general aviation or private airplanes are still powered by propellers and
 internal combustion engines, much like automobile engine. The basic
mechanical design of the Wright engine is remarkably similar to
modern, four-stroke, four-cylinder automobile engines. On the power
stroke the piston turns a crank which converts the linear motion of the
piston into circular motion. The turning crankshaft is then used to turn
the aircraft propeller. Many different types of IC engines are used
depending upon the application and size of the aircraft. Some of the IC
Engines used in Aircraft propulsions are: horizontal opposed engines,
radial Engines, V-type engines.

4. With neat sketch and P-V diagram explain the working of 4-Stroke Petrol
engine.

Four Stroke Petrol Engine: It works on the constant volume cycle (or) otto
cycle. The main components of the engine are cylinder, piston, connecting rod,
crankshaft, inlet and exhaust valves, valve opening mechanism and ignition
system. The spark plug fitted at the top of the cover end initiates the ignition
of the petrol. The charge used in a 4-s petrol engine is a mixture of air and fuel
(petrol) and is supplied by carburettor in suitable proportions. Petrol engines
are also called spark ignition engines since the charge is ignited by the spark
generated by the spark plug fitted at the top of the cover end
Working The working of four stroke petrol engine is based on the four strokes.
Figure shows the schematic representation of four stroke petrol engine,

1. Suction stroke: The suction stroke starts when the piston is at TDC and about
to move downwards. At this time, inlet valve is open and the exhaust valve is
closed. In this situation, piston moves from TDC to BDC in downward direction.
Pressure in the cylinder slightly less than the atmospheric pressure. As the
piston moves downwards, suction is created in the cylinder and fresh charge of
air-fuel mixture enters the cylinder through inlet valve. When the piston
reaches BDC, the suction stroke ends and the inlet valve closes.

2. Compression stroke: During this stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC
in upward direction, both inlet and exhaust valves are kept closed and
compresses the charge of air-fuel mixture. The compression ratio varies from
6-10 for petrol engine. At the end of compression stroke, spark is produced by
the spark plug fitted at the top of the cylinder head and combustion takes
place.

3. Power stroke: During this stroke, both valves are kept closed. The high
pressure burnt gases (products of combustion) expands and forces the piston
in downward direction. In this situation, piston is pushed from TDC to BDC and
rotates the crankshaft at high speed. Since the work is done during this stroke,
it is known as power stroke. Crankshaft inturns drives the machine connected
to it. Both temperature and pressure decrease during expansion.

4. Exhaust stroke: During exhaust stroke, the exhaust valve is open and inlet.
valve is closed. The piston moves from BDC to TDC pushing the burnt gases to
atmosphere through open exhaust valve. The exhaust valve closes after the
piston reaches TDC so as to allow the fresh charge to enter the cylinder and
the cycle repeats. Excess energy developed in power stroke is stored in the
flywheel which helps for the operation of 3 idle strokes.

Each cylinder of a four-stroke engine completes the above four

operations in two engine revolutions, one revolution of the crankshaft occurs
during the suction and compression strokes and the second revolution occurs
during the power and exhaust strokes. There is only one power stroke for one
completed cycle.
5. With neat sketch and P-V diagram explain the working of 4-Stroke Diesel
engine.

Diesel engine works on the diesel cycle (constant pressure combustion cycle).
In this type of engine fuel injector is used for injection of fuels. They are also
called as compression ignition engines (C.I engines). The compression ratio is
14-20 for C.I engines. Due to the use of high compression ratio, the
temperature a compression stroke is significantly high to selfignite the fuel
which is injected into the chamber

Working The schematic representation of sequence of operations for 4-s diesel

engine is shown in figure
1. Suction stroke: Suction stroke starts when the piston is at TDC and about to
move downwards. At this time, inlet valve is open and exhaust valve is closed.
In this situation, piston moves from TDC to BDC in downward direction. As the
piston moves downward, suction is created (or) negative pressure is created in
the cylinder and the fresh air is sucked into the cylinder through inlet valve.
The pressure inside the cylinder will be slightly less than the atmospheric
pressure. When the piston reaches BDC, suction stroke ends and inlet valve
closes.

2. Compression stroke: During this stroke, piston moves from BDC to TDC and
both the valves are kept closed. As the piston moves upward, the air gets
compressed to high pressure and temperature. Just at the end of compression
stroke, the fuel is being injected in the form of spray into the compressed air
by a fuel injector and combustion of fuel takes place. The temperature of the
compressed air is sufficient to auto ignite the fuel without the need of spark.
Combustion of fuel takes place at constant pressure. The products of
combustion (burnt gases) are formed.

3. Working stroke: In expansion stroke both the valves remain closed.

Expansion of products of combustion takes place and the piston moves in the
downward direction to BDC. The work is done during this stroke.
 4. Exhaust stroke: During this stroke, exhaust valve opens and inlet valve
remains closed. The piston moves from BDC to TDC. The piston while moving
from BDC to TDC drives the burnt gases into atmosphere through the open
exhaust valve so as to make room for the fresh charge (only air) to enter the
cylinder. The exhaust valve closes after the piston reaches the TDC. This
completes the cycle

6. With help of neat sketch of a layout of Electric vehicle explain about its
components in brief.

The electric propulsion subsystem is comprised of a vehicle controller, power

electronic converter, electric motor, mechanical transmission, and driving
wheels. The energy source subsystem involves the energy source, the energy
management unit, and the energy refuelling unit. The auxiliary subsystem
consists of the power steering unit, the hotel climate control unit, and the
auxiliary supply unit.

Based on the control inputs from the accelerator and brake pedals, the vehicle
controller provides proper control signals to the electronic power converter,
which functions to regulate the power flow between the electric motor and
energy source. The backward power flow is due to the regenerative braking of
the EV and this regenerated energy can be restored to the energy source,
provided the energy source is receptive. The auxiliary power supply provides
the necessary power at different voltage levels for all the EV auxiliaries,
especially the hotel climate control and power steering units.

7. What are the Advantages & Disadvantages of Electric Vehicles?

Advantages EVs and Hybrid vehicles:

1. Environmentally Friendly

2. Convenience of Charging

3. Cost-effective

4. Low Maintenance

5. Noiseless operation

6. Battery life and Cost

7. Ease of Driving

8. Regenerative braking System

9. In case of hybrid vehicles, the vehicle is provided with duel powered drives.

Disadvantages of Electric and Hybrid vehicles:

1. Expensive compare to gasoline vehicles

2. Battery replacement cost is very high

3. Battery replacement and recycling

4. Charging point convenience

5. Longer Charging time

8. What is a Hybrid Electric vehicle (HEV)? Classify HEV.

A hybrid vehicle combines any two power (energy) sources. Possible

combinations include diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell
(FC)/battery. Typically, one energy source is storage, and the other is
conversion of a fuel to energy. The combination of two power sources may
support two separate propulsion systems. Thus, to be a True hybrid, the
vehicle must have at least two modes of propulsion

9. With a neat sketch of the layout of Hybrid Electric vehicle, explain briefly
about the function of each component.

Consistent with the definition of hybrid above, the hybrid electric vehicle
combines a gasoline engine with an electric motor. An alternate arrangement
is a diesel engine and an electric motor.

As shown in Figure, a HEV is formed by merging components from a pure

electrical vehicle and a pure gasoline vehicle. The Electric Vehicle (EV) has an
M/G which allows regenerative braking for an EV; the M/G installed in the HEV
enables regenerative braking. For the HEV, the M/G is tucked directly behind
the engine. The transmission appears next in line. This arrangement has two
torque producers; the M/G in motor mode, M-mode, and the gasoline engine.
The battery and M/G are connected electrically.
HEVs are a combination of electrical and mechanical components. Three main
sources of electricity for hybrids are batteries, FCs, and capacitors. Each device
has a low cell voltage, and, hence, requires many cells in series to obtain the
voltage demanded by an HEV.

• The FC provides high energy but low power.

• The battery supplies both modest power and energy.

• The capacitor supplies very large power but low energy.

10. What are the Advantages & Limitations of hybrid electric Vehicle.

Advantages EVs and Hybrid vehicles:

1. Environmentally Friendly

2. Convenience of Charging

3. Cost-effective

4. Low Maintenance

5. Noiseless operation

6. Battery life and Cost

7. Ease of Driving

8. Regenerative braking System

9. In case of hybrid vehicles, the vehicle is provided with duel powered drives.

Disadvantages of Electric and Hybrid vehicles:

1. Expensive compare to gasoline vehicles

2. Battery replacement cost is very high

3. Battery replacement and recycling

4. Charging point convenience

5. Longer Charging time

Module - 4

1.Enumerate the differences between ferrous and non-ferrous materials.

2. Write short notes on following materials a) Silica b) Polymers c) Shape

memory alloys.

a) Silica

 Definition: Silica is the chemical compound silicon dioxide (SiO2), the

most common oxide of silicon.

It is most commonly found in nature as quartz, and is the major

constituent of sand and many rocks.

 Properties:
o Hard and brittle
o High melting point
o Insoluble in water
o Good electrical insulator
o Transparent to visible light
 Uses:
 o Glass manufacturing
o Concrete and cement production
o Electronics (as a semiconductor material)
o Abrasives (sandpaper, grinding wheels)
o Fillers in paints, plastics, and rubber

b) Polymers

 Definition: Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating units

called monomers.
 Properties:
o High strength-to-weight ratio
o Flexibility and elasticity
o Resistance to corrosion and chemicals
o Good thermal and electrical insulation
o Low density
 Types:
o Thermoplastics (can be melted and reshaped)
 Polyethylene (PE)
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polystyrene (PS)
o Thermosets (cannot be melted or reshaped)
 Epoxy
 Polyester
 Phenolic
 Uses:
o Plastics
o Rubber
o Fibers (nylon, polyester, acrylic)
o Adhesives
o Coatings

c) Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs)

 Definition: SMAs are metallic alloys that can "remember" their original
shape and return to it when heated.
 Properties:
o Shape memory effect
o Superelasticity
o High strength and fatigue resistance
o Corrosion resistance
 o Biocompatibility
 Uses:
o Medical implants (stents, orthodontic wires)
o Actuators (robotics, aerospace)
o Connectors
o Smart textiles
o Temperature sensors

3. Define and explain, with neat sketches, the soldering process.

It is defined as “a joining process wherein coalescence is produced by heating

to a suitable temperature and by using a filler metal having a melting point not
exceeding 427oC and below the solidification temperature of the base metals”.
The filler metal fills in the gap of the joint by capillary action. Soldering uses
fusible alloys to join metals know as solder. Ordinary gas flames or electric
soldering iron is used to supply the heat to melt the solder. Fluxes are used
with solder in soldering process. Fluxes are defined as any solid, liquid or
gaseous material when heated accelerates the wetting of metal with the
solder. Due to wetting molten solder flow into the joint and fills the space
between the two pieces to be soldered. At elevated temperature flux is highly
reducing in nature preventing the formation of metal oxides. Fluxes that are
generally used in soldering are Rosin, Zinc Chloride and Aluminum Chloride.
The kind of solder used depends on the metals to be joined. There are two
different types of solders:

a) Hard solders are called spelter and hard soldering process is called silver
solder brazing. The hard solder has lead and silver as it constituents. The
melting point of the hard solder is in the range of 3500C and above. This
process gives greater strength and will stand more heat than soft solder.

b) Soft solder is used for joining most common metals with an alloy that melts
at a temperature below that of the base metal, and always below 4270C. The
melting range of soft solder is 1500C to 2000C. The solder contains tin and lead
as it constituents.
4. Define brazing. With neat sketch, explain the brazing process.

BRAZING Brazing is a joining process, which produces coalescence of materials

by heating to a suitable temperature and using a filler metal having a melting
temperature above 427°C and below the solidification temperature of the base
metals being joined. The filler metal is distributed between the closely fitted
surfaces of the joint by capillary attraction. Brazing is distinguished from
soldering in that soldering employs a filler metal having a melting point below
427°C.

Brazing procedure: The metal to be joined is cleaned for oxides, dust and oil.
Fluxes are applied on the entire surface where the brazing is carried out. The
parts are aligned in position for brazing. The joint is heated using a gas torch
with a Carburizing flame. Filler metal is added into the space where the metal
is to be joined. Due to the wetting action of the flux, the molten filler metal fills
the space by capillary action. The joint is allowed to cool and then the fluxes
are cleaned from the surface.

The fluxes used in brazing are borax, boric acid, borates, chlorides and
fluorides. Some of the filler metal alloys used for brazing are Aluminum –
Silicon, magnesium, copper and copper zinc etc.
5. Define welding. With a neat sketch, explain arc welding.

Welding is defined as “a localized coalescence of metals, wherein coalescence

is obtained by heating to suitable temperature, with or without the application
of pressure and with or without the use of filler material. This filler material
has the melting point same as the base material.” It is also known as a
metallurgical joining process of two metal pieces, to produce a single piece of
product.

ARC WELDING

The principle of arc welding is as follows. When two conductors of an electric

circuit are touched together momentarily and then instantaneously separated
slightly, assuming that there is sufficient voltage in the circuit to maintain the
flow of current, an electric arc is formed. Concentrated heat is produced
throughout the length of the are at a temperature of about 5000oCto 6000°C.
In arc welding, usually the parts to be welded are wired as one pole of the
circuit, and the electrode held by the operator forms the other pole. When the
arc is produced, the intense heat quickly melts the workpiece metal which is
directly under the arc, forming a small molten metal pool. At the same time
the tip of the electrode at the are also melts, and this molten metal of the
electrode is carried over by the are to the molten metal pool of the workpiece.
The molten metal in the pool is agitated by the action of the arc, thoroughly
mixing the base and the filler metal. A solid joint will be formed when the
molten metal cools and solidifies. The flux coating over the electrode produces
an inert gaseous shield surrounding the arc and protects the molten metal
from oxidizing by coming in contact with the atmosphere. Figure illustrates the
arc welding process.

6. With a neat Sketch & labeled parts of the Gas welding system, explain its
working principle.

Gas welding is a fusion method of welding, in which a strong gas flame is used
to raise the temperature of the workpieces so as to melt them. As in arc
welding, a filler metal is used to fill the joint. The gases that can be used for
heating are: (i) oxygen and acetylene mixture and (ii) oxygen and hydrogen
mixture. The oxy-acetylene gas mixture is most commonly used in gas welding.
7. With neat sketches, explain different types of oxy-acetylene gas flames.

Neutral Flame (Balanced flame)

It may be obtained by controlling the mixing of oxygen and acetelylene in

equal proportion (1:1). As a result two distinct zones appear with a hissing
sound in the flame as shown in the Fig. 14.4. They are named as 'inner cone'
and 'outer envelope'.

i) A short but sharp brilliant white coloured symmetrical cone from the tip of
the torch. It has maximum temperature of 3300°C.

ii) A faintly luminous bluish coloured flame surrounds the inner cone.

The inner cone develops heat and the outer one protects the molten metal
from Oxidation. As neutral flame has least chemical effect on the weldments, it
is used to weld steel, stainless steel, cast Iron, Copper, aluminum etc, and also
for metal cutting but with different torch.
Oxidizing flame

It may be obtained by allowing excess Oxygen than acetylene (1.5:1) in the

torch. As a result with a loud roar, a small purplish tinge flame appears at the
tip and a small and narrow envelope surrounds the inner one as shown in the
Fig. 14.5. Since the oxidizing flame forms a thin layer of slag over the molten
metal, it is used only to weld brass.

Carburizing Flame (Reducing Flame)

It may be obtained by allowing less oxygen and excess acetylene (1:1.5) in the
torch. As a result three distinct zones appear in the flame as shown in the Fig.
14.6

i) A sharply defined inner cone.

ii) An intermediate whitish coloured cone (Acetylene feather).

iii) A bluish coloured outer envelope.

The temperature of this reducing flame is considerably reduced, which is very
essential to weld various non-ferrous hard surfacing materials, monel metal,
nickel etc., It is also suitable for soldering, brazing and flame hardening.

8. Differentiate between the following a) Soft Soldering & Hard Soldering b)

Soldering & Brazing c) Brazing & Welding

a)

b)
c)

9. List the applications of Welding, Brazing & Soldering.

Welding
 Construction: Building structures, bridges, skyscrapers
 Manufacturing: Automobiles, ships, aircraft, pipelines, pressure vessels
 Repair: Damaged machinery, vehicles, and structures
 Art and Sculpture: Creating unique and intricate metal designs
Brazing
 Automotive: Radiators, heat exchangers, exhaust systems
 Aerospace: Aircraft components, turbine blades
 Bicycle Manufacturing: Frames, components
 Jewellery Making: Joining precious metals
 Heat Exchangers: Manufacturing and repair
Soldering
 Electronics: Joining components on printed circuit boards

 Plumbing: Joining copper pipes

 Sheet Metal Work: Joining thin metal sheets

 Jewellery Making: Joining smaller components

 Repairing Electrical Connections: Fixing loose wires

Key Considerations
 The choice of welding, brazing, or soldering depends on the specific
application, the desired strength of the joint, and the materials being
joined.
 Welding generally provides the strongest joints, while soldering
produces the weakest.
 Brazing offers a balance between strength and ease of application.